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The author offers an analysis of the logical model of "natural state" in the writings of the three mentioned authors and attempts to define its role in their theories of law. The analysis demonstrates that all three models share the same basic idea: namely, the concep-tion of an independent reasonable individual; this very idea is exactly what these different models are based upon. The concept of an individual itself does not have a substantiation. ; Автор предлагает анализ логической модели естественного состояния у трех выдающихся философов Нового времени, и пытается установить ее роль в пред-ложенных ими концепциях права. Анализ показывает, что в основе всех трех мо-делей лежит единое основание – концепция независимого разумного индивида, именно на ней держатся три столь разные учения о праве. Сама же концепция индивида обоснования не получает. ЛИТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380. ; Автор пропонує аналіз логічної моделі природного стану в трьох видатних фі-лософів Нового часу та намагається встановити її роль у запропонованих ними концепціях права. Аналіз показує, що в основі всіх трьох моделей лежить одне – концепція незалежного розумного індивіда, саме на ній базуються такі різні вчення про право. Сама концепція індивіда обґрунтування не має. ЛІТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380.

International audience ; My book is about the human creativity being a source of progress, and cycling of evolution caused by platitude and triviality of once high-reaching idealism. In essence the book presents an original perception of human history, based on Christian values as vital coordinates system. I hope this book will revive the interest to the Russian school of thoughts and to humanism in general ; Эта книга призвана в большей степени воодушевлять, нежели наставлять, пояснять и советовать. Автором обозначены ключевые моменты теории инволюции идеалов: первая часть посвящена мировоззренческим вопросам, разрешаемым не диалектически, но благодаря т. н. суперации; во второй части – статьи преимущественно о России, и в них суперационная парадигма применяется к некоторым частным проблемам.

Данная статья является первой попыткой автора обратиться в рамках исследовательской парадигмы политической лингвистики к анализу автобиографического нарратива Ю. М. Лужкова. ; This article focuses, within the framework of the research paradigm of political linguistics, on the analysis of the autobiographical narrative of Yu. M. Luzhkov, Mayor of Moscow for about twenty years. The aim of the study is to show the strategy of reading and comprehension of the autobiography of a political leader as a communicative role act authorizing the politician's self-awareness and self-presentation.

Introduction. In recent decades, scholars have shown greater research interest in aspects of legal literacy of young people regarding democratic processes in the Russian society. However, despite increasing relevance of the problem of developing and strengthening the legal awareness of modern young people, including university students, this issue has not been sufficiently studied. Meanwhile, subjective misinterpretation of the concepts of law and justice, a low level of legal culture and legal nihilism can be the causes of youth offences, as well as the factors, which distort the worldview under formation.The present publication is aimed to investigate the role of ideas about the law and justice in the structure of legal awareness of students of higher education institutions.Methodology and research methods. In the course of the empirical research, the following psychodiagnostic methods were employed: the questionnaire created on the basis of L. A. Yasyukova's and the procedures of free associations. To process the obtained data, the content analysis and the methods of mathematic statistics, the criterion φ* (Fisher's angular transformation) and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov criterion λ were used.Results and scientific novelty. Theoretical approaches to the problem under discussion have been analysed, according to which legal awareness is determined by the conditions of society. Instability of these conditions generates a "paradoxical personality" (M. I. Yenikeev), who accepts and rejects social norms. It is noted that the Russian legal culture is negatively affected by such factors as the dissonance between legal ideology and legal psychology, weakness of civil society institutions, deep financial and economic crisis, etc.The conducted survey manifested that the specifics of vocational education programme do not have a significant impact on the development of student perceptions of law and justice. The peculiarities of this component of legal awareness of students are revealed. The participants of the survey were convinced that the law should be fair; otherwise, it is not necessary to obey the law. The survey revealed that recognising the priority of legislation over conscience in administrative matters, the respondents believed that only just professionals should be at the head of state, regardless of their moral qualities. According to the respondents, orientation on honor and justice should be the basis of order in the society, but the participants noted the ambiguity of these concepts. On the one hand, students understand justice from the position of social balance (everyone receives what they deserve), on the other hand, they are convinced that social justice is ensured by equality. Young people are interested in the dynamics of the current legislation and believe that everyone should have basic legal knowledge, and ignorance of the law does not exempt a person from this responsibility. The respondents are sure that the law is the same for everyone and is enforceable equally by everyone; moreover, the law is designed to protect the interests of a particular person, not society as a whole. The majority of respondents generated the estimation that the ability to defend own rights is more significant than the performance of duties. The authors of the present research draw a generalised conclusion that university students' perceptions of law and justice are inconsistent and contradictory.Practical significance. The research results can be used by teachers and psychologists of higher educational institutions, as well as by various experts to develop the programmes for formation of youth legal awareness. ; Введение. В последние десятилетия в связи с демократическими процессами в российском обществе среди ученых заметно вырос исследовательский интерес к аспектам правовой грамотности молодежи. Однако проблема становления и укрепления правосознания современных молодых людей, в том числе студентов вузов, несмотря на ее актуальность, изучена далеко не достаточно. Между тем субъективное неверное понимание права и законности, невысокий уровень правовой культуры и тем более правовой нигилизм могут быть факторами, искажающими формирующееся мировоззрение, а также причинами правонарушений в молодежной среде. Цель статьи – обозначить роль представлений о законе и справедливости в структуре правосознания студентов, обучающихся на разных специальностях в высшей школе. Методы и методики. В эмпирическом исследовании были задействованы психодиагностические методы – анкетирование, организованное с опорой на методику Л. А. Ясюковой, и процедуры свободных ассоциаций. Для обработки полученных данных применялись контент-анализ и методы математической статистики, критерий φ * (углового преобразования Фишера) и критерий λ Колмогорова-Смирнова. Результаты и научная новизна. Проанализированы теоретические подходы к обсуждаемой проблеме, согласно которым правосознание определяется условиями жизни общества. Нестабильность этих условий порождает «парадоксальную личность» (М. И. Еникеев), одновременно и принимающую, и отвергающую социальные нормы. Констатируется, что на российской правовой культуре негативно отражаются такие факторы, как диссонанс между правовой идеологией и правовой психологией, слабость институтов гражданского общества, глубокий финансово-экономический кризис и др. В ходе опроса установлено, что специфика осваиваемой программы профессионального образования не оказывает значимого влияния на развитие представлений студенчества о законе и справедливости. Выявлены особенности этого компонента правосознания обучающихся. Участники анкетирования были убеждены, что закон должен быть справедливым, в противном случае не нужно ему подчиняться. Признавая приоритет законодательства перед совестью при решении административных вопросов, они полагают, что во главе государства должны находиться профессионалы вне зависимости от их моральных качеств. Основой порядка в социуме, по мнению респондентов, должна быть ориентация на честь и справедливость, однако испытуемые отметили неоднозначность данных понятий. Сами студенты, с одной стороны, понимают справедливость с позиции общественного баланса (каждый получает то, что заслужил), с другой стороны, убеждены, что социальная справедливость обеспечивается равенством. Молодые люди интересуются динамикой действующего законодательства и считают, что иметь базовые правовые знания должен каждый человек, а незнание не освобождает от ответственности; что закон – один для всех и подлежит исполнению всеми одинаково, при этом он призван защищать интересы конкретного человека, а не общества в целом. Умение отстаивать свои права большинство опрошенных оценило выше, чем выполнение обязанностей. Авторы делают общий вывод о том, что представления студентов вуза о законе и справедливости являются непоследовательными и носят противоречивый характер. Практическая значимость. Материалы исследования могут быть использованы преподавателями и психологами высших учебных заведений для совершенствования программ формирования правосознания молодежи.

Introduction. In recent decades, competency-based approach is considered to be the leading one in the system of vocational education in Russia. However, the preparation for future employment cannot be limited to competencies. This is particularly true for anthropocentric professions, for example, the training of medical workers. In such fields of employment, the personal qualities of a specialist are extremely important, i. e. his or her ability to communication, productive interaction, which implies a certain type of reflection.The aim of the present research was to identify the role of reflection, when forming the social orientation of physicians at different stages of their specialty training and realisation of oneself in this or that specialty – from university education to the end of career.Methodology and research methods. In the course of the research, psychodiagnostic methods based on the questionnaire "Differential Type of Reflection" by D. A. Leontiev et al. and FIRO – Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation questionnaire by A. Schutz in the adaptation of A. A. Rukavishnikov were employed, taking into account the key provisions of theories concerning personality psychology and social behaviour. Automated neural networks based on the architecture of a multilayer perceptron according to the type of regression analysis and analysis of Kendall's tau correlation coefficient were used to process the data.Results. Reflective processes among future physicians and physicians-practitioners were studied on the sample of 384 people (aged from 17 to 76 years old) – 169 students of medical universities and 215 employees of stationary and outpatient clinics of Chelyabinsk region. It was revealed that at different stages of mastering the profession, the level of productive (systemic) reflection turned out to be different, but it was growing according to the increased degree of professionalisation. However, this level did not reach normative values in all groups, pointing to the need for psychological correction of self-determination and self-distancing. The identified ways of respondents' social orientation demonstrate the contradictory nature of relations to oneself and to others; and such relations were mostly expressed at the beginning of training. Along with the fear of being rejected, manifested at an unconscious level, the respondents took the conscious decisions to preserve own individuality and to maintain the distance with other people. This contradiction means the presence of intra-personal conflict, which, like dissatisfaction with individual needs for interpersonal communication, provokes the prevalence of unproductive types of reflection – introspection and quasi-reflection.Scientific novelty. The integration of ideas about the role, structure, content and determinants of reflection can be represented as follows: traditional understanding from the perspective of inter-individual approach as a mechanism of social perception and interpretation from the point of view of intra-individual (personal) and subject-activity approaches as the higher mental process, which is formed in the process of the acquired profession. This integration allowed the authors to identify the relationships between the level of reflection development, personal peculiarities, experience and medical specialisation.Practical significance. The research materials and the authors' conclusions can serve as a basis for the development of recommendations for the correction and prevention of unproductive forms of reflection at the initial stages of education in a medical university (e.g. specially organised extracurricular classes), as well as in the system of advanced training of practicing physicians. ; Введение. В последние десятилетия ведущим в российской системе профессионального образования постулируется компетентностный подход. Однако подготовка к будущей трудовой деятельности не может ограничиваться исключительно формированием компетенций, особенно если речь идет об освоении профессий антропоцентрированного типа, например, об обучении медицинских работников. В таких сферах занятости крайне важны личностные качества специалиста, его способности к общению, продуктивному взаимодействию, что предполагает наличие определенного вида рефлексии. Целью представленного в статье исследования было выявление роли рефлексии в формировании социальной ориентации врачей на разных стадиях освоения ими своей специальности и реализации себя в ней – от студенческой скамьи до завершения карьеры.Методология и методики. В работе, выполненной с учетом ключевых положений теорий психологии личности и социального поведения, применялись психодиагностические методы, базирующиеся на опроснике «Дифференциальный тип рефлексии» (Д. А. Леонтьев и др.) и опроснике межличностных отношений FIRO – Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (В. Шутц, в адаптации А. А. Рукавишникова). При обработке данных были задействованы автоматизированные нейронные сети на архитектуре многослойного персептрона по типу регрессионного анализа и корреляционный анализ τ-Кендалла.Результаты. Рефлексивные процессы у будущих и действующих врачей изучались на выборке из 384 человек (возраст от 17 до 76 лет) – 169 студентов медицинских вузов и 215 сотрудников стационарных и амбулаторнополиклинических учреждений Челябинской области. На разных этапах освоения профессии уровень продуктивной (системной) рефлексии оказался различным, но имел тенденцию к повышению по мере усиления профессионализации. Тем не менее во всех группах испытуемых он не достигал нормативных значений, что указывает на необходимость психологической коррекции самодетерминации и самодистанцирования. Выявленные способы социальной ориентации испытуемых продемонстрировали противоречивость отношений к себе и другим, наиболее выраженную в начале обучения. Наряду со страхом быть отвергнутыми, проявляющимся на бессознательном уровне, вполне осознанным было стремление респондентов сохранить свою индивидуальность, установить дистанцию с другими. Это противоречие означает присутствие внутриличностного конфликта, который, как и неудовлетворенность потребностей индивида в межличностном общении, провоцирует преобладание непродуктивных видов рефлексии – интроспекции и квазирефлексии. Научная новизна. Интеграция представлений о роли, структуре, содержании и детерминантах рефлексии: традиционного понимания ее с позиций интериндивидного подхода как механизма социальной перцепции и трактовки с точки зрения интраиндивидного (личностного) и субъектно-деятельностного подходов как высшего психического процесса, складывающегося по мере овладения профессией, – позволила определить взаимосвязи между уровнем развития рефлексии, личностными особенностями, опытом и специализацией в медицинской деятельности.Практическая значимость. Материалы исследования и сделанные авторами выводы могут служить основой для разработки рекомендаций по коррекции и профилактике непродуктивных форм рефлексии как на начальных этапах обучения в медицинском вузе, например на специально организованных факультативных занятиях, так и в системе повышения квалификации практикующих врачей. ; The present article is published under the support of the Government of the Russian Federation (the Decree of 16.03.2013 № 211; Agreement № 02.A03.21.0011). ; Статья выполнена при поддержке Правительства РФ (постановление от 16.03.2013 № 211 ; соглашение № 02.A03.21.0011).

Ernest Hemingway is a symbolic figure in the literature of the 20th century. His name and works entered the history of world literature forever. The purpose of the article is to characterize the way of opening the inner world and the emotional state of the characters, the psychology of the 'lost generation' in the interaction of its external and internal manifestations through the civil war inSpain. The article analyzes the stories 'A clean, well-lighted place', 'A way you'll never be', 'The light of the world'.The heated atmosphere of the 'bloody decade' introduced new themes into the writer's work.Spainbecame a 'moment of truth' for E. Hemingway. He feels the inevitability of the coming world war. E. Hemingway expressed himself inSpaincompletely as an artist, and as a citizen. All the characters of his stories are simple people, men and women, unemployed, traumatized by war, looking for their place in the post-war world (a cook, a lumberjack, Indians, prostitutes etc.). Endless humor, laughter, self-irony, joke, and sometimes bitter laughter help them to stand and find their place in life.The 'code' of light, purity, and peace are universally introduced into all writer's works. In the personality of his characters there is much in common, unifying them with all the differences in appearance and life path, and above all, hopelessness and disappointment, indifference to life in general, and the most terrible is their loneliness. The utmost frankness and genuineness of soul movements, the combination of morals, history, nature with the chronicle of only human destiny, are exceptionally bright creative personalities of E. Hemingway, who describes his characters.In our work we came to the conclusion that the characters of the stories about the war years inSpain'A clean, well-lighted place' (about a lonely old man), 'A way you'll never be' (about the war), 'The light of the world' (the sad and ironic story about prostitutes who remembered the past) anyway are rejected by a prosperous society. Hopelessness, dark state of the soul of 'lost generation' are combined with the belief in the 'ordinary' life without the war for the characters of E. Hemingway's stories. Light and dignity are the main components of a person's peaceful life, the confession of a person who got out of the abyss and survived during the war, but who lost the sense of life in peacetime, they are distinguishing features of many characters in military conflicts.Keywords: Spanish theme, E. Hemingway, 'The Winner Gets Nothing', 'lost generation', 'code' of light. ; Эрнест Хемингуэй – знаковая фигура в литературе XX столетия, его имя и творчество навсегда вошли в историю мировой литературы. Целью статьи является характеристика способа раскрытия внутреннего мира и эмоционального состояния героев, психологизм «потерянного поколения» во взаимодействии внешнего и внутреннего его проявления через гражданскую войну в Испании. В статье анализируются рассказы «Там, где чисто, светло», «Какими вы не будете», «Свет мира».Накаленная атмосфера «кровавого десятилетия» внесла новые темы в творчество писателя, Испания стала для него «моментом истины», он чувствует неотвратимость грядущей мировой войны. В Испании Э. Хемингуэй в полной мере выразил себя и как художник, и как гражданин. Все герои его рассказов – это простые люди, мужчины и женщины, безработные, травмированные войной, ищущие свое место в послевоенном мире (повар, лесоруб, индейцы, проститутки и др.). Выстоять и найти свое место в жизни им помогают неиссякаемый юмор, смех, самоирония, шутка, а порой и горький смех.«Код» света, чистоты, мира повсеместно вводится во все произведения писателя. В характере его персонажей есть много общего, объединяющего их при всех различиях облика и жизненного пути – и прежде всего, – безысходность и разочарование, равнодушие к жизни вообще, и самое страшное – их одиночество. Предельная откровенность и неподдельность движений души, соединение нравов, истории, природы с хроникой одной человеческой судьбы, – исключительно яркая творческая индивидуальность Э. Хемингуэя, описывающего своих героев.В работе мы пришли к выводу, что персонажи новелл о военных годах в Испании «Там, где чисто, светло» (об одиноком старике), «Какими вы не будете» (о войне), «Свет мира» (грустно-ироничный рассказ о проститутках, вспомнивших прошлое) так или иначе отторгнуты благополучным обществом. Безысходность, болезненное состояние души всего «потерянного поколения» сочетается с верой в «нормальную» жизнь без войны персонажей его рассказов. Свет и достоинство – вот главные составляющие мирной жизни человека, исповедь человека, который выбрался из бездны и уцелел во время войны, но потерял смысл жизни в мирное время, – характерная черта многих персонажей военных конфликтов.Ключевые слова: испанская тема, Э. Хемингуэй, «Победитель не получает ничего», «потерянное поколение», «код» света. ; Ернест Хемінгуей – знакова фігура в літературі XX століття, його ім'я і творчість назавжди увійшли в історію світової літератури. Метою статті є характеристика способу розкриття внутрішнього світу і емоційного стану героїв, психологізм «втраченого покоління» у взаємодії зовнішнього і внутрішнього його прояву через громадянську війну в Іспанії. У статті аналізуються розповіді «Там, де чисто, світло», «Якими ви не будете», «Світло життя».Вогняна атмосфера «кривавого десятиліття» внесла нові теми в творчість письменника, Іспанія стала для нього «моментом істини», він відчуває невідворотність майбутньої світової війни. В Іспанії Е. Хемінгуей в повній мірі проявив себе і як художник, і як громадянин. Всі герої його оповідань – це прості люди, чоловіки і жінки, безробітні, травмовані війною, які шукають своє місце в післявоєнному світі (кухар, лісоруб, індіанці, повії та ін.). Вистояти і знайти своє місце в житті їм допомагають невичерпний гумор, сміх, самоіронія, жарт, а часом і гіркий сміх.«Код» світла, чистоти, миру усюди включається в твори письменника. В характері його персонажів є багато спільного, що об'єднує їх при всіх відмінностях зовнішності й життєвого шляху – і перш за все, – безвихідь і розчарування, байдужість до життя взагалі, і найстрашніше – їхня самотність. Гранична відвертість і справжність рухів душі, з'єднання моралі, історії, природи з хронікою однієї людської долі, – виключно яскрава творча індивідуальність Е. Хемінгуея, який описує своїх героїв.У роботі ми дійшли висновку, що персонажі новел про воєнні роки в Іспанії «Там, де чисто, світло» (про самотнього старого), «Якими ви не будете» (про війну), «Світло життя» (сумно-іронічна розповідь про повій, які згадали минуле) так чи інакше відторгнуті благополучним суспільством. Безвихідь, болісний стан душі всього «втраченого покоління» поєднується з вірою в «нормальне» життя без війни персонажів його оповідань. Світло і гідність – ось головні складові мирного життя людини, сповідь людини, яка вибралася зі безодні й вціліла під час війни, але втратила сенс життя в мирний час, – характерна риса багатьох постатей військових конфліктів.Ключові слова: іспанська тема, Е. Хемінгуей, «Переможець не одержує нічого», «втрачене покоління», «код» світла.

Introduction. Collective memory research helps to uncover the deeply imbedded meaning of the past in the present, to follow the identity development process in various communities, to find narrative structures that define societal foundations. Simultaneously, such research can be complicated from the empirical point of view. The scientific novelty of the given article lies in the fact that theoretical and methodological approaches to collective memory research have not yet been summarized and systematized up to this date. The goal of this research is to provide such a review and determine the most valid research methods in Memory Studies. The relevance of the presented research is determined by the fact that the proposition of a methodological apparatus for Memory Studies is necessary for the finalization of its formation as an independent discipline.Methodology and sources. Collective memory theory served as the theoretical-methodological foundation of the conducted research, it allowed to view the past not as a set given but as an object undergoing interpretation and representation. Such academics as M. Halbwachs, M. Bloch, A. Warburg, Jan and Aleida Assmann, J. Olick, A. Erll and others developed the following theory. A range of scientists dedicated their work to the discovery of collective memory research methods, among them M. Bulanova, W. Kansteiner, A. Erll, B. Zelizer, A. Confino, T. Kapitonova, V. Belokrylova, etc. J. Olick made a considerable impact into the understanding of the given issue, having suggested to view memory as a process developing in time, which required to define the methods of analysis that would be able to take this characteristic into account. However, a complete list as well as a general system and classification of methods have not been developed in the academic literature up to the present day. Having appeared at an intersection of various humanities and social sciences, Memory Studies adopts empirical research methods from Sociology, Political science, Culture Studies, Psychology, Media Studies, Visual Studies, etc. In course of the presented research, the relevant empirical research works in the Memory Studies field by international and Russian authors have been analyzed, we considered the research carried out by Ch. Lindt, A. Vasil'ev, T. Emel'yanova, A. Timofeeva, V. Kasamara, E. Hakokongas, E. Keightley, M. Meyers, B. Zelizer, and others. That allowed us to determine the most frequently applied collective memory research methods, to compile their overview and develop the author classification of the used methods.Results and discussion. An overview of key theoretical approaches to collective memory research was provided. They include functional, phenomenological, post-structural, social-historical and information approaches. J. Olick enriched the list of five theoretical approaches suggested by M. Bulanova by introducing the process-relativist approach to studying collective memory. The main research methods applied in Memory Studies were outlined; moreover, a classification of key disciplinary traditions that academics turn to in memory research was introduced featuring sociological, psychological, information, cultural and historical traditions as well as a separate branch of Computer Sciences.Conclusion. As a result of the conducted research, a systematic overview and an author's classification of theoretical-methodological approaches to collective memory analysis were introduced. The findings of the given research can be implemented by a range of academics working on the issues of group identity building, ways of working with contested past, historical events representation in the present, the functioning of memory communities, etc. The defining of the methodological apparatus of Memory studies serves as a moving force for the effective development, generalization and bringing to a common understanding the further research of collective memory structures formation and distribution as well as concepts related to it. ; Введение. Исследования коллективной памяти помогают раскрыть глубоко заложенные значения прошлого в настоящем, проследить процесс формирования идентичности различных сообществ, выявить нарративные структуры, определяющие общественные ориентиры. При этом подобные исследования являются проблематичными с эмпирической точки зрения. Научная новизна представленного исследования заключается в том, что до сих пор в академической литературе не были объединены и систематизированы теоретические и методологические подходы к анализу коллективной памяти. Цель данной статьи – сделать подобный обзор и определить наиболее валидные методы исследования в мемори стадиз. Актуальность проведенного исследования заключается в том, что утверждение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз необходимо для его окончательного оформления в самостоятельную область знания.Методология и источники. Теоретико-методологической основой проведенного исследования стала теория коллективной памяти, позволившая рассмотреть про-шлое не как устоявшуюся данность, а как объект, подвергающийся интерпретации и репрезентации. Данную теорию развивали такие исследователи как М. Хальбвакс, М. Блох, А. Варбург, Ян и Алейда Ассманн, Дж. Олик, А. Эрлл и др. Ряд ученых уделял внимание рассмотрению методов исследования коллективной памяти, среди них М. Буланова, В. Канштайнер, А. Эрлл, Б. Зелизер, А. Конфино, Т. Капитонова, В. Белокрылова и др. Дж. Олик внес значительный вклад в понимание данного вопроса, предложив рассматривать память как процесс, развивающийся во времени, что тре-бовало определить методы анализа, способные учитывать эту характеристику. Однако целостного перечня, а также единой системы и классификации методов на сего-дняшний день в академической литературе не разработано. Возникнув на стыке различных социальных и гуманитарных наук, мемори стадиз заимствует методы проведения эмпирических исследований из социологии, политологии, культурологии, психологии, медиа стадиз, визуальных исследований и т. д. В рамках проведения представленного исследования были проанализированы актуальные эмпирические труды в рамках мемори стадиз ряда зарубежных и российских авторов, таких как Ш. Линд, А. Васильев, Т. Емельянова, А. Тимофеева, В. Касамара, Е. Хакоконгас, Е. Кейтли, М. Мейерс, Б. Зелизер и др. Это позволило выявить наиболее часто используемые для исследования коллективной памяти методы анализа, составить их обзор и разработать авторскую классификацию применяемых методов.Результаты и обсуждение. Были рассмотрены основные теоретические подходы к исследованию коллективной̆ памяти. К ним относятся функциональный, феномено-логический, постструктурализм, социально-исторический и информационный. Дж. Олик дополнил перечень из пяти теоретических направлений, предложенных М. Булановой, указав на необходимость отметить процессо-релятивистский подход к изучению коллективной памяти. Были выявлены методы исследования, применяемые в мемори стадиз, и разработана классификация основных дисциплинарных традиций, которыми руководствуются академики при выборе метода исследования памяти: социологическая, психологическая, информационная, культурологическая и историческая, а также отдельный блок компьютерных наук.Заключение. В исследовании был сделан систематический обзор и разработана авторская классификация теоретико-методологических подходов к анализу коллективной памяти. Данные результаты могут быть использованы исследователями проблем построения идентичности групп, способов работы со сложным прошлым, ре-презентации исторических событий в настоящем, функционирования сообществ памяти и т. д. Определение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз выступает в качестве движущей силы эффективного развития, универсализации и приведения к единому пониманию дальнейших исследований формирования и распространения структур коллективной памяти и взаимосвязанных концептов.

International audience ; The article analyses aspects of management of the sphere of mental work. The author claims that modern personnel technologies, designed for stratification of the collective, are not applicable to employees of mental labor. The solution to the problem can be the application of a paternalistic model of governance, which is based on the cultivation of the idea of equality and the non-intervention of superiors in the field of issues directly related to the profession (procedural independence). ; В статье анализируются аспекты руководства сферой умственного труда. Автор утверждает, что современные кадровые технологии, рассчитанные на стратификацию коллектива, малоприменимы к интеллигентам. Решением проблемы может стать патерналистская модель управления, в основе которой – культивирование идеи равенства и невмешательство начальства в область вопросов, относящихся непосредственно к профессии (процессуальная независимость).

This study is based on the twin exigencies of introducing the concept of abstract author into the scheme of narrative construction, and distinguishing sharply between this object of analysis and the concepts of concrete author and narrator. In accordance with the definition advanced by Wolf Schmid, whose vision on the issues of narrative instances appears most judicious, the abstract author ('der abstrakte Autor') can be defined as 'the principle that, in a work, determines the articulatory layer, the semantic layer, and the layer of the objectivity deployed, as well as the aesthetic organisation and the hierarchy of these layers in the total structure in one specific way' ('dasjenige Prinzip, das in einem Werk die sprachlautliche Schicht, die Bedeutungsschicht und die Schicht der dargestellten Gegenständlichkeiten sowie die ästhetische Organisation und Hierarchie dieser Schichten in der Gesamtstruktur so und nicht anders beschaffen sein lässt', Schmid 1973. S.24). More succinctly and generally, the abstract author (henceforth: AA) is the principle according to which the meaning of a literary work is constructed. If we wish to switch from phenomenological to structuralist terminology, we can define the AA as the construction principle of the paradigmatic elements of the work. Thus the AA is fundamentally distinguished from both the concrete author and from the narrator in whose name (voice) the story is being told – itself a creation of the AA. This means that the latter is not directly represented in the text, in view of the fact that it is a reconstructed virtual construction. Naturally, this aspect of the AA considerably complicates a study devoted to the reconstruction of various types of AAs as regards concrete literary texts (in our case, great Russian prose forms from the 1920s and 1930s) in view of the fact that it cannot be based on the principle of the reconstruction according to which the AA must be reconstructed. Taking into account that a) no single reconstruction principle could ever be exhaustively explained, and b) various interpretations of facts and motives are possible even within a single analytical doctrine, the final result of this kind of reconstruction will unavoidably contain fairly controversial or debatable aspects. In principle, a certain objectivity could be achieved by blending a large number of different analytical strategies in order to arrive at a reconstruction of the AA, but in view of the fact that this kind of undertaking is not able to be carried out within the framework of a dissertation project, one is obliged to accept a priori a certain sketchiness in the results obtained. As regards methodology, we considered it better to base our undertaking on a structuralistic approach. This does not mean, however, that we regard structuralism as a methodological panacea. Our choice was ultimately determined by the fact that the conclusions reached on the basis of structuralistic analysis are highly illustrative, in the sense that the mechanism of deduction can be represented in the form of logically unambiguous causality. At points where the conclusions of the structuralistic approach appeared to us to be incomplete representations of a work's meaning, we resorted to other approaches. In order to analyse texts from the period in question (the 1920s and 1930s) we applied an analysis model first presented by B. A. Uspensky, and subsequently elaborated by W. Schmid, albeit it with a few specifications, which will be discussed shortly. The Uspensky-Schmid model is based on the division and analysis of the narrative into five levels: spatial, temporal, phraseological, psychological and ideological. It is a rather economic and practical scheme which provides a thorough analysis. Our refinement refers only to the last, ideological, level. We recognize J. Lintvelt's view (Lintvelt 1981) which does not see this as a separate layer, basing his argument on its intertwining with other levels. However, W. Schmid insisted on its retention, indicating that it could also manifest itself independently of the other levels, namely, as a direct, explicit evaluation. In this case the ideological level is then a facultative phenomenon only functional in the narrative scheme of the text when there are explicit ideological utterances. We propose using an old definition of ideology set down by A. J. Greimas and J. Courtés, who, in Sémiotique. Dictionnaire raisonné de la théorie du langue (1979), define ideology as the syntagmatic aspect of the taxonomic concept of axiology. The acceptance of this definition brings with it a number of important consequences: 1) In view of the fact that the narrative text, a product of subjective consciousness, inevitably consists of axiologically meaningful relationships, the axiological level is an immanent element of every narrative text, independent of explicitly manifested ideological rhetoric. 2a) Regardless of its intertwining with the syntagmatics of other narrative levels, there is still the possibility of a paradigmatic reconstruction of the ideology, based on the axiomatics of these narrative levels. 2b) If the analysis of the other four levels is correctly executed, the ideology component will inevitably be the most concise, since it merely summarises all the conclusions that are drawn from analyses of the other levels and brings them into the required equilibrium. After all, to formulate it slightly differently, analysis means the exposure of the axiologically meaningful relationships that have been imposed on the text by the abstract author. Additionally, the mutual hierarchy of the narrative instances must be further determined, a specification one must consistently take into account as one reconstructs the AA. The point at issue here is the more detailed determination of the hierarchical dispositions of instances of abstract author and abstract reader due to Bely's death? Should Moscow be supplemented by the novel Petersburg by the same author because it is apparently symmetrical to Moscow? In that case, should we not also expand the notion of the analysed text to include the novel The silver dove, the first part of an unwritten trilogy of which the novel Petersburg is the second part, etc.? Such questions are allied to the concept of text itself and can arise in infinite shapes and quantities; it is clear that the AA's structure depends on how we respond to them. In our opinion the answers to such questions fall within the competency of the abstract reader who is, par excellence, sensitive to the literary work's nuances in meaning. For this reason we suggest representing the relationship between the abstract author and the abstract reader as an opposition between the principle to be reconstructed and the reconstructing principle, which presupposes a corresponding hierarchical disposition between both. Furthermore, more precision is needed with respect to the analytical methods used in this study. Taking into account the fact that, ideally, the perfectly accurate researcher should concur with the abstract reader, as outlined above, it is useful to call to mind the following aspects: a) the infinitely great competency of the abstract reader with regard to all intertextual connections of a given work and with regard to all meaningful connections, in all their variations, of the work with the extra-literary world – from social-political realia to the psychic circumstances of the concrete author. b) the infinite analytical flexibility of the abstract reader who uses the greatest possible quantity of analytical methods in his interpretative strategy, aiming at the most complete reconstruction of the AA. In view of the fact that, within the framework of a rather restricted study, it is not possible to present a more or less complete description of the AA of even a single work by means of the methodology of even a single analytical approach, it is advisable to limit the analysis to a single feature, albeit one that is shared by the majority of the chosen texts. This means we have mainly confined our efforts to the particular construction which governed the generation of the selected individual texts and which we could provisionally indicate as the abstract meta-author. We believe that the principle of negative anthropology, which – at least regarding Russian literature – was new in the first third of the twentieth century and which contains the denial or explicit 'denigration' of all manifestations of the specifically human, constitutes this kind of integral concept. We must emphasis that this concept – at least in its basic features – is not a twentieth-century invention. However, it does form a sharp contrast with literature of the nineteenth century imbued with humanism. For the analysis of this attitude, large-scale works of prose (novels, short stories) were chosen as the most representative for the 1920s and 1930s. The basis of the selection was the pursuit of maximum diversity with regard to ideology (in the narrowest sense of the word), genre and stylistics, and pragmatics. Taking their fundamental principles into account, the texts were chosen from the following literary movements or paradigms: (post)symbolism (Bely, Moscow), skaz (Klyèkov, Èertuxinskij balakir'), (post)modernism (Nabokov, The Gift), socialist realism (Gaidar, The Tale of the Military Secret). During the course of the analysis it became clear that the following two fundamental constructive principles that nourish the concept of negative anthropology could be identified in the above-mentioned texts. The essence of the matter is that W. Booth (Booth 1961) recognised the usefulness of designing a system of narrative hierarchy within communicative interaction. He defined a receptive side for each of the positions: in his scheme, the concrete author (Flesh-and-Blood Author) was correlated to the concrete reader (Fleshand- Blood Re-Creator), the narrator (or, in his terminology, Teller of This Story) was correlated to the fictive reader (Credulous Listener), and, finally, the abstract author (Implied Author) was correlated to the Postulated Reader, or the 'abstract reader', as Wolf Schmid would refer to him later. In Schmid's view, the abstract reader is the 'ideal recipient of the author', a definition with which we entirely agree. In our opinion, however, this does not apply to the phylogenetic constituent of this concept as Schmid tends to present it. In his view, the picture of the abstract reader seems to be determined in advance by the corresponding structural configurations of the work; in other words, it is a more or less passive communicative duplication of the AA. However, further examination indicates that in the reasoning in question the objectivity of the semantic configurations in the text is implicitly postulated; in other words, there is a presumption that the full (all-embracing) meaning of the work is not only given a priori but is also materially present in the text components themselves. In reality, however, the full meaning (and here we concur with W. Iser) is realised by the reader who fills in, as it were, the gaps in meaning intentionally or unintentionally embedded in the work by the author. In theory, there are an infinitely large number of such gaps and, correspondingly, every time a reader fills in a different number or group of gaps one can speak of a different structure of the total meaning of the work. Only God is capable of filling in all the gaps, making Him the most ideal recipient to figure in all models of narrative instances according to the communicative model. Nonetheless, we must also take into consideration the possibly less obvious fact that the text whose meaning is to be reconstructed in the analysis is not a protoplasmic entity but the product of certain conventions or analytic procedures. Both the conventions and the analytic procedures applied to the text belong to the competencies of the abstract reader. We shall explain this in more detail below. When dealing with, for example, Pushkin's novel Yevgeny Onegin, it is clear that the text itself provides no answer to the question whether this work has been completed. Our decision to regard this work as finished or unfinished affects its significance and, correspondingly, the picture of the AA. In our opinion, the instance of the abstract reader is responsible for the decision concerning the boundaries of the text; in other words, the decision to limit interpretative activity to eight chapters, or ten, or to state, as a matter of principle, that the work has only one boundary – a beginning. In each of these cases, the complete meaning of the work will have a different structure. The same argument can be applied with regard to varying editions of one and the same work. Consider the case of collected stories. How can one correctly determine this text's boundaries? Should we reconstruct each story's AA, so that something like a portrait gallery is created, or is it more sensible to regard a collection of stories as a single text and to reconstruct an integral AA on the basis of all the stories? Or, as in the case of the novel Moscow by Andrei Bely analysed in this dissertation: is it valid to regard the three sections of this work as separate texts – after all, they were published as separate books at different times, and the stylistic variations are evident? Is it valid to speak about an AA as a self-contained concept in view of the fact that the novel actually remained unfinished 1. Space destabilisation In view of the fact that it is only through history that man realises himself as an intrinsic integrity, he is most easily marginalised in the most unequivocal, i.e., most effective, way in a universe in which history in the usual sense of the term is seriously problematised by spatio-temporal ambivalence. The spatio-temporal continuum evaporates in this set-up, which may manifest itself in various ways but essentially involves the same mechanism. In some texts, normally seen as belonging to the modernistic paradigms (in our case, Moscow, Èertuxinskij balakir', The Gift), a destabilisation of the normal world view has occurred and this is more or less evident to the reader: the attributes of a certain point in space can easily belong to a different point, just as the attributes of a certain object can turn out to be the attributes of a different object. One spatial area can be projected upon a different spatial area, and, in such cases, the boundaries between the areas become so transparent that distinction between them is no longer possible. All objects and points in this kind of space enter, as it were, into relationships of mutual equivalence, or if we regard it in semiotic terms, all objects enter into relationships of crosswise reference without having an unambiguously phraseable singular denotation. Another way to destabilise space, however paradoxical it may sound, is by structuring space by means of mythopoetic patterns. We believe that mythopoetic structures occur in every narrative text, which seems largely self-evident. In view of the fact that in narrative texts we deal with subjectivity pur sang, it is perfectly logical that this subjectivity will lend varying axiological colour to the different segments of space. In conjunction with our cognitive schemes, i.e., the structure of our brains, this colour is generated according to the principle of binary opposition. In this way each narrative space has an axiological marking on the basis of duality (high-low, here-there, citycountry, etc.), for which in historical terms the priority lies with the myth as the first (spontaneous) project in human history to be given structure. The issue is merely one concerning the extent to which this mythopoetic – or as one may prefer, quasimythopoetic – scheme becomes manifest, and even the rather confined analysis we have performed demonstrates that this is largely the situation in Russian prose of the 1920s and 1930s. It is understandable that in both cases space destabilisation results in the elimination of the human subject. In the former case, when space is characterised by a high degree of relativity, man adopts in a metonymic way space's capacity to undergo all kinds of metamorphoses whose degree of radicalness can vary: from the possibility of metempsychosis, as in the case of the reincarnated protagonists in Nabokov's The Gift, to the division of protagonists in a synchronous system of look-alikes, of which each one has a role in the distinction of meaning and which only begin to acquire consolidated meaning when they have been conceptually united (cf. the Korobkin brothers, Mandro – Dromarden, Lizaša – Leonora, and Kierko – Titelev in Moscow; Ul'jana – Maria in Èertuxinskij balakir'; the whole herd of doubles in The Gift). In the latter case, when space has been structured according to the myth, for a number of reasons man is also eliminated: a) man, as we know him, necessarily realises himself in history (only God realises himself in infinity), whereas myth knows no linearity and therefore no history. Thus only a certain notion of man or a model of subjectivity can possibly realise itself in myth, but not man as such b) the concept of realisation itself (of man or of other objects that occupy mythical space) is weakened here by virtue of the fact that determinism rules in myth – a genuine paradigmatic formation – which substantially weakens the independence and the responsibility of the protagonists somehow engaged in realising themselves c) which also directly combines points a) and b): myth, which does not recognise the singularity of here and now, does not accommodate the aspect of subjectivity, which is a constitutive element of man (and without this relationship, there can be no subjectivity). 2. Theatricalisation of narrative space An important factor in the construction of the great narrative forms of this period is the theatricalisation of space: in some cases the accent is placed on an analogous segmentation of space (Gaidar) when, for example, the entire adventurous part of the narrative is linked to a concrete topos, while the lyrical part, as a whole, is connected to another area, etc.; in other words, the narrative space, just as in theatre space, is divided into semiologically clearly delineated segments. In other cases the theatricalisation can be achieved by assigning purely dramatic characteristics to the protagonists. In this latter case there is a strikingly varied list of procedures that can be applied to create a 'theatrical text' in which the majority of the protagonists, or even all of them, are assigned a role. The most prominent technique is the construction of a character on the basis of a marionette or automatic dummy (Bely) with the corresponding imitation of its expressiveness and speech which become isomorphous with the discrete, emphatically affected expressiveness of a doll, where the character disintegrates into disassociated sememes and is only held together by the context. In such cases, to emphasise the artificiality a complicated, deviating syntax and an extremely extensive vocabulary of occasionalisms is employed. A less conspicuous strategy (as in Gaidar and also in many social-realist authors of the 1920s and 1930s) consists of a return to the constructive configurations of pre-realistic theatre in which the only possible actors are masks or, to use a more recent term, types, whose dynamics are determined entirely by fable and not by any intrinsic structure or stratification of character. Each of them has an ontologically determined role (of course, this concerns only the ontology of that specific space) and the mode of existence here is such that there are no a priori opportunities to switch roles; this space simply does not enable this kind of transformation. A strictly natural effect of this type of situation is the extremely normative behaviour of the characters in both their actions and their verbal expressions. Another method of desecrating narrative space is rooted in the symbolistic paradigm (or to be more precise, in the paradigm of early Russian symbolism) which is typified by the representation of this world as a close-knit semiotic universe whose characters refer to a supratextual substance that governs this world. A consequence of this worldview is the acceptance of fairly strict definitions of determinism and its unavoidable companion destiny. The concept of destiny assumes a certain marked role for each of the characters; after all, a complete behavioural paradigm (as regards destiny) can be created for a (marked) role, whereas this is impossible for the vital realisation of a person in his existence: in this latter case only the syntagmatic logical coherence can be determined, and that coherence is incomplete by definition. The narrative in The Gift (as in several other of Nabokov's novels) is constructed in this way, i.e., in functional-behavioural terms of destiny. This is also the case in Èertuxinskij balakir' by Klyèkov, in which the centre of the narrative is occupied by a kind of minus type: a character that not only lacks psychology (in as much as this kind of reduction is possible for humans), but also every manifestation of his own will which could testify to even an illusory independence from the functional universe. We must consider that a person's dramatic accessories (e.g., a person on stage) are essentially emancipated from existence and as a result revealingly attest to the nature of the processes that eliminate humans from the prose of the era. The observation of AA structures in 1920s and 1930s Russian prose thus offers the opportunity to bring to light a collection of these texts' implicit features, which manifest themselves in the first third of the twentieth century and which consequently enabled radical qualitative change in the entire structure of Russian prose. If executed with sufficient accuracy, the reconstruction of AAs in works from different periods can offer new insight into the history of literature. In more precise terms, it can open a new history of literature, a history engaged in the diachronous modification of the models according to which creative texts are generated at a certain points in time.