This paper asks whether the results obtained from using the standard approach to testing the influential Grossman and Helpman "protection for sale" (PFS) model of political economy might arise from a simpler setting. A model of imports and quotas with protection occuring in response to import surges, but only for organized industries, is simulated and shown to provide parameter estimates consistent with the protection for sale framework. This suggests that the standard approach may be less of a test than previously thought.
Consumer defense and protection has gone beyond schemas, how can a legislation of this nature deal with consumer contracts or abusive clauses? How many questions have been raised by a consumer legislation that "dared," for example, to regulate issues related to banking and financial services? Moreover, at the beginning, it was unusual for a discriminating supplier to be sanctioned by an administrative authority for having discriminated citizens and consumers.
Laws on hiring and firing are intended to protect workers from unfair behavior by employers, to counter imperfections in financial markets that limit workers' ability to insure themselves against job loss, and to preserve firm-specific human capital. But by imposing costs on firms' adaptation to changes in demand and technology, employment protection legislation may reduce not only job destruction but also job creation, hindering the efficient allocation of labor and productivity growth.
The paper presents the history of legal changes regarding forest protection in Poland and the development of forest protection services Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004 has affected the marketing and the use of plant protection products (PPPs) in the country. The implementation of the EU legislation (Directive 91/414/EEC) has resulted in a decline in the assortment of pesticides registered for use in agriculture, and in forestry. This situation resulted from the limited interest of producers in placing PPPs on the market. Furthermore, limitations in the aerial application of PPPs have been introduced, which has consequences for the protection of the forest, where aerial treatments are often the only way to reduce the number of pests. On the other hand, the introduction of integrated pest management (also in forestry) confirmed the adequacy of activities carried out in the State Forest National Forest Holding, where, for many decades, the prevention methods have been used to increase the resistance of stands and the multi-stage Decision Support System (DSS) is used to select the optimal protective method.
The paper presents the history of legal changes regarding forest protection in Poland and the development of forest protection services Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004 has affected the marketing and the use of plant protection products (PPPs) in the country. The implementation of the EU legislation (Directive 91/414/EEC) has resulted in a decline in the assortment of pesticides registered for use in agriculture, and in forestry. This situation resulted from the limited interest of producers in placing PPPs on the market. Furthermore, limitations in the aerial application of PPPs have been introduced, which has consequences for the protection of the forest, where aerial treatments are often the only way to reduce the number of pests. On the other hand, the introduction of integrated pest management (also in forestry) confirmed the adequacy of activities carried out in the State Forest National Forest Holding, where, for many decades, the prevention methods have been used to increase the resistance of stands and the multi-stage Decision Support System (DSS) is used to select the optimal protective method.
Do foreign terrorists have rights under American law? And can they be prosecuted under such law? These questions may seem novel and singularly difficult In fact, the central legal questions raised by foreign terrorism have long been familiar and have long had answers in the principle of protection. This Article explains the principle of protection and its implications for terrorism. Under the principle of protection, as understood in early American law, allegiance and protection were reciprocal. As a result, a person without allegiance was without protection, including the protection of the law. Not owing allegiance, such a person had no obligation to obey American law; moreover, not having protection, he had no rights under such law. This was the principle on which early American law dealt with enemy aliens and other persons who did not owe allegiance, including those who today would be called "terrorists." The principle of protection still provides a valuable model for understanding a wide range of otherwise intractable problems. At a doctrinal level, it resolves important questions about habeas, prisoners of war, the power of the executive over enemy aliens, the jurisdiction of courts over foreigners and foreign lands, and the rights of unauthorized aliens. The principle also provides a framework for understanding more general difficulties, including the legal strategies available to the government, the domain of national law in a multinational world, and the means of reconciling safety and civil liberty. In these ways, as illustrated by terrorism, the principle of protection is an essential foundation for a society that seeks to preserve itself from danger without undermining its liberty.
Do foreign terrorists have rights under American law? And can they be prosecuted under such law? These questions may seem novel and singularly dificult. In fact, the central legal questions raised by foreign terrorism have long been familiar and have long had answers in the principle of protection. This Article explains the principle of protection and its implications for terrorism. Under the principle of protection, as understood in early American law, allegiance and protection were reciprocal. As a result, a person without allegiance was without protection, including the protection of the law. Not owing allegiance, such a person had no obligation to obey American law; moreover, not having protection, he had no rights under such law. This was the principle on which early American law dealt with enemy aliens and other persons who did not owe allegiance, including those who today would be called "terrorists." The principle of protection still provides a valuable model for understanding a wide range of otherwise intractable problems. At a doctrinal level, it resolves important questions about habeas, prisoners of war, the power of the executive over enemy aliens, the jurisdiction of courts over foreigners and foreign lands, and the rights of unauthorized aliens. The principle also provides a framework for understanding more general difficulties, including the legal strategies available to the government, the domain of national law in a multinational world, and the means of reconciling safety and civil liberty. In these ways, as illustrated by terrorism, the principle of protection is an essential foundation for a society that seeks to preserve itself from danger without undermining its liberty.
Conventional wisdom in European studies has long held that social policy is not an area in which the European Union can make a large difference. Solidarity, it is said, can only develop in societies where clear boundaries exist between individuals. Such is not the case in the EU, where a citizen's primary allegiance is to his own country. Redistribution being a zero-sum game, the majority method of decision-making is required, which may only be viable if the legitimacy of central institutions is clearly established. The legitimacy of the EU institutions, however, is said to be weak. In addition, a number of different traditions of welfare protection co-exist within the EU, as has been stressed by Gösta Esping-Andersen (1990). Citizens are strongly attached to their national brand of protection: in several countries, this is even regarded as a key element of national identity. The history of European integration has done little to belie these views. Social policy has experienced relatively modest progress, and the difficulties inherent in the adoption of European financial perspectives, undermined by the evils of "juste retour" have shown that redistribution and unanimity are indeed at odds (.).
Conventional wisdom in European studies has long held that social policy is not an area in which the European Union can make a large difference. Solidarity, it is said, can only develop in societies where clear boundaries exist between individuals. Such is not the case in the EU, where a citizen's primary allegiance is to his own country. Redistribution being a zero-sum game, the majority method of decision-making is required, which may only be viable if the legitimacy of central institutions is clearly established. The legitimacy of the EU institutions, however, is said to be weak. In addition, a number of different traditions of welfare protection co-exist within the EU, as has been stressed by Gösta Esping-Andersen (1990). Citizens are strongly attached to their national brand of protection: in several countries, this is even regarded as a key element of national identity. The history of European integration has done little to belie these views. Social policy has experienced relatively modest progress, and the difficulties inherent in the adoption of European financial perspectives, undermined by the evils of "juste retour" have shown that redistribution and unanimity are indeed at odds (.).
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to make a case for the recognition of privacy and personal data protection as species of consumer rights in Nigeria in line with the revised United Nations Guidelines for Consumer Protection (UNGCP) by amending existing laws or enacting a new law to provide for personal data protection regime for consumers. Methodology/Approach/Design – The study follows a structured review of relevant extant legislation on consumer protection and personal data protection, namely the Federal Competition and Consumer Protection Act 2018 (FCCPA) and the Nigeria Data Protection Regulation 2019 (NDPR). Findings – The paper identifies that the provisions of Nigeria's foremost consumer protection legislation, FCCPA, does cover electronic commerce (e-commerce) or consumer privacy and personal data protection while the NDPR, subsidiary legislation on personal data protection, which is yet to be effectively implemented is too general as to provide the consumers the much-needed privacy protection in their dealings with businesses. Practical Implications–Given the importance Recognition of data privacy and personal data protection as a species of consumer rights helps in understanding consumer protection in online transactions and opens opportunities for future research on consumer privacy and data protection. Originality/Value – Given the importance attached to the protection of consumer privacy and the various ramifications of transactions involving exposure of consumers' personal data, recognition of privacy consumers' rights to privacy is vital in consolidating knowledge of consumer rights and identifying paths for future research.
ABSTRACT: Domestic violence is one of the most common crimes in Romania, with multiple causes ranging from poverty and alcohol consumption to social constraints and lack of education. The increased reporting of domestic violence has led decision-makers to identify effective legal measures for the protection of victims, in particular, limiting immediate risks to their physical and mental integrity. The present paper aims to present some legal instruments that the Romanian legislator makes available to the police to allow immediate protection of the person who has become a victim of domestic violence. The article is focused mainly on the analysis of the temporary protection order, which is a recent legal instrument introduced into domestic violence legislation. The temporary protection order is a measure to immediately safeguard the protection of victims of domestic violence, but in practice difficulties have been identified in its application. There is also controversy over its application and the potential violation of the legal rights of the alleged aggressors. We will examine the application of the temporary protection order in practice and its effects in relation to its purpose, with reference to its correlation to the other instruments already regulated and the possibilities for improving the legislation. KEYWORDS: domestic violence, abusive relationship, victim protection, temporary protection order
After the end of the Cold War, civil defense was transformed into civil protection. This part of the state structure moved from the armed forces to the civilian sector. There are two reasons. First, direct threat of nuclear war was eliminated and the other reason were climate changes caused by natural disasters on a large scale. Today's civilan protection is organized in order to protect life and property in the event of a disaster caused by nature or man. End of the Cold War influenced the transformation of the social system in Poland. This was also reflected in the field of civil protection in this country. In Poland many sectors of civil society are now directly or indirectly involved in the system of civil protection. This was largely contributed by the decentralization of the state system, which allowed greater involvement of different actors in the system of civil protection. Decentralization has enabled a more efficient division of responsibility in case of emergencies. Regardless of the differences in size of territory and population, Poland has gone through similar challenges in transformation of the state and civil protection system like other new states of the European Union. This is especially important if we look other states of the former Warsaw Pact. Beside aforementioned transformation, Poland needed to eliminate communist legacy in many areas of society. This was precondition for stabilization and modernization of the state system. After that, Poland could put more effort in the reform of other areas of political, economic and social organization, which included area of civil protection.
This report deals with the protection of refugees in Austria between 2011 and 2018 by drawing (1) from an analysis of the legal framework and its implementation and (2) by building on extensive field research conducted under the framework of the RESPOND project. It shows that the so-called "refugee crisis" of 2015 represents a crucial turning point in asylum policy. While refugee protection remains intact as a constitutionally secured right, the Austrian government introduced a number of legal restrictions, including procedural hurdles, emergency provisions allowing for restricted access to federal territory and thus the asylum procedure, as well as restrictions for persons who obtain protection status. These reforms occurred at a time when the Common European Asylum System displayed serious deficiencies. Professionals in the field of asylum that we have interviewed for this project, largely point to the need for an alternative to the Dublin regime, for example in the form of solidary distribution mechanisms as well as a stronger harmonization of national asylum procedures within the European Union. At the national level, an implementation gap became evident in relation to the quality of first instance decisions by the Immigration Office as well as a in the context of rejected asylum seekers and effectively conducted returns. Among asylum seekers and beneficiaries of international protection, a central topic is the long waiting time connected to the asylum procedure, particularly in combination with a ban on taking up formal employment. Both asylum seekers and beneficiaries of international protection expressed a sense of incomprehension regarding legal criteria for asylum decisions. From a practical stance, this means a lack of transparency regarding certain procedural steps. From a normative stance, it implies that particularly persons who have spent several years in Austria, making great integration efforts, developed frustration and anger about receiving a negative first instance decision.
Ethnic minority means a group of people with different ethnic backgrounds as opposed to the majority of the population living in a state. There are national minorities in every country of the world, but not in every country they are recognized by their legal status, fundamental rights, representation in institutions, use of language and national symbols, etc. International law obliges states to "respect" the individual rights of minorities to participate effectively in public life, including matters relating to the identity of minorities at the national and local levels in the decision-making process. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in the Council of Europe requires states to "create" the necessary conditions for such participation. The International Convention against Ethnic and Racial Discrimination requires that "equal access to public services" not be denied or denied on ethnic or racial grounds. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) grants the right of every citizen to be elected without discrimination, while respecting the free expression of the will of the electorate. Various constitutions provide numerous, sometimes innovative, measures to create channels for the participation of minority groups, but often minorities have to appeal in court to gain or defend their rights. In general, the right to political participation, the right to vote and to be represented in Parliament is considered important indicators in the category of effective participation in the collective sphere, because these are categories where the specific demands of communities are in conflict with the democratic principle of majority governance.
Reports on the many initiatives under the Environmental Protection Agency, including Energy Star, Methane Emissions reduction programs, CO2 emissions reduction programs, etc. Provides economic and emission reduction statistics and other quantifiable measures of achievement.
