Summarium Notio sic dicta Status lurlS, orta patrocinio doctrinae de tripartita potestatum separatione (Iegislativae, exsecutivae et iudicialis), pro SUrnrnQ legj$ imperio est; Status scilicet iuris Status qUidem est legi pi ene su• biectus. Haec notio Status necessario fontium hierarchiam ponit. Fons dicitur veluti productionisiuridicae; si autem normae iuridicae effectus fontium iuridicae pro. ductionis intelliguntur, distinguendae sunt fontium pro• ductionis hierarchia (ordo cum sit fontium productionis secundum potestatem qua complectuntur et ordo etiam sit potestatum atque munerum) ac normarum iuridlca• rum formalis hierarehia. Hierarchia fontium, principii legalitatis quod in statu iuris regit postulatio, via est apta ad iuridicam securitatem consequendam ac civium iurium tutelam adversus potestatis exercitationem arbitrariam. In ordinamento Ecclesiae fontium hierarchia non est nec normarum forma'lis hierarchia; quoquo modo orga• norum hierarchia gradu innixa quo in organizatione potitur. Sed ecclesiasticum magisterium uberius est in pe• titionibusa civili societate de iuridica curan da securitate civium ac de tutela iurium fundamentalium per• sonae humanae. Huius doctrinae conscia sunt Principia quae Codicois luris Canoniei recognitionem dirigant, in I Synodo Episcoporum anno 1967 disputata. Ouamobrem necesse est in ordinamentum canonicum fontium hierarchiam indu. cere, ad huius rei partes transitis maximi nominis viris in doctrina canonica. Ouod in 'Ecclesia nec separatio potestatum exsistat huic proposito obex non est quia in eius sinu possibilis distinctio munerum et ea de causa legiferorum orga• norum, exsecutionis et iudicialium. De hoc sensu quidem servanda semper divinae constitutionis Ecclesiae structura et ordinamenti Ecclesiae species. Haec indagatio concluditur plurimis suggestis de iure ¡contiendo super ratione ordinamenti ECclesiae applicandi principii fontium hierarchiae. Fontium hie. rarchia in canonico ordinamentoesset: 1) lex funda. mentalis; 2) Ordinarie leges normativae; 3) Normae pro administratione; 4) Negotia administrativa; 5) Consue. tudo. Ut vero fidem nullam normam inferiorem aliae superioriexcellere opus est fontium hierarchiae iuris• dictionalem vigilantiam etiam introducere. --- Abstract The concept State of Law, which carne into being in the light of the theory of the tripartite separation of powers (legislative,executive and judicial), is equi• valent to sovereignty of the law; that is, State of law is the State which is fully subjected to the law; this idea of State necessarily implies a hierarchy of sources. By -source. one understands a source of legal pro• duction and that the ,Iegall norms are a product of the sources of production; one has to distinguish the hierarchy of the sources of produetion (because there exists a hierarchy of the sources of production according to the power in which they are, and there ls al so a hierarchy of powers and functions) from the formal hierarchy of ,legal norms. The hierarchy of sources, exigence of the principie of legality which prevails in the State of law, is an adequate medium through which legal security and tutelage of the rights of the citizens could be obtained, to confront the arbitrary exercise of power. In the arrangement of the Church there neither exists hierarchy of sources nor formal hierarchy of norms; in any case it is an organie hierarehy based on its importance in the organization. But the teaching of the Church is pregnant with petitions to the civil society to seek the legal security of the citizens and the tutelage of the fundamental rights of the human being; consistent with this doctrine are the PrblcoiP.ia quae Codicis luris Canoniel recognitionem dirigant which were discussed at the firts Synod of Bishops in 1967; this made it necessary to introduce into the ca• nonical set up the hierarchy of sources, a question on which the most reknowned pronouncement has favoura• bly been made concerning canonical doctrine. The existence of the division of powers in the Church is no obstacle to this objective because it is possible to have a distinction of function and, therefore, a distinction of legislative, executive and judicial organs; in this sense, the structure of the divine constitution of the Church and the pecularities of the canonical I3rrangement have always got to be safeguarded. This research ends with numerous suggestions de iure eondendo on the way of applying the principie of the hierarchy of sources to the canonical set up. The hierarchy of sources in thecanonical set up would be: 1) Constitution; 2) Ordinary standard iaws; 3) Norms of the administration; 4) Standard business; 5) Costume. To guarantee that no inferior norm prevails over a superior one it is also necessary to introduce jurisdiccional control of the hierarchy of sources.
The purpose of this study was to compare American and Cyprus secondary education, in regard to purposes, content, organization and presentation in an attempt to arrive at unbiased generalizations whereby the two systems might be viewed more critically. In order to obtain reliable information on the American and Cyprus secondary education the following procedures were adopted: 1. Fourteen American states were selected, two from each of the s even divisions as listed in the Research Bulletin of t he National Education Association entitled Trends in City School Organization. A letter was sent to the superintendent of public instruction in each state requesting him to recommend ten public high schools. An information blank was then mailed to the administrative officers of the recommended schools, seeking information pertinent to the purpose of the investigation. 2. Three secondary schools were selected from Cyprus from the classification in terms of type of curriculum, as cited in the Report of the Department of Education, 1951- 1952. A wide range of educational literature relative to the problem was consulted. It was ascertained that in the United States schools seek to attain the democratic ideals through, (1) social-civic, economic, vocational and individualistic-avocational activities, (2) emphasis on the functional present and (3) training in how to think. The theories subscribed to by the greatest number of schools were that, (1) education should be concerned with adjustment of students to meet changing conditions, (2) truth is pragmatic, 3) students should be trained in a general education and a specific vocational pursuit, (4) each student should be regarded as a unique individual and (5) the fundamentals should be emphasized more than the other course offerings. In regard to the curriculum it was found that in the majority of the schools, (1) it is broad and varied to suit different needs and interests, (2) it is society-centered with due regard to children's interests and abilities, (3) offerings and method of presentation are largely organized into separate subjects especially in the senior high schools , (4) co-curricular activities are emphasized as indispensable requisites in the wholesome integration of the child, (5) the methods of classroom instruction are largely the recitation method and the resource unit method, (6) evaluation implies not mere testing of factual information, but also growth in attitudes, skills, mental processes, interests and so forth, (7) disciplinary problems are handled through self-analysis techniques and co-operation with the parents, (8) the administration seeks large cooperation with the staff in program and policy matters, (9) the pupils have some part in the determination of curriculum content, and (10) the administration seeks some pupil co-operation in program and policy matters. The findings indicated that in Cyprus secondary education is based on the principles that, (1) preparation for present and future life is achieved through a study of values and learning as established by the great thinkers of the past, (2) the function of the school should be to discipline its students to conform to and to acquire the values and learning of the past especially those of ancient Hellas and the Greek Orthodox Church, (3) a general education in the humanities and the sciences is indispensable for man's adaptation to life, and (4) the training of the body although important for intellectual development should be secondary to the mental development and be carried out on classical lines. In line with tm foregoing principles the majority of schools in Cyprus offer a rigid curriculum mostly of the academic type with very limited vocational offerings. The method of classroom instruction is largely the lecture method, offerings are organized into separate subjects and students have to conform to a strict disciplinary code. In view of the comparative study of the American and the Cyprus secondary education the following broad generalizations were formulated: 1. There should be equality of educational opportunities for every youth. 2. Values are both subjective and objective; they are not pragmatic. 3. A school should provide opportunities for individual and social integration but neither should be overemphasized at the expense of the other. 4. A general education should be the primary aim of the school with the provision of a vocational environment. 5. Close co-operation among the administration, the staff, the pupils and the community is essential in all aspects of the educational process. 6. The curriculum content should be presented in wholes not parts. 7. The school should have a varied extra-curricular program.
From the introduction: 'The more you know about the Olympics, the less it is about sport'. (Bob Perry, Design director of Olympic Projects at Scott Carver Pty. Ltd, http://www.infolink.com.au). The Olympic Games as a mega sports event attracts millions of people from all over the world. New records, fascinating performances, scandals or gigantic celebrations are just some of the attractions provided by this event. One attraction for urban planners is the fact that the Games imply opportunities to promote urban development. From an urban planning perspective, the Olympic Summer Games in Barcelona 1992 set a new standard in defining success of an event of this scale. The city used the Games to promote urban development and planning strategies, profiting from the event in a long-term perspective. Furthermore, the city took another opportunity to find again a place on the 'global map" through the Olympic Games. The case of Barcelona is one of the mostly cited successful urban development initiatives connected with a mega sports event. Olympic Cities have taken the opportunity to promote urban development with the event very differently in the history of the Olympics. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) as the event-owner sets some requirements giving only a few cities the right to stage the event. These requirements are checked in the bidding process ending with the decision which city succeeds in getting the right of staging the event. Integrating the success of an Olympic City in terms of urban development and in terms of the bidding process, the main question from an urban planning perspective is: What is the relevance of Urban Development in the Bidding Process for Olympic Games? To answer the definition of the city's success in terms of urban development and the Olympic Games bidding process, it is helpful to investigate the role of Olympic Infrastructure with a view towards urban sustainability. As such, it is believed that respecting specific planning principles in the bidding process can help to (1) ensure sustainable urban development and (2) enhance the quality of the bid. - The first aspect is relevant for the success of the city in terms of urban development to benefit from the Games in a long time perspective. - The second aspect is relevant for the city's success in the bidding process to acquire the right for staging the Games. The aim of this thesis is to examine how the quality of the bid may respond to principles of sustainable urban development. Two main objectives are identified to reach the aim: 1. Identifying opportunities and threats connected to Olympic Infrastructure in the history of the Olympics in order to formulate six main principles of sustainable urban development for the Olympic Games. 2. Analyzing official bidding documents of the IOC connected with these principles in order to understand how sustainable urban development can be considered in the bidding process. The thesis will conclude with recommendations which can be realized in the bidding process striving to ensure the defined success for the city. Abstract: This thesis is structured in four major parts. Part I consists of chapter 2 and 3 and includes the theoretical framework and methodology of the thesis. Chapter 2 describes the character of mega-events and mega sports events in specific. Based on a concept of sustainable urban development, it will place mega sports events in the context of such a development, forming a theoretical approach for the thesis. Chapter 3 presents the methodology used. Part II consists of chapter 4 and 5 and provides an overall understanding of the Olympic Games in the context of urban development. Chapter 4 gives an overview of the characteristics of the Olympic Games in order to understand the event and its background. Chapter 5 examines the relationship between urban development and the Olympic Games. A model will be presented in order to define 'Olympic Urban Development" for the following sections of the chapter. The chapter will then continue with an historical overview of Olympic Urban Development and present the decisions determining the scale of development. Finally, chapter 5 concludes with the summary of opportunities and threats identified in a literature review of the Olympic Games. The research questions of Part II can be defined as follows: - What are the significant characteristics of the Olympics in terms of mega-event factors? - How can Olympic Urban Development be defined and modelled? - Which are the opportunities and threats for the built, natural, economic and social environment related to Olympic Urban Infrastructure? An intermediate result re-structures the identified opportunities and threats putting them in connection with the concepts presented in the theoretical part. Chapter 6 will conclude with a definition of six principles of sustainable urban development for planning the Olympic Games. The research question leading to the intermediate result can be defined as follows: - Which kind of principles may respond to a sustainable Olympic Urban Development? The second part ends with Chapter 7 in which relevant IOC documents about sustainable urban development will be presented. Part III sets the bidding process in connection with sustainable urban development. Chapter 8 provides relevant information to understand the bidding process, its different phases and the selection procedure. Chapter 9 finally analyses the official bidding documents of the IOC for the defined principles of sustainable urban development. Summaries and recommendations will introduce the main findings for each principle and respond to three main research questions: - Which parts in the bidding documents deal with the principle? - How relevant is the principle in the evaluation of the bid? - Which strategies support the quality of the bid and contribute to meet the objectives of the principle? Part IV includes the conclusion of the thesis and summarizes the main findings of the analysis.Inhaltsverzeichnis:Table of Contents: Preface0 Index1 List of Figures and Tables4 1.INTRODUCTION5 1.1Aim and purpose of the thesis5 1.2Structure of the thesis6 PART I: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND METHODOLOGY 2.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK9 2.1Mega Events9 2.2Factors of mega-events11 2.3Mega Sports Events12 2.3.1Phases of Mega Sports Events13 2.3.2Bidding14 2.3.3Impacts of Mega Sports Events14 2.4Physical Impact: Mega sports event Infrastructure18 2.5Sustainable Urban Development20 2.6Sustainable Urban Development in the context of a mega sports event22 2.7Definitions and Limitations23 3.METHODOLOGY25 PART II: UNDERSTANDING THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN THE CONTEXT OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT 4.Olympic Games Characteristics29 4.1History of the Olympic Games29 4.2The Olympic Movement30 4.3Olympic Games Factors31 4.4Olympic Games Phases35 5.Olympic Urban Development37 5.1Definition37 5.1.1Olympic Infrastructure38 5.1.2Urban Infrastructure38 5.1.3Modelling an Olympic City40 5.2History of Olympic Urban Development42 5.3Decisions determining Olympic Urban Development47 5.3.1Local distribution of Olympic Infrastructure48 5.3.2Funding Model50 5.3.3Expenditure on Olympic Infrastructure51 5.3.4Use of existing Olympic Infrastructure53 5.4Opportunities and Threats54 5.4.1Built environment54 5.4.2Natural Environment57 5.4.3Economic Environment60 5.4.4Social Environment61 5.4.5Summary64 6.Intermediate Result: Defining Principles of Sustainable Urban Development for Planning Olympic Infrastructure66 6.1Principles66 6.2Objectives68 7.Relevant IOC Documents on Sustainable Urban Development70 7.1Olympic Charter70 7.2Olympic Agenda 2170 7.3IOC Manual on Sports and the Environment72 7.4Olympic Games Study Commission73 PART III: THE BIDDING PROCESS IN THE CONTEXT OF SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT 8.Olympic Games Bidding Process74 8.1History of the Olympic Games Bidding Process74 8.2The process78 8.2.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (CAP)78 8.2.2Evaluation of the Working Group Report79 8.2.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure83 8.3Selection of the Host City85 8.3.1Election Procedure85 8.3.2Decision Making in the Electing Procedure for a host city86 8.4Summary88 9.Analysing Principles of Sustainable Urban Development in the Bidding Process90 9.1Principle 1: Integrate Olympic Infrastructure in urban development plans92 9.1.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure92 9.1.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report92 9.1.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure94 9.1.4Summary95 9.1.5Recommendations96 9.2Principle 2: Ensure Post-Event Use for Olympic Infrastructure97 9.2.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure97 9.2.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report98 9.2.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure99 9.2.4Summary100 9.2.5Recommendations101 9.3Principle 3: Maximise the use of existing infrastructure by respecting the city's budget104 9.3.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure104 9.3.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report105 9.3.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure107 9.3.4Summary107 9.3.5Recommendations108 9.4Principle 4: Ensure environmental standards for Olympic Infrastructure and accessibility to environmental goods109 9.4.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure109 9.4.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report109 9.4.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure111 9.4.4Summary112 9.4.5Recommendations113 9.5Principle 5: Integration of citizens in the planning process of Olympic Infrastructure114 9.5.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure114 9.5.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report114 9.5.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure115 9.5.4Summary116 9.5.5Recommendations117 9.6Principle 6: Stimulate improvement of Urban Infrastructure through Olympic Infrastructure118 9.6.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure118 9.6.2Evaluation in the Working Group Report119 9.6.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure120 9.6.4Summary121 9.6.5Recommendations122 PART IV: CONCLUSION126 10.Conclusion126 10.1Conclusion of the analysis126 10.1.1Relevance of Sustainable Urban Development in the Bidding Process126 10.1.2How to respond to principles of sustainable urban development in the bid127 10.2General Conclusions130 10.2.1The interest of the IOC in Sustainable Urban Development130 10.2.2The real winner of a bidding process130 10.2.3Outlook on the future of the Games131 11.Appendix133 11.1References133 11.2Abbreviations137 11.3Extracts from Bidding Documents138 11.3.1Phase 1: Candidature Acceptance Procedure (CAP)138 11.3.2Evaluation: Working Group Report140 11.3.3Phase 2: Candidature Procedure142Textprobe:Text Sample: Chapter 5.4, Opportunities and Threats: This section study provides a discussion on opportunities and threats related to Olympic Infrastructure. Potential effects are presented and ordered according to the different environments of a city (section 2.4). The IOC officially uses the term 'Legacy' for potential post-event effects preferably underlining positive ones. The sources used in this literature review (Cashman, 2002; Essex Chalkley, 2003; Furrer, 2002; Matos, 2006; Liao Pitts, 2006; Preuss, 2006; Centre On Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE), 2007; Ward, 2007; WWF, 2004) reflect the potential effects of the Olympics critically from different perspectives (researchers, NGOs, IOC related person). If applicable, the opportunities and threats are illustrated with examples. A summary is given in the end of this section as a basis for developing principles of sustainable urban development. As the potential effects have a multidimensional character, two selection criteria limit their number: - Time: The potential effect might occur at any period of the event but must have a relevance for the city in a long-time perspective. - Space: The potential effect might occur at a micro (e.g. dislocation) or macro (e.g. polycentric development) level but is relevant mainly for a city (not a region or nation). 5.4.1, Built environment: - Boost for urban development projects and urban renewal. Locational decision on Olympic Infrastructure opens the opportunity for a city to boost its urban development projects in favour of the city. There is a chance to connect a city's urban development strategy with Olympic Infrastructure projects. History of the Olympics shows that cities have dealt very differently with this opportunity (see section 4.1). Some have used the Olympics to reinvent the city while others have concentrated solely on the successful organization of the event itself. In many cases, Olympic Infrastructure is also used to trigger massive urban regeneration projects and the idea to create new centralities within the city. Development corridors can be focused through Olympic Infrastructure and stimulate urban development nearby. Strategic positioning of Olympic Infrastructure in specific urban areas may contribute to a polycentric development. This is especially true for the positioning of key Olympic Infrastructure represented by the Olympic Main Stadium, the main indoor halls and the aquatic centre. Barcelona 1992 is probably the most successful Olympics regarded to large-scale urban development. Urban planners of the city saw the Olympic Games as an useful instrument to achieve the objectives of development plans which had been the improvement of transport system, creation of new facilities, definition of central space and balancing the city. The initial authorized to make the first draft of the Olympic from an urban perspective was part of the Olympic Bidding Team and later entered into the Organizing Committee. The changes of the entire urban fabric connected to Olympic Infrastructure based on what was already existing in Barcelona became a best practice in terms of mega-event related urban development. - Changes of Urban Development plans in favour of the event/bid. Potential changes of existing urban development plans can occur in the preparation phase of the event due to tight time constraints. To speed up land acquisition for Olympic Infrastructure some cities approve special legislative acts and give power to Organizing Committees. Special building permits are created in the area where Olympic Infrastructure has to be built and can contribute to long-lasting procedural changes in the city. A special law for the Athens 2004 Games recognized the strategic significance of the Olympic Games to the evolution of the metropolitan area. The location of Olympic Infrastructure was determined as to be in accordance with the regional, environmental and urban development guidelines of the master plan of Athens. Through this legislation and the installation of special agencies it was possible to accelerate permits of Olympic Works. - Modernization and Upgrading of existing facilities. In terms of existing infrastructure, the Olympics bring the opportunity to upgrade and modernize sports facilities. This may also decrease financial risk. The main Olympic Stadium as the centrepiece of Olympic Infrastructure relies traditionally on public funding. Some Olympic Cities have strived to use existing facilities or refurbished ones for this major infrastructure project. Naturally, development of sports facilities had to be faced by almost all Olympic cities. Moscow 1980 and Barcelona 1992 used mainly existing sports facilities and refurbished existing Stadiums to Main Olympic Stadiums. Los Angeles 1984 used existing facilities to a large extent. - Unused large-scale facilities. The history of the Olympic Games shows that many Olympic sports facilities received poor post-Games usage. International Olympic Sports Federations have often pushed host cities to provide over-ambitious state-of-the-art facilities which are not in line with the local popularity of the sport. Furthermore, local agendas have often pushed for grandiose landmark legacies to be built in order to showcase the local economy and engineering ability. These objects might be designed over-sized and turn in a post-event period to 'White elephants'. They may neither integrate a long-term urban planning policy nor relate to the population's need for leisure and culture facilities. It is sometimes difficult to convince leading teams in specific sports to move their home ground to new Olympic Infrastructures. Another problem in this respect is the difficulty to attract large crowds to newly developed parts of the city away from trying to opportunity the citizens habits. The Olympic stadium of Sydney 2000 generated continuing losses at A$38 million/year six years after the event. The competition for sports events with other stadia in Sydney caused limited booking and shows the lack of post-use planning. 'Sydney Jurassic Park' is a symbolic expression used by criticizers of the post-use of Sydney Olympic Park. - Increase of Housing stock through Olympic Village. The Olympic Village is often located close to the sports facilities and represents the accommodation for the Olympic Family. It is an essential part of Olympic Infrastructure and has to be addressed by every hosting city. In many cases, Olympic Villages become residential areas for local people or halls of residences for a local university or college after the Games. Thus, an Olympic Village is a chance to increase the city's housing stock and provide facilities for alternative uses in a post-event period. 'In Barcelona and Sydney the former Olympic Villages now provide a mixture of housing that contributes to the cities' housing stock and adds a valuable source of revenue to cover Games-related expenditure'. - Improvement of transport infrastructure. As we have seen in the previous chapter, Olympic Infrastructure induces also the upgrade of the city's transport infrastructure. For an effective transport of athletes, spectators and officials during the event many host cities tend to expand their transport system Investment of previous Olympic Cities is often focused especially on underground or light rail system. Recent Olympic Cities (Athens and Beijing) invest in tram and overhead urban rail system due to high costs and implementation difficulties of underground transport. This may contribute to a better infrastructure for citizens and decreases traffic pressure in inner city and congestion. Asian Olympic Cities have strongly linked the Games to transport infrastructure. Between 1957 and 1964 Tokyo established 73 km underground, 13.2 km monorail and 500 km Shinkansen connecting Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka. Seoul added 157.1 km to the length of its underground network from 1978 to 1993 for the preparation of the Games. Finally, Beijing extended its light rail length by 87.1 km before 2008. A strong reliance to public transport can be observed in Seoul and Tokyo through this investment related to Olympic Infrastructure. - Development of other Infrastructure. Furthermore, development of Olympic Infrastructure can be a driver for additional infrastructural improvements in the city, affecting the entire urban fabric. A basic infrastructure is needed serving Olympic facilities. Many cities have used the event as a catalyst to induce such investment and bring other infrastructure to a higher level appropriate for international visitors. Such investments can enhance the Quality of life for citizens, tourists and attract inward investment. Tokyo included the improvement of water supply system, higher public health standards for refuse collection, street cleaning, public toilets and three sewage disposal plants. Barcelona, Atlanta and Sydney invested in telecommunication systems through the staging of the event. Cultural and research facilities (Olympic Studies Centre, Olympic Museum) close to Olympic Infrastructure supporting the Olympic Cultural Programme were realized in many Olympic Cities. - Destruction of cultural heritage. There is a potential risk that Olympic Infrastructure may affect the cultural heritage of a city negatively. The potential risk seems to be higher for Olympic Cities approaching development in the inner city. Consequently, disregarding the laws may lead to the destruction of culturally built environment and displacement of residents. Infrastructure development for the Games of Beijing 2008 negatively affected the cultural heritage of the city. Demolition in Beijing was an ongoing process in the whole city, especially threatening the old 'hutong' and 'siheyuan' areas. According to reports of COHRE the violation of Cultural Heritage Protection laws and regulations effected both irreparably damaged cultural heritage and also violated residents' rights to adequate housing.
La presente ricerca si è proposta di evidenziare le strategie di integrazione ovvero le pratiche di cittadinanza adottate in favore di un particolare segmento dei fenomeni migratori internazionali attuali: quello dei minori stranieri che soli varcano le frontiere del nostro paese alla ricerca di generiche migliori condizioni di vita. La conoscenza del loro patrimonio culturale e l'analisi delle procedure di accoglienza e di integrazione adottate nelle società di accoglienza, rappresentano una sfida stimolante nella prospettiva della disciplina antropologica, da sempre considerata la scienza 'dell'altro' e della 'differenza culturale' (Callari Galli, 2005). In generale, l'importanza di tale studio è resa evidente certamente dai numeri sempre più consistenti di minori stranieri non accompagnati presenti nel nostro paese, ma ancor più dalla necessità di ridefinire le strategie dell'integrazione sociale complessive se non si vuole alimentare quella che già dagli anni 70 è stata definita da alcuni criminologi come una "una bomba sociale a scoppio ritardato" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31); tanto è la posta in gioco. Sebbene la letteratura sulle seconde generazioni e in particolare quella sui minori stranieri non accompagnati sia ormai cospicua tanto in Italia quanto a livello internazionale, mancano ancora monografie antropologiche su singole nazionalità immigrate soprattutto che siano capaci di accedere, investigare ed indagare il controverso universo emozionale dei minori. La presente ricerca nasce dall'esigenza di colmare questo gap esperienziale assumendo come protagonisti una frangia specifica della categoria minorile: i giovani di origine marocchina che si innescano su uno specifico segmento delle attuali tratte migratorie transnazionali, l'asse Khourigba – Roma. In accordo con le recenti acquisizioni degli studi antropologici (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) si è ritenuto inoltre opportuno procedere con uno studio multisituato capace di ricomprendere al suo interno i due aspetti del binomio migratorio: il contesto di partenza e quello di arrivo dei giovani migranti. "Prima di diventare un immigrato, il migrante è sempre innanzitutto un emigrato" scrive il sociologo algerino Abdelmalek Sayad (2002) intendendo con tale affermazione che emigrazione ed immigrazione sono due facce della stessa realtà. Uno studio dei fenomeni migratori cioè dimentico delle condizioni di origine si condanna ad offrire degli stessi solo una versione parziale e connotata etnocentricamente. L'etnografia, iniziata nel 2006 e terminata nel 2008, è stata quindi integrata da due viaggi in Marocco con l'intenzione appunto di cogliere quella parte di vissuto fatto anche di suoni, colori, immagini altrimenti non "accessibile" e non "trasmissibile" nel solo contesto di accoglienza. Chiaramente si è fatto largo uso di metodologie qualitative (osservazione partecipante, focus group, interviste in profondità) in quanto maggiormente adatte ad indagare in profondità le complesse dinamiche caratterizzanti i vissuti esperienziali; a cogliere le sfumature di contesto e di restituire per queste stesse ragioni un quadro vivo e frastagliato fuori da logiche pre- costituite. La restituzione delle testimonianze raccolte - grazie a un capillare lavoro di conoscenza della realtà romana dell'immigrazione e a un 'patto' etnografico molto forte intrattenuto con i giovani testimoni nonché con gli operatori che in molte occasioni se ne fanno carico - fa risaltare gli aspetti non solo politico-culturali della questione, ma anche l'intreccio di emotività e fragilità che si cela al centro della loro condizione di minori non accompagnati. La particolare condizione di vulnerabilità di cui sono vittima deriva certamente da una condizione giuridica fortemente "incerta", ma anche dal doppio ruolo sociale che il minore straniero non accompagnato assume su di sé: come "minore" è soggetto di un tradizionale percorso pedagogico, come "straniero" è un pericolo per l'ordine pubblico. La tutela "naturale" viene in questo modo costantemente infranta o finisce per dissolversi in uno spazio che non può essere indirizzato o controllato su logiche o prassi proprie dell'ordine nazionale. Soggetto "anomalo" e "sovversivo"quindi, il minore straniero non accompagnato, spesso relegato negli ambiti bui e marginali delle metropoli odierne, con la sua stessa presenza pone seri interrogativi rispetto alla capacità della nostre società di accoglienza di produrre coesione sociale e di riformulare le regole del gioco di un sistema che sia realmente inclusivo delle parti. Adolescenti (e) immigrati la cui vita si svolge su rotte transnazionali. Il loro percorso è intessuto di piccole casualità - incontri, parole, piccoli gesti - che ne determinano l'intrigo. Sono storie fatte di alternanza di successi e sbandamenti, integrazione e devianza, intreccio di trame che si snodano sul confine tra ciò che è lecito e ciò che non lo è. Minori al "bivio", dunque, qualcuno dice, "tra integrazione e rimpatrio". Questi giovani, figli di una diaspora migratoria che ha tessuto legami sociali internazionali in vari continenti, tendono a pensarsi come cittadini del mondo e possono immaginare il loro futuro in Italia, nel paese d'origine, così come in un altro luogo, conoscono la fatica dell'adattamento, e stanno imparando a gestirlo; sanno che la loro "differenza", le loro conoscenze di un'altra lingua, cultura e religione, il loro aspetto, le loro esperienze non sempre facili di socializzazione, potranno rivelarsi un limite o una risorsa. E' questa nuova consapevolezza che si sta faticosamente facendo strada oggi tra le coscienze a far sperare oggi in un destino per loro diverso da quello vissuto dai loro coetanei delle banlieues francesi o delle inner cities britanniche, dove l'essere cresciuti in quartieri in cui problemi sociali e esistenziali simili tendono a sovrapporsi, ha portato molti giovani a sentirsi collettivamente parte di una generazione tradita e sacrificata, maturando così rancore sociale e desiderio di imporsi, attraverso un'identità fiera o desiderosa di ricreare una sua purezza. La scommessa di una integrazione sociale riuscita per i giovani stranieri cresciuti nel nostro paese, ma ancora più per i minori stranieri non accompagnati, si gioca essenzialmente quindi nelle reti dell'assistenza sociale e quindi nella scuola. Tale scelta pur essendo molto lontana dal conseguimento degli obiettivi economici, e quindi dall'ottemperamento del mandato migratorio, consente di rivendicare principi e ragioni di "somiglianza – uguaglianza" con i compagni di scuola autoctoni; confronto prima pressoché impossibile data la clandestinità cui sono di sovente costretti i minori stranieri non accompagnati e la peculiarità del tipo di lavoro svolto dai marocchini, quello ambulante, per sua natura itinerante e fortemente stigmatizzato dall'opinione comune. Nonostante le evidenti lacerazioni che questa scelta comporta in termini di: rottura con vecchi schemi di comportamento; ridefinizione dei ruoli all'interno della famiglia, nell'ambito societario di arrivo, così come in quello di appartenenza; riapporpiazione della propria identità, questa strada sembra a tutt'oggi l'unica in grado di preservare questi giovani migranti o di stornarli dal destino di devianza e marginalità che spesso si apre loro come scelta obbligata. La ricerca consta di due parti: la prima rende conto della letteratura in materia di seconde generazioni e la seconda restituisce i risultati dell'etnografia. In particolare il primo capitolo affronta i termini generali della questione con l'intenzione di chiarire i diversi misunderstanding che costellano il dibattito in materia di immigrazione attraverso una lettura critica della letteratura nazionale e internazionale. Il secondo e il terzo capitolo si occupano rispettivamente della normativa europea e italiana. Quanto al primo contesto sono evidenziate le diverse pratiche adottate in materia di ingresso dei minori stranieri non accompagnati all'interno dei confini di alcuni Paesi membri di vecchia e nuova immigrazione (Francia, Inghilterra, Germania, Belgio e Spagna) e posti in luce i gaps presenti così come le falle del sistema; quanto al contesto italiano, si mettono in rilievo le criticità che gli apparati giuridici presentano rispetto a una realtà concreta del fenomeno caratterizzata, come è ovvio, da straordinaria fluttuanza e informalità. Il quarto capitolo è stato dedicato alla scuola in quanto considerata la vera fucina del cambiamento sociale per la sua capacità di rappresentare l'occasione primaria di formazione linguistica, di costruzione di reti interne al Paese di accoglienza, di apprendimento di concetti e modalità didattiche ad esso omogenee; un paragrafo a parte è stato riservato all'inserimento lavorativo essendo questo il principale movente della migrazione di questi giovani. Infine il quinto capitolo si è prefisso di indagare il contesto di provenienza dei minori intervistati, il Marocco, ricostruendo l'eredità del passato coloniale, le scelte economiche del Marocco Indipendente, i fattori di push and pull dietro i flussi migratori di ieri e di oggi. Il quadro finale ha permesso di sondare la salute del sistema. Riconoscere diritto di parola e di ascolto dell'infanzia e dell'adolescenza ha significato fare un passo importante in avanti nella comprensione della loro soggettività, consentendo di fare emergere tutti quegli aspetti di conformità, progressivo adattamento ovvero di riottosità rispetto tanto alla propria comunità di appartenenza quanto alla società di arrivo. Considerare i minori come "soggetti di diritto" ha significato in altre parole ripensare sotto un altro punto di vista l'organizzazione e le strutture profonde che quella società regolano con il merito di porre in luce aspetti e problemi inediti, frizioni interne al gruppo normalmente sfuggevoli e molto riposte ed elementi di scarto rispetto a un modello omogeneo e granitico di una data cultura. Occorre sobriamente riconoscere che non si danno più né immigrati né emigrati, ma "pari" cittadini (o spiranti tali) che tessono relazioni effettivamente ed affettivamente collegate in un unico destino interdipendente. La consapevolezza di questo richiede competenza, intelligenza, impegno e determinazione nelle scelte operative da intraprendere; l'altra faccia della medaglia è solo devianza ed emarginazione. ; The following research is aimed to underline the strategies of integration and the practices of citizenship utilized in favor of a particular segment of the actual international migratory phenomenon: the one about foreign minors who alone pass the borders of our country to search for better conditions of life. The knowledge of their cultural background and the analysis of the procedures of the ways in which one is welcomed and the integration adopted by the receiving countries represent a stimulating challenge from the anthropological perspective, always considered the science of "cultural differences" (Callari Galli, 2005). The importance of this study is obviously given forth by the increasing numbers of "separated" minors in our country, but moreover by the necessity to re-define the strategies of social integration tout court if we don't want to feed what has, since 1970, been defined by some criminologists as a real "time bomb" (Bovenkerk 1973, cit. in Barbagli 2002, p. 31). Although nowadays both of the international and Italian literature, about the second generation and in particular those that talk of separated minors are conspicuous, we are still missing anthropological monographs on single nationalities of immigrants able to access, investigate and inquire into the complex emotional world of these minors. The following research was born from the necessity to fill in this experiential gap assuming as its subject a specific part of the category of minors: youth of Moroccan origin that are situated on a particular segment of the transnational migratory trades, the axis Khourigba- Rome. According to the recent anthropological acquisition (Persichetti, 2003; Riccio; 2007; Capello, 2008) it became appropriate to proceed with a multi-situated study able to embrace both of the aspects of the migrants lives: the context of origin and the context of arrival of the young migrants. "Before becoming an immigrant, the migrant is always an emigrant" wrote the Algerian sociologist Abdelmalek Sayad (2002), intending by this affirmation that immigration and emigration are both faces of the same reality. A study of the migrant phenomenon that forgets or leaves behind the condition of origin of immigrants people is condemned to offer only a partial and ethnocentric version of this phenomenon. The ethnography, started in 2006 and finished in 2008, has been integrated by two journeys in Morocco with the purpose to investigate those part of lives – made principally also by sounds, colors and images - not "accessible" and "communicable" in the receiving countries. Clearly the research has required a large use of qualitative methodologies (participant observation, focus group, interview in depth, etc) because of their characteristic to be more adapted to investigate the complex dynamics typical of the lived experience; to catch the shades of content and to give back, for these same reasons, a lively and unusual picture out of rules and schemes prior established. The feedback from the gathered stories – by a meticulous work which consisted in the knowledge of the Roman immigrants reality and a strong ethnographical "pact" with the minors on one hand and the social operators on the other – has brought to light not only the political and cultural aspects of the phenomenon, but moreover the tangle of sensitiveness and fragility hidden behind their condition of separated minors. The particular condition of vulnerability of which they are victims firstly came from an "uncertain" juridical condition, but more so by the double rule that the separated minor assumes on himself: as a "minor" he is subject to a traditional pedagogic approach and as a "stranger" he is considered dangerous to the public order. The natural guardianship which they should enjoy is continuously breached and threatened and dissolves in vague promises and empty rituals. Separated minors are "anomalous" and "subversive" subjects who too often are relegated to the dark and marginal spheres of the actual metropolis. Furthermore, their own presence, even if it is made invisible by the viewpoint of the system, impose serious and urgent questions to contemporary society; in respect of our capacity to produce social cohesion and re-formulate the rules of a game which has to be really inclusive in all its parts. It compromises the global issues of our society. Adolescents (and) immigrants who are living their lives on transnational routes. Their course is woven together by many little causalities - encounters, words and simple gestures that determine its outcome. These are stories made up of alternations of successes and disbandment, integration and deviance, a tangle of plots that lie on the border of what is licit and what is not. Minors on a "crossroad", some say, between "integration and repatriation". These young, son of numerous migratory diasporas that have banded together into international social links in many continents, tend to think themselves as citizens of the world and are able to imagine their future in Italy, in their own country or everywhere. They have lived the fatigue of adaptation and are learning to manage it. They know that their "difference" - the knowledge of another tongue, culture, religion, their physical appearance, their experiences of socialization, not always so simple and immediate - can be either a limit or a resource. Is this new consciousness - that nowadays is hardly rousing our consciences - to leave us the hope in a different destiny from that lived by their residing in the French banlieues or in Britain's inner cities. These communities, where to be brought up in districts in which social and existential problems tend to overlap, has brought many young persons to feel part of a generation betrayed and sacrificed and to foster social resentment and wishes of revenge through an identity that is proud and intent on recreating its original purity. The bet of a successful social integration for the young people growing up in our country, but moreover for the separated minors, is played on the circuits of social assistance and then on the capacity of school to create cohesion as an agency of socialization. This choice, though it is really far away from the fulfillment of their economic objectives and then from the attainment of the migratory cause, allows them to claim principles and reasons of " similarity – equality" with their coetaneous friends of school. This is a kind of comparison that was impossible before because of the irregular condition to which separated minors are often obliged and the peculiar characteristics of the type of job done by Moroccan people, usually pitchmen, from its nature an itinerant job hardly stigmatized by common opinion. Although the evident lacerations that this choice implies in terms of breaking old schemes of behaviours; redefinition of rules in the family, in the society of arrival (as well as in the society of origin); re-appropriation of one's own identity; this road appears uniquely to be able to preserve these young migrants from the solitude of a destiny otherwise made up of deviance and marginality. The research consists of two parts: the first one proposes a general framework about second generation literature and the second one provides the results of the ethnography. In particular, the first chapter copes with these questions in general terms with the intent to clarify the different misunderstandings in the debate about immigration, through a critical reading of national and international literature. The second and third chapters talk respectively of the European laws concerning separated minors and the Italian ones. In regard to the first context, it underlines the different practices adopted about the entry of separated minors in the territories of several old and new European immigration countries (such as France, Britain, Germany, Belgium and Spain) and point out the gaps and problems of these systems. As regards the Italian context, instead, emphasize is put on the critical points of the actual juridical systems in respect to a reality of the phenomenon characterized, as obviously it is, by remarkable unbalance and changeability. The fourth chapter has been dedicated to the school because it is considered the real forge of the social changing in its capacity to represent the primary occasion of: linguistic training, constructing of intern links in the receiving countries, learning of concepts and didactic modalities homogenous to it. A specific paragraph has been reserved to the introduction to the working environment because it is the main reason of the migration of these young people. The fifth chapter is aimed to investigate the context of provenience of minors interviewed, the Moroccan Country, reconstructing the heredity of the colonial past, the economic choices of the Independent Morocco, and the factors of push and pull behind the migratory flows of yesterday and today. The final picture is used to verify the health of the system. Recognizing the right of "speech" and "listening" to infancy and adolescence has meant to make an important step forward in the knowledge of their individuality, making arise all aspects of conformity and progressive adaptation or, on the contrary, their rebelliousness to their own culture as well as to the receiving society. In other worlds, considering minors "subjects of right" has meant rethinking the organization and obscure structures that manage the same societies in which they live, with the merit to point out aspects and elements of forsaking respect to a homogenous and given model of a culture. Nowadays more than ever it is necessary to admit that there are no more immigrants or emigrants, but "equal" citizens (or aspirant ones) who weave together elements of every type in a unique interdependent destiny. The consciousness of this claim calls for competence, intelligence, dedication and determination in the choice to engage; the rest is made by deviance, frustration, marginalization. ; Dottorato di ricerca in Tutela e Promozione dei Diritti dell'Infanzia (XXII ciclo)
Dear readers, authors and reviewers,As usual in RESI's issues, vol. 9, n. 2, brings papers from authors from many different institutions. This time, the authors of the ten papers come from eleven different universities. This provides clear evidence of the journal's spread of reach and capilarity. What calls the attention now is the fact that three of the papers were submitted in English, although there are Latin Americans among their authors. There are at least five other papers going through the review process right now that were also written in English in spite of their authors being native speakers of Portuguese or Spanish, which increases or perception that there is a trend towards that.RESI's editors consider this a very positive movement, because it increases the visibility of the journal among a broader audience. The fact that RESI pioneered the adoption of DOAJ, now the leading indexer of open access academic journals in the world, and that it started using DOI to identify its issues and papers prior to most other Latin American journals demonstrate our concern in providing more visibility to the research that is carried out in Latin America. Of course, publishing papers in English will make that effort more effective. RESI intends to become a connection hub between our scientific community and that of the Norther Hemisphere. Therefore, papers in English will always be very welcome.In spite of that, we would like to stress our commitment with the publication of sound research developed in Portugues or Spanish, because that is essential for the integration of ibero-american researchers, something which still needs a lot of promotion. We should also highlight that issues involving information systems many times have a relevant cultural component that needs to be addresses by researchers that are familiarized with local realities and generate results that can be discussed with local authorities and society in general. And that is, surely, easier to do using the national language of those concerned. We shouldn't be happy to only import technologies that were developed in "the developed world" (no matter what that means!) adapting them to our local problems without a thorough reflection on their capacity, or even usefulness, in solving them.Therefore, at the same time we celebrate the interest and the courage of our authors to try and express themselves in a foreign language, in order to increase the visibility of their work, we will always be open to papers written by authors in their native language, if we have the technical conditions to review it properly, which currently only happens to Portuguese, Spanish and English. After all, an electronic journal such as RESI can provide international visibility for those who seek it, while also creating a democratic environment for the discussion of local issues with those who have a particular interest on it, which may be less effective if not done in the national language of the stakeholders.Having this reflection been made, we invite our authors, reviewers and readers to keep this "caotic" diversity of languages, perspectives and ideologies which have always characterized the University and now call attention to the papers that comprise this issue, which will be briefly presented in the next few paragraphs:The first paper, "Information systems graduate education and research in Brazil", written by Renata Mendes de Araujo and Márcio de Oliveira Barros, opens this issue with an important issue to all of those involved with graduate education in the Information Systems' field, which is the way we are forming the next generations of researchers in our maters and doctorate programs. In this paper, the authors report their experience in consolidating their graduate school at Unirio. The paper is addressed to researchers that deal with IS from an informatics perspective, but could also interest those who see IS from a managerial perspective.Lisiane Barea Sandi and Amarolinda Zanela Saccol show their concern with the way our society is assimilating new technologies, highlighting the fact that, in spite of the obvious benefits, there are also reasons for concern. In " Information overload due to the adoption of mobile and wireless information technologies and its consequences to sales professionals" the authors use an exploratory survey with 75 sales professionals, trying to analize the impacts of mobile telephony on their quality of life."The influence of managerial work determinants on the perception of fitness between technology and task: an exploratory study" is the work developed by Débora Bobsin, Monize Sâmara Visentini and Mauri Leodir Löbler, where they try to contribute to the understanding of information systems as tools to support the activities that are expected to be carried out by managers in organizations. The authors conclude that the more experience managers have with information systems, the more they consider that technology can affect his/her tasks. Also, the more access a user has to a system, the more he/she perceives the fit between technology and task.In "Motivation to create free and open source projects and how decisions impact success", Carlos Denner Santos Jr. and Kay M. Nelson propose a theoretical model that helps assess the reasons that lead an organization to get involved in open software development projects, so that, in the future, such projects can have their success evaluated in a more objetive way. This is an interesting complement to another paper the first author had published at Revista de Administração de Empresas, v. 50, n. 4, late in 2010.In "Engagement or friendship? The perspective of customers and suppliers about business relationships in the software sector", Rita de Cássia de Faria Pereira, Carlo Gabriel Porto Bellini and Fernando Bins Luce use a very original approach (interviews of pairs of customers-suppliers in the software industry – 14 dyads) to analyze issues concerning their relationships (commitment, trust, adaptation, cooperation, and communication) and contextual factors that may amplify or moderate those attributes (uncertainty, interdependence, and the existence of alternative suppliers).Edimara Mezzomo Luciano, Leandro Pilatti, Maurício Gregianin Testa and Ionara Rech deal with the use of COBIT framework to improving management processes of outsourced activities for both involved companies. The paper's title is " Applicability of COBIT in managing outsourced information technology activities: an investigation based on two multinational companies".Perceiving the influence of information technologies on the way companies organize themselves and coordinate their activities with those of customers and suppliers, Dayane Mayely Silva de Oliveira and Max Fortunato Cohen (UFA), carried out a literature review and mapped 21 technologies that facilitate the integration of production processes and emphasize the collaboration among autonomous organizations. This is reported in: "IT use along the supply chain in conjunction with the major management collaboration techniques".Problems involving information security increase as companies integrate their processes and systems to those of their business partners by means of computer networks. Concerned with that, Alexandre dos Santos Roque, Raul Ceretta Nunes and Alexandre Dias da Silva developed, in their paper "Proposition of a dynamic model for managing security information on industrial environments", a dynamic model for information security management, in which interaction, cooperation and motivation (of upper-management, supervisors and workers) are emphasized in order to meet the new demands of information security management: responsibility, trust and ethics.In an environment of activity/process integration of organizations and their business partners and huge information flow among the interested partiesas discussed in a previous paper in this issue (see Oliveira and Cohen), it becomes essential to adopt information security policies to make sure that information is always available to those who need it and do not fall in wrong hands. Leonardo Guerreiro Azevedo, Diego Alexandre Aranha Duarte, Fernanda Baião and Claudia Cappelli developed a set of criteria and a method to assess tools for management and execution of authorization rules for the access and use of information systems, applying them to a real situation at Petrobrás, one of the leading oil companies in the world, which they discuss in "Evaluating tools for execution and management of authorization business rules".Finally, the paper "Requirements and wished features for software testing tools: a study based on the use of SQFD", authored by Ismayle Sousa Santos, Rodolfo S. Ferreira de Resende, Pedro Alcântara Santos Neto and Clarindo Isaias P. da Silva e Padua presents the adaptation of QFD (Quality Function Deployment), a Quality technique developed originally for industrial products, to sortware development. By means of intelligent argumentation and detailing of all necessary steps for implementing the methodology, the authors make it easy for the reader to understand its possible use in the new field and contribute for its dissimination among the software developers. I wope you all have fun reading the papers in this issue!Alexandre R. GraemlEditor ; Prezados leitores, autores e revisores,O volume 9, número 2, como tem sido usual nas edições da RESI desde a sua fundação em 2002, é marcado pela diversidade geográfica dos seus autores. Desta vez, há onze instituições representadas entre os autores dos dez artigos publicados. Isto evidencia a abrangência e capilaridade deste periódico, agora com a contribuição de autores de seis estados brasileiros: Amazonas, Minas Gerais, Piauí, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande do Sul e São Paulo, além de um norte-americano, do estado de Illinois, nos Estados Unidos. Mas o que chama mais atenção, e talvez já demonstre a preocupação dos autores brasileiros e latino-americanos em aumentar a visibilidade internacional da sua produção, é que três dos dez artigos ora publicados foram submetidos à revista em inglês. Há pelo menos outros cinco artigos de autores de língua espanhola ou português em análise no momento, para eventual publicação em edições posteriores da revista, o que reforça a percepção de que existe uma tendência nessa direção.Os editores da RESI consideram essa iniciativa louvável. O fato de a RESI ser o periódico brasileiro há mais tempo no DOAJ, o principal indexador de revistas de acesso livre no mundo, e de dispor de DOI para todos os artigos publicados nos últimos anos, individualmente, demonstra a nossa preocupação em dar visibilidade à pesquisa realizada na América Latina e para que isso ocorra mais eficazmente devemos começar a explorar mais o idioma inglês, não só no abstract, como sempre foi feito, mas também no corpo dos nossos trabalhos, sempre que possível. O esforço de internacionalização da revista, que pretende ser o principal fórum de discussões da área na América Latina, mas também um meio de conexão da nossa comunidade científica com os pesquisadores do Hemisfério Norte, deve ir nessa direção. Por isso, são muito bem vindos os manuscritos em inglês.Apesar disso, gostaríamos de reforçar nosso comprometimento com a publicação de bons textos em português ou espanhol, porque eles são essenciais para a maior integração dos pesquisadores ibero-americanos, que ainda precisa ser muito fomentada. É importante lembrar que as temáticas de sistemas de informação estão (e em alguns casos deveríam ser ainda mais!) relacionadas a questões culturais que precisam ser exploradas na pesquisa de autores que estejam familiarizados com as realidades locais envolvidas e gerar resultados de pesquisa que possam ser discutidas com agentes governamentais e a comunidade local, algo que, seguramente, ocorre de forma facilitada no idioma nacional. Não basta importarmos tecnologias dos "países mais desenvolvidos" (o que quer que isso signifique!) adaptando-nos a elas sem uma reflexão sobre sua capacidade, ou mesmo utilidade, na solução dos nossos problemas, considerando que foram desenvolvidas em outro contexo e, possivelmente, para outros fins.Por isso, ao mesmo tempo que festejamos o interesse (e a coragem!) dos nossos autores de se utilizarem de idioma estrangeiro para tornar sua pesquisa mais visível no exterior, em uma atitude nítidamente expansionista, também queremos deixar claro que a RESI sempre estará aberta e acolherá com carinho os trabalhos escritos no idioma original do seu autor, desde que tenhamos condições técnicas de avaliá-lo competentemente, o que hoje ocorre para o português, o espanhol e o inglês. Afinal, uma revista eletrônica como a RESI pode fornecer grande visibilidade internacional para aqueles que a procuram, mas também um espaço de discussão democrático que possibilite a comunicação dos seus autores com a sociedade, principalmente nos casos em que houver questões culturais e sociais importantes em discussão, o que pode ficar prejudicado se não no idioma nacional.Feita essa reflexão inicial e o convite para que mantenhamos sempre a "caótica" diversidade de idiomas, de perspectivas e de ideologias que caracteriza a Universidade, gostaria de chamar a atenção de todos para os artigos que compõem essa edição, brevemente descritos a seguir:O primeiro artigo, "Information systems graduate education and research in Brazil", de Renata Mendes de Araujo e Márcio de Oliveira Barros, ambos da Unirio, abre essa edição da RESI discutindo um tema muito importante para os pesquisadores que estudam Sistemas de Informação no Brasil, que é a forma como estamos preparando as novas gerações de pesquisadores em nossos programas stricto sensu. No artigo, os autores relatam a experiência de sua instituição na consolidação de um curso de pós-graduação na área. O trabalho é mais voltado para programas com origem na informática, mas encontrará leitores também entre aqueles que estudam as tecnologias de informação a partir de uma perspectiva de negócios.Lisiane Barea Sandi e Amarolinda Zanela Saccol, da Unisinos, demonstram sua preocupação com a forma como a sociedade está se apropriando das novas tecnologias, salientando que, além dos óbvios benefícios, há também questões preocupantes, que precisam ser discutidas. Em "Sobrecarga de informações geradas pela adoção de tecnologias da informação móveis e sem fio e suas decorrências para profissionais de vendas" as autoras se utilizam de uma survey exploratória com 75 profissionais da área de vendas, procurando analisar os impactos do telefone celular sobre sua qualidade de vida."A influência dos determinantes do trabalho gerencial na percepção do ajuste entre a tecnologia e a tarefa: um estudo exploratório" é o trabalho de Débora Bobsin, Monize Sâmara Visentini e Mauri Leodir Löbler (UFRGS e UFSM), em que procuram contribuir para o entendimento dos sistemas de informação como ferramenta de suporte para a execução das tarefas que compõem o papel do gestor na organização. Os autores concluem que quanto mais aumenta a experiência do indivíduo com os Sistemas de Informação, maior o ajuste percebido por ele, entre a tecnologia e a tarefa que executa. Da mesma forma, quanto maior o acesso do usuário ao sistema, maior o ajuste percebido entre tecnologia e tarefa.Em "Motivation to create free and open source projects and how decisions impact success", Carlos Denner Santos Jr. e Kay M. Nelson (USP e Southern Illinois) propõem um modelo teórico que ajuda a avaliar o que leva uma organização a se envolver em projetos de desenvolvimento de software livre para que, no futuro, seja possível avaliar com mais propriedade o sucesso dessas iniciativas. Trata-se de um complemento interessante a outro artigo publicado recentemente pelo primeiro autor na RAE (v. 50, n. 4, out/dez 2010).Em "Namoro ou amizade? A visão de clientes e fornecedores sobre relacionamentos de negócio no setor de software", Rita de Cássia de Faria Pereira, Carlo Gabriel Porto Bellini e Fernando Bins Luce (os três primeiros da UFPB e o último da UFRGS) adotam uma abordagem bastante original (entrevistas com 14 díades cliente-fornecedor do setor gaúcho de software - 28 empresas ao todo) para analisar aspectos relacionados ao relacionamento entre essas empresas (comprometimento, confiança, adaptação, cooperação e comunicação) e fatores contextuais que podem influenciá-los (incerteza, interdependência e disponibilidade de fornecedores alternativos).Edimara Mezzomo Luciano, Leandro Pilatti, Maurício Gregianin Testa e Ionara Rech (todos da PUC-RS) analisam a forma como a adoção do framework do COBIT pode auxiliar no aprimoramento dos processos de gestão das atividades terceirizadas, tanto pela empresa terceirizada quanto pela que terceiriza o serviço. O título do artigo é: "Aplicabilidade do Cobit na gestão de atividades de tecnologia da informação terceirizadas: uma investigação com base em duas empresas multinacionais".Percebendo a influência cada vez mais intensa das tecnologias da informação sobre a forma como as organizações se organizam para a produção e agregação de valor, Dayane Mayely Silva de Oliveira e Max Fortunato Cohen (UFA), fazem um levantamento bibliográfico sobre o fenômeno, mapeando 21 tecnologias que facilitam a integração de processos produtivos e incentivam a colaboração entre empresas autônomas. Isto é relatado em: "Os usos da TI ao longo da cadeia de suprimentos e em conjunto com as principais técnicas colaborativas de gestão".Os problemas relacionados à segurança da informação aumentam, na medida em que as empresas se informatizam e integram seus processos aos de parceiros de negócios por meio de redes de computadores. Preocupados com isso, Alexandre dos Santos Roque, Raul Ceretta Nunes e Alexandre Dias da Silva (UFSM) desenvolvem, em seu artigo "Proposição de um modelo dinâmico de gestão de segurança da informação para ambientes industriais", um modelo dinâmico de gestão da segurança da informação em que a interação, a cooperação e a motivação das pessoas (alta-gerência, chefes e funcionários) são priorizadas para atender os novos requisitos da gestão da segurança da informação: responsabilidade, confiança e ética.Em um cenário de integração das atividades das empresas com parceiros de negócios e grande fluxo de informações entre elas, conforme discutido inclusive em outro artigo dessa edição (ver Oliveira e Cohen), torna-se essencial que se adotem políticas de segurança da informação, para garantir que ela esteja sempre acessível àqueles que precisam e devem ter acesso a ela e não caiam em mãos indesejadas. Leonardo Guerreiro Azevedo, Diego Alexandre Aranha Duarte, Fernanda Baião e Claudia Cappelli (todos da Unirio) desenvolvem um conjunto de critérios e um método para avaliação de ferramentas para gestão e execução de regras de autorização para o acesso e utilização de sistemas, aplicando-os ao caso real da Petrobrás, conforme relatado em "Evaluating tools for execution and management of authorization business rules".O artigo "Requisitos e aspectos técnicos desejados em ferramentas de testes de software: um estudo a partir do uso do SQFD", de Ismayle Sousa Santos, Rodolfo S. Ferreira de Resende, Pedro Alcântara Santos Neto e Clarindo Isaias P. da Silva e Padua (a primeira da UFPI e os demais da UFMG) apresenta uma adaptação ao desenvolvimento de software da ferramenta QFD (desdobramento da função qualidade), tão defendida pelos guros da qualidade para aplicação a processos industriais. A argumentação inteligente e o detalhamento dos passos a serem executados na implementação da metodologia facilitam a compreensão do seu uso pelo leitor e contribuem para a sua divulgação entre os informáticos. Desejo a todos uma ótima leitura!Alexandre Reis GraemlEditor
16 figuras,38 tabulaciones, referencias 150-151. ; A finales de los años 1990 el CATIE, con apoyo de varias ins tituciones, inició una red de ensayos de largo plazo en sistemas agroforestales con café. Los vacíos de información sobre las inte racciones agroecológicas en sistemas con diferentes enfoques de producción a largo plazo, sumados a la urgente necesidad de ase gurar sostenibilidad y restauración ecológica, fueron las principales motivaciones. Se presenta una reseña general de los primeros 20 años de estudios continuos en el CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica, a partir de un proceso interinstitucional e interdisciplinario. La idea base era generar conocimientos sobre las complejas interacciones entre clima, suelo, sombra, niveles y tipos de insumos y variedades de café que posibilitara el desarrollo de estrategias de diseño y manejo de sistemas agroforestales con potencial de sostener nive les de productividad aceptables y, a la vez, garantizar sinergismos ecológicos para la mejora del suelo, la biodiversidad y los servicios ambientales. El ensayo fue diseñado con seis tipos de sombra con la especie de servicio Erythrina poepiggiana y los maderables Terminalia amazonia (no fijador de nitrógeno) y Chloroleucon eurycyclum (fijador de nitrógeno), solos y en combinación, en contraste con el testigo a pleno sol. Como sub-tratamientos se definieron dos tipos de manejo (orgánico y convencional) en cuatro niveles: alto convencional (AC), moderado convencional (MC), orgánico intensivo (MO) y bajo orgánico (BO). La variedad principal de estudio fue la Caturra; además, se establecieron en algunos sistemas microparcelas con Costa Rica 95 y los híbridos Centroamericano y Milenio, L2A11, L3A17, L3A12 y L3A15. Luego de superar la fase crítica de establecimiento (primeros dos años), la plataforma de investigación se consolidó generando una invaluable base de datos y estudios a lo largo del tiempo. Con la colaboración de 22 universidades e instituciones de diversas partes del mundo, se desarrollaron 41 tesis de grado y posgrado, 23 artículos científicos en revistas internacionales y 22 documen tos técnicos para diferentes públicos. Los resultados, usando una síntesis matricial sobre los estudios de los sistemas evaluados, indican elementos claves sobre las interacciones agroecológicas y sus vínculos con la sostenibilidad productiva y sinergias ecológicas. Los sistemas de producción con la variedad Caturra a pleno sol y/o con dos podas drásticas anuales de los árboles de sombra (bajo aporte de biomasa y mucha entrada de luz) con manejos AC y MC, aun con altos niveles de productividad, impactaron negativamente en variables biofísicas y en servicios ambientales. Los SAF con Terminalia y Caturra con manejo BO perdieron viabilidad en los primeros 10 años. Los SAF, en su conjunto, mejoraron el micro clima. En particular los SAF con presencia de Erythrina mejoraron el desempeño productivo y los servicios ambientales. Todos los SAF presentaron mejor valoración de servicios ambientales que los sistemas a pleno sol. Los SAF que se destacaron en producti vidad y servicios ambientales fueron Erythrina en manejo MO y MC. Los sistemas Erythrina y Erythrina más Chloroleucon, ambos en manejo BO, han presentado buena rentabilidad, con bajos costos y buena valoración en servicios ambientales. Respecto a la comparación productiva entre diferentes variedades, los híbridos F1 Milenio y Centroamericano, produjeron más del doble (14 212,5 y 13 368,75 kg/ha respectivamente en valores promedio), que Caturra con el promedio más bajo (5230,62 kg/ha), y también superado por Costa Rica 95 (con promedio de 9823,75 kg/ha). Tanto los enfoques metodológicos, como las innovaciones generadas, han sido sociali zadas ampliamente en procesos de fortalecimiento de capacidades en los países productores de café en las Américas (capacitación a más de 42 041 productores). Se ha dado soporte al diseño e imple mentación de políticas cafetaleras orientadas a la sostenibilidad productiva, económica, social y ambiental. Para este logro fue determinante la colaboración con PROMECAFE, los Institutos de Café en Centroamérica, RECIPROCAFE y la Alianza de Mujeres en Café. En los últimos cuatro años, el Programa Regional de Gestión Integral de la Roya (PROCAGICA-IICA-UE), ha faci litado vínculos entre la agenda de investigación/validación en el ensayo propiamente y los protocolos de validación de innovaciones en la red de fincas de referencia en cinco países de América Central (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua y Costa Rica). Dada su relevancia, aun con la meta inicial de 20 años ya cumplida, la idea es seguir operando en el ensayo de largo plazo de SAF con café en CATIE. Las experiencias pioneras desarrolladas han sido fuente para otras experiencias en diferentes países, lo cual permitió ampliar la red de ensayos agroforestales para estudios de largo plazo. En este ámbito, destaca el ensayo de SAF cítricos orgánicos (Hacienda de la Toca, São Paulo, Brasil); los ensayos de café, cacao y naranjilla (INIAP-Estación Central de la Amazonia, Ecuador); el ensayo SAF café (EARTH, Caribe, Costa Rica) y más recientemente, los ensayos de largo plazo con cacao y pasturas establecidos en CATIE ; In the late 1990s, CATIE, with the support of various institutions, began a network of long-term trials in agroforestry systems with coffee. The information gaps on agroecological interactions in systems with different long-term production approaches, and the urgent need to ensure sustainability and ecological restoration, were the main motivations. A general review of the first 20 years of continuous studies at CATIE, Turrialba is presented based on an interinstitutional and interdisciplinary process. The basic idea was to generate knowledge about the complex interactions between climate, soil, shade, levels and types of inputs and coffee varieties, which would enable the development of design and management strategies for agroforestry systems with the potential to sustain acceptable levels of productivity and the time to guarantee eco logical synergies for the improvement of soil, biodiversity and environmental services. The trial was designed with six types of shade with the service species Erythrina poepiggiana, and the hardwoods Terminalia amazonia (non-fixer of Nitrogen) and Chloroleucon eurycyclum (fixer of Nitrogen), alone and in combi nation, in contrast to the control in full sun. As sub-treatments, two types of management (organic and conventional) were defined at four levels: High Conventional (AC), Moderate Conventional (MC), Intensive Organic (MO) and Low Organic (BO). The main variety of study was Caturra, in addition, they were established in some microplot systems with Costa Rica 95 and: Centroamericano, Milenio, L2A11, L3A17, L3A12 and L3A15 hybrids. After over coming the critical phase of establishment (first two years), the research platform was consolidated, generating an invaluable database and studies over time. With the collaboration of 22 universities and institutions from different parts of the world, 41 undergraduate and graduate theses, 23 scientific articles in interna tional journals and 2 technical documents for different audiences were developed. The results, using a matrix synthesis of the studies of the evaluated systems, indicate key elements about agroecologi cal interactions and their links with productive sustainability and ecological synergies. The production systems with the Caturra vari ety in full sun and or with two drastic annual prunings of the shade trees (low contribution of biomass and a lot of light input) with AC and MC management, even with high levels of productivity, had a negative impact in biophysical variables and in environmental services. The AFS with Terminalia and with Caturra in BO management lost viability in the first 10 years. The AFS as a whole improved the microclimate. In particular, AFS with Erythrina presence improved productive performance and environmental services. All the AFS presented a better valuation of environmen tal services than the systems in full sun. The AFS that stood out in productivity and environmental services were Erythrina in MO management and MC management. The Erythrina and Erythrina plus Chloroleucon systems, both in BO management, have pre sented good profitability, with low costs and good valuation in environmental services. Regarding the productive comparison between different varieties, the Millennium and Central American F1 hybrids produced more than double (14212,5 and 13368,75 kg/ha respectively in average values) than Caturra with the low est average (5230,62 kg/ha), and also surpassed by Costa Rica 95 (with an average of 9823,75/ha). Both the methodological approaches and the innovations generated have been widely socialized in capacity building processes in the coffee producing countries of the Americas (training more than 42,041 produc ers). Support has been given to the design and implementation of coffee policies aimed at productive, economic, social and environ mental sustainability. The collaboration with PROMECAFE, the Coffee Institutes in Central America, RECIPROCAFE and the Alliance of Women in Coffee was decisive for this achievement. In the last four years, the Regional Program for Comprehensive Rust Management-PROCAGICA-IICA-EU has facilitated links between the research/validation agenda in the trial and the inno vation validation protocols in the network of reference farms in five Central American countries (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica). The pioneering experiences developed have been a source for other countries beyond Costa Rica, this allowed expanding the agroforestry trials network for long-term studies. In this area, the Organic Citrus AFS Trial (Toca Farm, São Paulo, Brazil), the Coffee, Cacao and Naranjilla Trial (INIAP-Central Amazon Station, Ecuador), the Coffee AFS Trial (EARTH, Caribbean Coast, Costa Rica) and more recently, the long-term trials with cacao and pastures established at CATIE
16 figuras,38 tabulaciones, referencias 150-151. ; A finales de los años 1990 el CATIE, con apoyo de varias ins tituciones, inició una red de ensayos de largo plazo en sistemas agroforestales con café. Los vacíos de información sobre las inte racciones agroecológicas en sistemas con diferentes enfoques de producción a largo plazo, sumados a la urgente necesidad de ase gurar sostenibilidad y restauración ecológica, fueron las principales motivaciones. Se presenta una reseña general de los primeros 20 años de estudios continuos en el CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica, a partir de un proceso interinstitucional e interdisciplinario. La idea base era generar conocimientos sobre las complejas interacciones entre clima, suelo, sombra, niveles y tipos de insumos y variedades de café que posibilitara el desarrollo de estrategias de diseño y manejo de sistemas agroforestales con potencial de sostener nive les de productividad aceptables y, a la vez, garantizar sinergismos ecológicos para la mejora del suelo, la biodiversidad y los servicios ambientales. El ensayo fue diseñado con seis tipos de sombra con la especie de servicio Erythrina poepiggiana y los maderables Terminalia amazonia (no fijador de nitrógeno) y Chloroleucon eurycyclum (fijador de nitrógeno), solos y en combinación, en contraste con el testigo a pleno sol. Como sub-tratamientos se definieron dos tipos de manejo (orgánico y convencional) en cuatro niveles: alto convencional (AC), moderado convencional (MC), orgánico intensivo (MO) y bajo orgánico (BO). La variedad principal de estudio fue la Caturra; además, se establecieron en algunos sistemas microparcelas con Costa Rica 95 y los híbridos Centroamericano y Milenio, L2A11, L3A17, L3A12 y L3A15. Luego de superar la fase crítica de establecimiento (primeros dos años), la plataforma de investigación se consolidó generando una invaluable base de datos y estudios a lo largo del tiempo. Con la colaboración de 22 universidades e instituciones de diversas partes del mundo, se desarrollaron 41 tesis de grado y posgrado, 23 artículos científicos en revistas internacionales y 22 documen tos técnicos para diferentes públicos. Los resultados, usando una síntesis matricial sobre los estudios de los sistemas evaluados, indican elementos claves sobre las interacciones agroecológicas y sus vínculos con la sostenibilidad productiva y sinergias ecológicas. Los sistemas de producción con la variedad Caturra a pleno sol y/o con dos podas drásticas anuales de los árboles de sombra (bajo aporte de biomasa y mucha entrada de luz) con manejos AC y MC, aun con altos niveles de productividad, impactaron negativamente en variables biofísicas y en servicios ambientales. Los SAF con Terminalia y Caturra con manejo BO perdieron viabilidad en los primeros 10 años. Los SAF, en su conjunto, mejoraron el micro clima. En particular los SAF con presencia de Erythrina mejoraron el desempeño productivo y los servicios ambientales. Todos los SAF presentaron mejor valoración de servicios ambientales que los sistemas a pleno sol. Los SAF que se destacaron en producti vidad y servicios ambientales fueron Erythrina en manejo MO y MC. Los sistemas Erythrina y Erythrina más Chloroleucon, ambos en manejo BO, han presentado buena rentabilidad, con bajos costos y buena valoración en servicios ambientales. Respecto a la comparación productiva entre diferentes variedades, los híbridos F1 Milenio y Centroamericano, produjeron más del doble (14 212,5 y 13 368,75 kg/ha respectivamente en valores promedio), que Caturra con el promedio más bajo (5230,62 kg/ha), y también superado por Costa Rica 95 (con promedio de 9823,75 kg/ha). Tanto los enfoques metodológicos, como las innovaciones generadas, han sido sociali zadas ampliamente en procesos de fortalecimiento de capacidades en los países productores de café en las Américas (capacitación a más de 42 041 productores). Se ha dado soporte al diseño e imple mentación de políticas cafetaleras orientadas a la sostenibilidad productiva, económica, social y ambiental. Para este logro fue determinante la colaboración con PROMECAFE, los Institutos de Café en Centroamérica, RECIPROCAFE y la Alianza de Mujeres en Café. En los últimos cuatro años, el Programa Regional de Gestión Integral de la Roya (PROCAGICA-IICA-UE), ha faci litado vínculos entre la agenda de investigación/validación en el ensayo propiamente y los protocolos de validación de innovaciones en la red de fincas de referencia en cinco países de América Central (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua y Costa Rica). Dada su relevancia, aun con la meta inicial de 20 años ya cumplida, la idea es seguir operando en el ensayo de largo plazo de SAF con café en CATIE. Las experiencias pioneras desarrolladas han sido fuente para otras experiencias en diferentes países, lo cual permitió ampliar la red de ensayos agroforestales para estudios de largo plazo. En este ámbito, destaca el ensayo de SAF cítricos orgánicos (Hacienda de la Toca, São Paulo, Brasil); los ensayos de café, cacao y naranjilla (INIAP-Estación Central de la Amazonia, Ecuador); el ensayo SAF café (EARTH, Caribe, Costa Rica) y más recientemente, los ensayos de largo plazo con cacao y pasturas establecidos en CATIE ; In the late 1990s, CATIE, with the support of various institutions, began a network of long-term trials in agroforestry systems with coffee. The information gaps on agroecological interactions in systems with different long-term production approaches, and the urgent need to ensure sustainability and ecological restoration, were the main motivations. A general review of the first 20 years of continuous studies at CATIE, Turrialba is presented based on an interinstitutional and interdisciplinary process. The basic idea was to generate knowledge about the complex interactions between climate, soil, shade, levels and types of inputs and coffee varieties, which would enable the development of design and management strategies for agroforestry systems with the potential to sustain acceptable levels of productivity and the time to guarantee eco logical synergies for the improvement of soil, biodiversity and environmental services. The trial was designed with six types of shade with the service species Erythrina poepiggiana, and the hardwoods Terminalia amazonia (non-fixer of Nitrogen) and Chloroleucon eurycyclum (fixer of Nitrogen), alone and in combi nation, in contrast to the control in full sun. As sub-treatments, two types of management (organic and conventional) were defined at four levels: High Conventional (AC), Moderate Conventional (MC), Intensive Organic (MO) and Low Organic (BO). The main variety of study was Caturra, in addition, they were established in some microplot systems with Costa Rica 95 and: Centroamericano, Milenio, L2A11, L3A17, L3A12 and L3A15 hybrids. After over coming the critical phase of establishment (first two years), the research platform was consolidated, generating an invaluable database and studies over time. With the collaboration of 22 universities and institutions from different parts of the world, 41 undergraduate and graduate theses, 23 scientific articles in interna tional journals and 2 technical documents for different audiences were developed. The results, using a matrix synthesis of the studies of the evaluated systems, indicate key elements about agroecologi cal interactions and their links with productive sustainability and ecological synergies. The production systems with the Caturra vari ety in full sun and or with two drastic annual prunings of the shade trees (low contribution of biomass and a lot of light input) with AC and MC management, even with high levels of productivity, had a negative impact in biophysical variables and in environmental services. The AFS with Terminalia and with Caturra in BO management lost viability in the first 10 years. The AFS as a whole improved the microclimate. In particular, AFS with Erythrina presence improved productive performance and environmental services. All the AFS presented a better valuation of environmen tal services than the systems in full sun. The AFS that stood out in productivity and environmental services were Erythrina in MO management and MC management. The Erythrina and Erythrina plus Chloroleucon systems, both in BO management, have pre sented good profitability, with low costs and good valuation in environmental services. Regarding the productive comparison between different varieties, the Millennium and Central American F1 hybrids produced more than double (14212,5 and 13368,75 kg/ha respectively in average values) than Caturra with the low est average (5230,62 kg/ha), and also surpassed by Costa Rica 95 (with an average of 9823,75/ha). Both the methodological approaches and the innovations generated have been widely socialized in capacity building processes in the coffee producing countries of the Americas (training more than 42,041 produc ers). Support has been given to the design and implementation of coffee policies aimed at productive, economic, social and environ mental sustainability. The collaboration with PROMECAFE, the Coffee Institutes in Central America, RECIPROCAFE and the Alliance of Women in Coffee was decisive for this achievement. In the last four years, the Regional Program for Comprehensive Rust Management-PROCAGICA-IICA-EU has facilitated links between the research/validation agenda in the trial and the inno vation validation protocols in the network of reference farms in five Central American countries (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua and Costa Rica). The pioneering experiences developed have been a source for other countries beyond Costa Rica, this allowed expanding the agroforestry trials network for long-term studies. In this area, the Organic Citrus AFS Trial (Toca Farm, São Paulo, Brazil), the Coffee, Cacao and Naranjilla Trial (INIAP-Central Amazon Station, Ecuador), the Coffee AFS Trial (EARTH, Caribbean Coast, Costa Rica) and more recently, the long-term trials with cacao and pastures established at CATIE
La presente publicación del Doctorado en Educación sobre "Políticas Educativas en contexto de una experiencia de investigación" es el fruto del Seminario de "Sociedad y Políticas Educativas" impartidas por el doctor Horacio Ademar Ferreyra y del Departamento de Publicaciones de la Universidad Católica de Argentina. La Revista Hallazgos de la USTA presentará ante la comunidad científica veinte artículos elaborados por la primera cohorte de doctorandos en Educación; esta divulgación llena de orgullo al Programa, pues se convertirá en el primero de muchos escritos que estos exitosos alumnos han realizado. Los ensayos se pueden abordar desde una mirada sistémica que permite identificar la interdisciplinariedad del saber científico de las diferentes disciplinas manejadas en cada uno de los escritos, para aportar al conocimiento investigativo del proceso de formación doctoral. Los estudios se categorizan en tres grandes temáticas: políticas, enfoque humanista; educación-retos, y calidad de la educación. En la primera temática se presenta el análisis de las políticas educativas desde marcos globales y humanistas, centrándose en un discurso económico que muestra la influencia de las diferentes corrientes socio-económicas, generando fisuras en los procesos educativos y sociales de un país como Colombia. A partir de la reflexión anterior se siembra el terreno para establecer posiciones críticas frente a un tema que controvierte la educación, como es el caso de los derechos humanos: ¿por qué las sociedades industrializadas encargadas de ir perfeccionando las instituciones obstaculizan el cumplimiento de los derechos humanos en las sociedades, haciéndolas menos equitativas y productivas a nivel intelectual? Este planteamiento lleva a sopesar las medidas y proyectos de calidad que se realizan para identificar las falencias y el impacto de una educación que va camino a la calidad, pero sin llegar eventualmente a ella. Bajo el aspecto de la calidad en la educación, los aportes se hacen desde a· las experiencias vividas por instituciones académicas en Colombia, utilizando modelos como el cooperativismo y políticas educativas integrales, entre otras, generando calidad de vida para los involucrados y redundando en una población latinoamericana que está en busca de mayores y mejores condiciones, pero cada vez están más centralizadas en las sedes industrializadas. Para alcanzar la calidad educativa se parte de los retos sociales que generan interacción con jóvenes, al formar sujetos nuevos en el orden social, buscando construcción de comportamientos que rompan con la indiferencia al cambio. Por ello la intervención debe darse desde el currículo que llega a los centros escolares. Posteriormente, y siguiendo con el trazado de la calidad educativa, se advierte el papel del educador y el de su formación, no sólo intelectual sino afectiva, de tal forma que restablezca la importancia social que el maestro posee dentro de una comunidad, ya que es él quien trasciende en varias generaciones. A partir de aquí la proyección de los ensayos presentados en este número se dirigen hacia la educación superior y los cuestionamientos deliberantes del contexto colombiano: sus avances, su participación en organizaciones y gremios de educación universitaria, sus revoluciones, sus aciertos y encrucijadas; la historia recorrida con una apreciación del presente vivido y un contraste entre lo que planteó y lo que obtendrá según la fortaleza política vivida en las últimas décadas. Por último, se plantean revisiones y formulaciones desde puntos de vista empresariales, de gerencia, gremiales y con tintes de revoluciones transformadoras en las que sus resultados administrativos son observables en las organizaciones contemporáneas, las cuales señalan la competencia como un mínimo de eficiencia, logrando estructuras organizativas que puedan someterse a evaluaciones internacionales, para ser perdurables y de calidad. Finalmente, el Doctorado en Educación de la Universidad Santo Tomás agradece al editor de la revista Hallazgos, de la Unidad de Investigaciones perteneciente a la misma Universidad, la oportunidad de plasmar, de forma amplia, los criterios que se establecen desde la educación colombiana en varios de los aspectos y dimensiones que cada maestro en algún momento de su quehacer se ha cuestionado en suelo colombiano. ; The present publication of the Doctorate in Education on "Educational Policies in the Context of a Research Experience" is the result of the Seminar on "Society and Educational Policies" given by Dr. Horacio Ademar Ferreyra and the Publications Department of the Catholic University of Argentina. USTA's journal Hallazgos will present to the scientific community twenty articles written by the first cohort of doctoral students in Education; this dissemination fills the Program with pride, since it will become the first publication of its kind in the world. Program, since it will become the first of many writings that these successful students have produced. The essays can be approached from a systemic view that allows identifying the interdisciplinary nature of the scientific knowledge of the different disciplines handled in each of the writings, in order to contribute to the investigative knowledge of the doctoral training process. The studies are categorized into three major themes: policies, humanistic approach; education-challenges, and quality of education. The first theme presents the analysis of educational policies from global and humanistic frameworks, focusing on an economic discourse that shows the influence of the different socio-economic currents, generating fissures in the educational and social processes of a country like Colombia. Based on the previous reflection, the ground is sown to establish critical positions in front of a topic that controverts education, as is the case of human rights: why do industrialized societies in charge of perfecting institutions hinder the fulfillment of human rights in societies, making them less equitable and productive at an intellectual level? This approach leads to weigh the quality measures and projects that are carried out to identify the shortcomings and the impact of an education that is on the way to quality, but without eventually reaching it. Under the aspect of quality in education, contributions are made from a- the experiences lived by academic institutions in Colombia, using models such as cooperativism and integral educational policies, among others, generating quality of life for those involved and resulting in a Latin American population that is in search of better and better conditions, but are increasingly centralized in industrialized headquarters. In order to achieve educational quality, we start from the social challenges that generate interaction with young people, when forming new subjects in the social order, seeking to behavioral construction that breaks with indifference to change. For this reason, the intervention must start from the curriculum that reaches the schools. Subsequently, and following the outline of educational quality, the role of the educator and his training, not only intellectual but also affective, in such a way as to reestablish the social importance that the teacher has within a community, since it is he who transcends in several generations. From here, the projection of the essays presented in this issue are directed towards higher education and the deliberate questioning of the Colombian context: its advances, its participation in organizations and university education guilds, its revolutions, its successes and crossroads; the history of the university with an appreciation of the present and a contrast between what it has proposed and what it will obtain according to the political strength experienced in the last decades. Finally, revisions and formulations are proposed from business, management, trade union points of view and with dyes of transforming revolutions in which their administrative results are observable in contemporary organizations, which point out competition as a minimum of efficiency, achieving organizational structures that can be submitted to international evaluations, to be lasting and of quality. Finally, the Doctorate in Education of the Universidad Santo Tomás thanks the editor of the journal Hallazgos, of the Research Unit belonging to the same University, for the opportunity to express, in a broad manner, the criteria established by Colombian education in several aspects and dimensions that every teacher at some point in his or her work has questioned on Colombian soil. ; CRAI-USTA Bogotá ; orcid:0000-0001-6295-3673 ; orcid:0000-0002-4513-1835 ; orcid:0000-0001-9284-4611 ; orcid:0000-0002-3799-8025 ; orcid:0000-0003-2243-9551 ; orcid:0000-0002-4456-3548 ; orcid:0000-0002-6066-0903 ; orcid:0000-0003-3037-4655 ; orcid:0000-0002-3467-8093 ; orcid:0000-0001-5629-8019 ; orcid:0000-0001-9394-6679 ; orcid:0000-0003-4645-7180 ; https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=TaSG4HIAAAAJ&hl=es ; https://scholar.google.com.co/citations?user=duSWfxYAAAAJ&hl=en ; https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Bo2EKF8AAAAJ&hl=es ; https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=d0JjtjgAAAAJ&hl=es ; https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=m9DQBYIAAAAJ&hl=en ; https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=8GcSeVUAAAAJ&hl=en ; https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=VYRDuWAAAAAJ&hl=es ; https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=MW274HIAAAAJ&hl=en ; https://scholar.google.be/citations?user=zw1wy5cAAAAJ&hl=en ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001005219 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000821985 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000168289 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001396723 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000238872 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001395881 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001400992 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001396730 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000853011 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001365564 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001428201 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001395786 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000471160 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000771740 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001012681 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000741167 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001451579 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0001230174 ; http://scienti.colciencias.gov.co:8081/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000372048 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/cvlac/visualizador/generarCurriculoCv.do?cod_rh=0000753572 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/gruplac/jsp/visualiza/visualizagr.jsp?nro=00000000018733 ; https://scienti.minciencias.gov.co/gruplac/jsp/visualiza/visualizagr.jsp?nro=00000000013074
Perennial crops play a valuable role in agricultural economics, as they provide goods for export and jobs for the workforce as well as contribute significantly to economic prosperity at the national level. Vietnam has a high potential for perennial crop development, and thereby achieve an explosive growth in agricultural commodities. In terms of perennial crops, Vietnam now ranks among the top five international exporters of coffee, pepper and cashew. Vietnam is the second-largest producer of coffee worldwide, while it is the leading exporter of pepper globally. In 2018, the planted area of the dominant perennial crops (coffee, pepper, rubber, tea and cashew nut) reached around 2.2 million hectares (ha) nationwide, an increase of 9,000 ha compared to 2017. The Western Highlands has the largest region of perennial crop production with an area of 1.151 million ha. Dak Lak province has favorable conditions of soil (1,450 ha of basaltic soils of volcanic origin, which equals two thirds of the total basaltic soil area nationwide), as well as weather and amount of arable land, which creates an advantageous situation for the culture of perennial crops. Remarkably, the planted area of coffee and pepper dominated production at about 30% of the whole country's production in 2018, respectively. Over the years, perennial crops have changed considerably being usual dynamics of requirements. Despite its advantages and positive development trends, provincial perennial crop production has faced numerous constraints due to price fluctuation, unpredictable climatic trends, and incidence of pests and diseases. Thus, perennial crop production needs further research to ensure more evidence. Based on a systematic survey, focus group discussion, key informant interviews and participatory observation, this research project was undertaken to evaluate the practices and socio-economics of perennial crop systems in Dak Lak province, namely monocultures and intercropping systems. The aims of this project are to understand the distinct stages of perennial crop systems and to identify the socio-economic benefits of different systems concentrating on coffee and pepper crops. Additionally, the remaining aim of the study finds determinants affecting the farm's decision of adoption. The results provide critical references for farmers and policymakers on implementation or decision to plant a particular perennial crop and strategies. The findings show that the type of crop that was planted by the farmers evolved considerably in terms of crop types, crops grown, farm size, type of system and an increase of total cultivated surface. In addition, under driving forces including socio-economic transformation, political changes and ecological movement, perennial crop systems are well changed. Indeed, for many years, perennial crop systems have experienced an evolution through five stages, namely large-scale coffee and rubber plantations; perennial crop systems which are state-owned farms and cooperatives; intensified perennial crop systems; mixed crop systems, and the specialized and diversified perennial crop systems. At present, perennial crop systems are put into practice which take into account climate change, marketing and losses of fertile lands. These systems include monocultures and intercropping, which are two representative models of perennial crop systems which are investigated in this study. Simultaneously, a comparative assessment of the socio-economic benefits between two monocultures (coffee and pepper mono cropping) and an intercropping system (coffee and pepper intercropping) is presented in which the intercropping is more efficient than the monoculture under the context of constraints on key resources, risk and uncertainty. Respectively, intercropping is not only demonstrated to have high economic returns and limitations of economic risk due to the volatile market but also to have the benefits of extended seasonal employment and attraction for women as farmworkers on small farms. In other words, coffee and pepper intercropping is the most desirable option to obtain socio-economic benefits in perennial crop systems. In addition, the classifications in different approaches and groups producing are also organized to clarify these economic performances by cost-benefit analysis. The further results are obtained that intercropped farm approaches, especially in intercropped coffee farms (ICFs) generate more economic earnings than intercropped pepper farms (IPFs) while group producing coffee (GpC) appears to be more appropriate for smallholders than group producing pepper (GpP) does. At the same time, conclusions from binary and multiple logistic regression analysis highlight factors affecting decision-making of farms' decision in adopting. These factors include household characteristics, farm profits and crop profiles. This study supplies information that will allow farmers to develop productive planning with respect to choosing suitable perennial crop systems, and assist policymakers in forming small-scale perennial crop production strategies in Dak Lak province. In addition, the factors highlighted here are taken into account in the development of perennial crops. ; Les cultures pérennes jouent un rôle essentiel dans l'économie agricole, car elles fournissent des biens destinés à l'exportation et des emplois pour la main-d'œuvre, tout en contribuant de manière significative à l'essor économique au niveau national. Le Vietnam a connu un fort potentiel de développement des cultures pérennes, et atteint ainsi une croissance explosive des produits agricoles. En termes de cultures pérennes, le Vietnam se classe désormais parmi les cinq premiers exportateurs internationaux de café, de poivre et de noix de cajou. Le Vietnam est le deuxième producteur mondial de café et le premier exportateur de poivre au monde. Fait remarquable, les superficies plantées en café et en poivre dominent la production, avec respectivement environ 30 % de la production de l'ensemble du pays en 2018. Au fil des ans, les cultures pérennes ont considérablement évolué étant donné la dynamique habituelle des besoins. Malgré ses avantages et les tendances positives de son développement, la production provinciale de cultures pérennes a dû faire face à de nombreuses contraintes dues à la fluctuation des prix, aux tendances climatiques imprévisibles et à l'incidence des parasites et des maladies. Par conséquent, la production de cultures pérennes nécessite des recherches plus approfondies afin d'obtenir davantage de preuves. Sur la base d'une enquête systématique, de discussions de groupe, d'entretiens avec des informateurs clés et d'une observation participative, ce projet de recherche a été entrepris pour évaluer les pratiques et la socio-économie des systèmes de cultures pérennes, à savoir les monocultures et les systèmes de cultures intercalaires. Les objectifs de ce projet sont de comprendre l'évolution des systèmes de cultures pérennes dans le temps et l'espace, et d'identifier les avantages socio-économiques des différents systèmes en se concentrant sur les cultures de café et de poivre. En outre, le dernier objectif de l'étude consiste à trouver les déterminants qui influent sur la décision d'adoption de l'exploitation. Les résultats fournissent des références essentielles aux agriculteurs et aux décideurs politiques sur la mise en œuvre ou la décision de planter une culture pérenne particulière et sur les stratégies à adopter. Les résultats montrent que les cultures pérennes ont considérablement évolué en termes de types de cultures, de cultures cultivées, de taille des exploitations, de types de systèmes et d'augmentation de la surface totale cultivée. En outre, sous l'effet de moteurs tels que la transformation socio-économique, les changements politiques et le mouvement écologique, les systèmes de cultures pérennes ont bien changé. En effet, depuis de nombreuses années, les systèmes de cultures pérennes ont connu une évolution en cinq étapes, à savoir les grandes plantations de café et d'hévéas ; les systèmes de cultures pérennes qui sont des exploitations agricoles d'État et des coopératives ; les systèmes de cultures pérennes intensifiées ; les systèmes de cultures mixtes et les systèmes de cultures pérennes spécialisées et diversifiées. Actuellement, les systèmes de cultures pérennes sont mis en pratique en tenant compte du changement climatique, de la commercialisation et des pertes de terres fertiles. Ces systèmes comprennent les monocultures et les cultures intercalaires, qui sont deux modèles représentatifs des systèmes de cultures pérennes, qui sont étudiés. Simultanément, l'évaluation comparative des avantages socio-économiques entre deux monocultures (monoculture de café et de poivre) et un système de cultures associées (culture intercalaire de café et de poivre) a montré que la culture intercalaire est plus efficace que la monoculture dans le contexte de contraintes sur les ressources clés, de risque et d'incertitude. Il est respectivement démontré que les cultures intercalaires ont non seulement un rendement économique élevé et une limitation du risque économique en raison de la volatilité du marché, mais aussi qu'elles présentent les avantages d'un emploi saisonnier prolongé et qu'elles attirent les femmes en tant que travailleuses agricoles dans les petites exploitations. En d'autres termes, la culture intercalaire du café et du poivre est l'option la plus souhaitable pour obtenir des avantages socio-économiques dans les systèmes de cultures pérennes. En outre, les classifications dans les différentes approches et groupes de production sont également organisées pour clarifier ces performances économiques par une analyse coût-avantage. Les autres résultats obtenus montrent que les approches de cultures intercalaires, en particulier les plantations intercalaires de café (ICF), génèrent plus de revenus économiques que les plantations intercalaires de poivrons (IPF), tandis que la production groupée de café (GpC) semble plus appropriée pour les petits exploitants que la production groupée de poivrons (GpP). Dans le même temps, les conclusions de l'analyse de régression logistique binaire et multiple mettent en évidence les facteurs qui influent sur la prise de décision concernant l'adoption des exploitations. Ces facteurs comprennent les caractéristiques des ménages, les bénéfices des exploitations agricoles et les profils des cultures. Cette étude fournit des informations qui permettront aux agriculteurs de développer une planification productive en ce qui concerne le choix de systèmes de cultures pérennes appropriés, et d'aider les décideurs politiques à élaborer des stratégies de production de cultures pérennes à petite échelle à Dak Lak. En outre, les facteurs mis en évidence ici sont pris en compte dans le développement des cultures pérennes.
Throughout the history of contemporary feminism, women's presence in the public sphere has been a perennial issue, demanding all sorts of strategies to promote women's inclusion in the economic and political arenas. Starting in the 1980s, feminist scholars in International Relations have questioned the absence of women in the international arena, alongside the pervasive gender hierarchies of the international system. Not only was it that women had been systematically excluded from politics, but the scholarship in IR had largely ignored feminist claims about the gendering of international politics. Largely animated by feminist movements and the nascent feminist debates in IR, the World Conferences on Women (1975, 1980, 1985, and 1995) stressed the paramount need for taking women's demands seriously. Such demands encompassed social, economic, and political domains, echoing decades of feminist struggles in the first, second and third worlds. The United Nations played a crucial role in fostering an agenda of gender equality and women's rights as human rights, which have been a quintessential part of the Millennium Development Goals and, more recently, the Sustainable Development Goals. Furthermore, gender-oriented policies have been promoted in myriad UN agencies and international organisations, such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund. Despite all these efforts purporting to raise awareness about gender equality and women's rights, as well as about the need for more inclusive policies for women in the international arena, women's presence in international fora as leaders has been remarkably low. As for the United Nations, until now no woman has been elected to the organisation's highest post, that of secretary general, and only recently the International Monetary Fund and World Bank have had female managing directors. These sobering results show a different picture of international organisations that promote gender equality as their political and social commitment, whilst failing to comply with the very same discourse when it comes to women's leadership in their formal structures. In this context, the present article aims to assess quantitatively and qualitatively women's presence in leadership roles at the United Nations and international economic organisations (namely, the IMF, WB and World Trade Organisation). It departs from the following research question: What is the current state of affairs of women's participation in the highest posts of the United Nations and the international organizations of the global economic system? Methodologically, we resort to descriptive statistical data of women's presence at various agencies of the United Nations and the aforementioned economic institutions from 1990-2018. Of greatest concern will be those occupying the posts of presidency and vice-presidency. Counting women is a traditional approach in feminist studies in IR, and it is a paramount step in making women count. The second goal of our paper, thus, derives directly from the data: by mapping the few women occupying positions of leadership in international organisations, we can assess the gender structures operating to the disadvantage of women. In order to do so, we resort to feminist theories as developed in political science and IR, for they provide the conceptual tools to provide data with meaning. We focus primarily on how gendered institutions confine women to specific gendered roles that emanate from the private sphere of domesticity. This means that women suffer from various exclusionary dynamics: firstly, they are excluded from leadership roles for the fact of being women; secondly, the few who manage to break through the glass ceiling of a masculine international arena are assigned positions that mimic the elements of the private sphere. Frequently, female leaders are responsible for social issues, childhood, food security, education, and culture, all of which are labeled as soft issues, or belonging to the domain of low politics. Feminist IR scholars have extensively denounced these gendered structures as part of how men preserve their privileges under the framework of hegemonic masculinity. Therefore, we draw on the work of several IR feminists who are concerned with the theoretical questioning and empirical unravelling of such gender hierarchies to interpret our data beyond the mere counting of women. We contend that women in leadership roles in the United Nations and international economic organisations more frequently occupy portfolios that are seen as soft issues or low politics. Likewise, these roles are often associated with the care for others, which reinforces gender roles and hierarchies. Women are more likely to occupy the presidencies and vice-presidencies of agencies such as UNICEF, UNESCO, WFP, and OHCHR, all of which deal with issues associated with childhood, education, culture, food security and human rights. We conclude that an apparent glass ceiling – the invisible barrier that prevents women from reaching higher and more prestigious posts in their professional careers – still remains in international institutions, limiting the participation of women in decision-making fora. The few female leaders who manage to reach the highest posts in the international arena are more likely to be exceptions of a pervasive phenomenon of gender inequality and lack of representativeness. The discourses embraced by the United Nations and international economic organisations fail to meet the minimal criteria for gender parity within these organizations' structures, and even where women have been assigned leadership roles, gender stereotypes still prevail. Further evidence revealed in our research refers to the regional representativeness of the few female leaders in these international organisations: about 55% of them come from Western Europe and North America. Latin American and African women are strongly underrepresented in the United Nations system, as well as in the Bretton Woods institutions, which is itself problematic because the particular perspectives of women from the Global South are also excluded from debates in these international fora. Therefore, international organisations also face the challenge of fostering the diversity of feminist perspectives by developing strategies to include Global South women in their formal structure, ideally as leaders. In this sense, our paper draws attention to the importance of pluralism not only in terms of gender parity, but also of a feminist worldview. In order to make women count in the international arena, the United Nations and international economic organisations have to fully commit themselves to concrete policies for women's inclusion, not only as heads of the institutions, but also in lower hierarchies where policies are designed. Only by acknowledging that women's perspectives matter, can we achieve the goals of gender equality. ; Aunque el debate sobre la presencia femenina en los espacios políticos haya empezado antes de los años setenta del siglo veinte, el contexto de las Conferencias Mundiales sobre la Mujer profundizó las demandas de las mujeres en distintos dominios, entre ellos la participación en las esferas políticas y de decisión. Las Naciones Unidas han fomentado discursos sobre el empoderamiento de las mujeres y su participación activa en roles políticos, reconociendo que la paridad de género en la política es un objetivo esencial para alcanzar la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres. Sin embargo, la propia organización no cumple su discurso: hasta el presente momento, no hay registros de mujeres que hayan ocupado el cargo de secretaria general y pocas ocupan otros cargos en la organización. Un escenario semejante se observa en las demás organizaciones internacionales, nombradamente las que se ocupan de temas económicos, considerados de alto prestigio en la arena internacional. En este artículo, nuestro objetivo consiste en investigar la presencia femenina en los órganos de Naciones Unidas y organizaciones económicas internacionales. Tal investigación se centra en dos enfoques: por un lado, contabilizamos la presencia feminina en distintos organismos a lo largo de tres décadas, siguiendo un abordaje tradicional de los estudios de género: counting women to make women count; por otro lado, utilizamos los datos recolectados para evaluar cómo las estructuras de género en los organismos internacionales operan en detrimento de las mujeres. Para esto, iniciamos con la siguiente cuestión: ¿Cuál es el actual estado de participación de las mujeres en los más altos cargos de la Organización de las Naciones Unidas y de los organismos del sistema económico global? Para responder a esta pregunta, estructuramos en artículo en cuatro secciones. Primeramente, presentamos el contexto de la presencia feminina en las organizaciones internacionales y de las Conferencias Mundiales sobre la Mujer. Enseguida discutimos los ejes teóricos que informan nuestras interpretaciones. Adoptamos una perspectiva teórica feminista que dialoga con los principales ejes conceptuales manifestados en las disciplinas de Relaciones Internacionales y Ciencia Política. En la tercera sección, discutimos nuestro diseño metodológico de investigación. En la cuarta sección, presentamos datos estadísticos del sistema de Naciones Unidas y de instituciones económicas internacionales entre 1990-2018 acerca de la participación de las mujeres en los cargos de presidencia y vicepresidencia de órganos y organismos especializados, argumentando que la presencia de mujeres en dichos espacios sigue baja. Las teorías feministas nos permiten evaluar la presencia más allá de los datos cuantitativos, ofreciendo una lectura acerca de los roles esperados de las (pocas) mujeres que ocupan espacios de liderazgo en las organizaciones internacionales. Verificamos que las mujeres suelen ocupar cargos asociados a temas de la baja política y el cuidado, como los asuntos sociales, de infancia y alimentos, lo que refuerza roles y jerarquías de género. Además, los datos demuestran que las pocas mujeres que ocupan estos cargos provienen principalmente de América del Norte y Europa Occidental, lo que per se limita las perspectivas feministas que acceden a las agendas internacionales.
The objective of this paper is to present a basic proposal for a research agenda with a view to a theoretical construction that contributes to a popular and decolonizing perspective in the field of what is usually called Theories of International Relations. Projecting the cosmovisional and constitutional principle of Plurinationality towards this area, a questioning of a series of elements of the predominant theories is presented. Moreover, it seeks to begin to lay the foundations to pursue a process of research and analysis towards an alternative theoretical construction that, provisionally, is called Theory of Trans-State Relations. The epistemic-political basis of it is the reflection on the praxis of popular struggle and its potential to become an analytical perspective for trans-state relations. Methodologically, it is an interdisciplinary work that works on the articulation of concepts on the way to a theory, as proposed by Amado Cervo, where it works based on proposals arising from three sources: from the reflection of the popular struggles of the region, mainly from those coming from indigenous movements; from concepts and convictions arising from regional history and its reflection; and, from the base, mainly, of Latin American authors who have developed the same popular and decolonizing perspective that the article claims to have. From there, ten theses are prepared with the intention that they serve as the basis for a theoretical articulation. The structuring of the work is done in relation to the formulation and explanation of these ten theses. This explanation is not exhaustive due to the limited extension that an article of these characteristics must have. However, also, at least in some cases, because it is a process still under construction and that needs to be developed further. In any case, it is hoped that the joint presentation of these theses provides a panoramic vision that makes it possible to visualize the fundamental contents of the theoretical project. There are also a series of topics whose treatment could complement and enrich the proposal, and which are not treated in the article due to the limits set forth above. In the introduction, a brief presentation is made of the historical and current problems of academic production on the so-called Theories of International Relations, noting that it predominantly contains a character strongly linked to the interests and perspectives of the main sectors of power worldwide. Their colonized reproduction in our region causes a predominant environment which engenders a lack of creativity and, above all, lack of reference to the realities of our peoples and their struggles. Although there are invaluable efforts to build alternatives closer to our realities, they are still limited in number and, many times, politically and epistemically limited. The ten proposed theses are the following: The Latin American and Caribbean States are Plurinational - even though only two have constitutionally recognized it - therefore the relations that transcend the States are not international relations but trans-state relations The colonized character of the Theory of International Relations makes it fundamentally useless and harmful for an analysis of the relations that transcend the State from a Latin American popular perspective, therefore new paradigms must be created for its reading: the Theory of Trans-State Relations aspires to be one of them The Theory of Trans-State Relations provides elements to overcome the state-centricity that marked the evolution of the study of so-called "international relations", focusing on the issue of integration from the peoples of the region. The Theory of Trans-State Relations intends to make an epistemic contribution to the study of relations that transcend the States in Latin America and the Caribbean based on the production of knowledge from popular, mainly indigenous, wisdom in the fight against colonial-capitalist imposition The Theory of Trans-State Relations maintains that Popular Sovereignty must be distinguished and repositioned above State Sovereignty. Therefore, it must also be its guide and reference, and in order to strengthen both dimensions of Sovereignty in Latin America and the Caribbean, they have to find ways to exercise Shared Sovereignty among the peoples and states of the region. The Theory of Trans-State Relations argues that it is necessary through construction of knowledge to provide an analysis of Class Racism that goes through the so-called "international relations" The Theory of Trans-State Relations intends to provide knowledge that gives consistency and validity to the counter-hegemonic integration process of the Latin American and Caribbean region. The Theory of Trans-State Relations, thought from Latin America, can be a contribution to the South-South dialogue since its decolonizing approach in the epistemic and the political points to a common reality of the Political South The Theory of Trans-State Relations starts from a commitment to a search for paths of justice and alternative paths to overcome capitalism that, based on the praxis and reflection of the Indigenous Movement, recovers in a fruitful Dialogue of Knowledge the great Latin American contributions in this sense (Theory of Dependency, Liberation Christianity, Indo-American Socialism, and all the reflection and the original revolutionary praxis very rich in Latin America). Thus, it aspires to serve as a joint contribution, mainly with the other regions affected by the Coloniality of Power (or of the Political South) so that this search can be global The Theory of Trans-State Relations works from a biocentric paradigm, based on the worldviews and praxis of indigenous peoples and nations, which must be fundamental elements for the articulation of relations between peoples and between States. Each of these theses is accompanied by an explanatory analysis where some of the bases of its support are proposed. As already stated, the analysis in this article is not exhaustive, and aims to provide elements to constitute a panoramic vision that allows the basic understanding of the meaning of the theoretical proposal that is being built. In the final considerations, together with the review of the central issues, the intention is expressed to broaden the agenda of the so-called "international relations", but also to generate debate on the issues that habitually and currently occupy it from a popular and decolonizing Latin American-Caribbean perspective. The conviction is also expressed that this proposal can be projected towards dialogue with other projects of the Political South. Finally, the need to link the popular struggles of the region with the task of producing academic knowledge is affirmed. ; Este trabajo tiene como objetivo presentar una propuesta básica para una agenda de investigación con miras a una construcción teórica que aporte a una perspectiva popular y descolonizadora en el ámbito de las habitualmente llamadas teorías de las Relaciones Internacionales. Proyectando hacia este ámbito el principio cosmovisional y constitucional de la plurinacionalidad se presenta un cuestionamiento a una serie de elementos de las teorías predominantes y se busca comenzar a colocar las bases para caminar en un proceso de investigación y análisis hacia una construcción teórica alternativa que, provisoriamente, se denomina teoría de las Relaciones Transestatales. Metodológicamente, se trata de un trabajo interdisciplinario y que trabaja la articulación de conceptos en camino a una teoría, como lo propusiera Amado Cervo, donde se trabaja en base a propuestas surgidas de tres fuentes: desde la reflexión de las luchas populares de la región, principalmente de las provenientes de los movimientos indígenas; desde conceptos y convicciones surgidas de la historia regional y su reflexión; y, desde la base, principalmente, de autores latinoamericanos que han trabajado la misma perspectiva popular y descolonizadora que pretende tener el artículo. Desde allí se elaboran diez tesis con la intención de que sirvan de base para una articulación teórica. La estructuración del trabajo se hace en relación a la formulación y explicación de estas diez tesis. Esta explicación no llega a ser exhaustiva por la limitada extensión que debe tener un artículo de estas características, pero también, por lo menos en algunos casos, por tratarse de un proceso todavía en construcción y que necesita continuar su profundización. De todas formas, se aspira a que la presentación conjunta de estas tesis proporcione una visión panorámica que posibilite visualizar los contenidos fundamentales del proyecto teórico. Existen también una serie de temas cuyo tratamiento podría complementar y enriquecer la propuesta, y que no son tratados en el artículo por los límites expuestos más arriba. Las temáticas abordadas a través de las tesis son resumidamente las siguientes: 1) Desde el concepto de plurinacionalidad se propone el de relaciones transestatales. 2) Se propone esta teoría como paradigma distinto al de las teorías de las Relaciones Internacionales predominantes. 3) La integración desde los pueblos. 4) Las praxis de las luchas populares como lugar epistémico político. 5) Soberanía popular y soberanía compartida. 6) El análisis del racismo de clase. 7) La integración contrahegemónica. 8) El aporte al diálogo Sur Sur. 9) La búsqueda de un horizonte poscapitalista. 10) La visión biocéntrica.
Global Governance has been increasingly used in the study of International Relations which, thanks to its versatility and utility, has generated an expansion of its conceptual, methodological, and practical scope. Regional governance is a useful derivation because it makes it easier to understand, from a more precise perspective, how global issues with local repercussions are solved. In this sense, the article shows that security governance in Latin America is characterized by enduring balance of power practices, geopolitics, and mistrust between different parties. At the same time there is coexistence between the historical intention to establish security communities, to find resolutions to controversies, and to solve disputes through institutional instruments, principles, and values that favor peaceful means. In other words, in the region we are in the presence of a hybrid security governance, with practices that evolve over time in accordance with three key factors: the behavior of States and other agents, the capacity of institutions to overcome structural and conjunctural challenges, and finally, the effects of changes in perceptions of organized crime and other ideological and political challenges. Therefore, this article consists of three parts. In the first, the definitions and scope of global governance will be reviewed. Subsequently, its utility will be validated for the comprehension of regional orders and the characteristics that are forged there. Finally, it will be used to expose the hybrid characteristics in Latin America throughout the 21st century. Traditionally, since its inception as a scientific discipline, the explanations provided by International Relations,have been the subject of multifaceted debates. In fact, it was through these great debates, sometimes theoretical and in other cases methodological, that the discipline grew in terms of academic and research production, as well as in the political scope for decision-making. This led to the creation of a true field of study, which took as its initial object of study the area of war and peace between nations, before later moving on to cooperation, the environment, and other issues of the contemporary international agenda. Likewise, governance has been an ideal vehicle to give greater scope and heterogeneity to explanations of processes and empirical events, ones which go beyond traditional theoretical approaches such as realism, institutional liberalism or constructivism. Along the same lines, this progressive academic production has stimulated the specialization and concentration of governance in regional orders, since it allows a clearer reflection on the historical patterns of behavior among the members. This offers a more nuanced explanation of the challenges present,the responses required for structural or conjunctural issues, and the eventual emergence of distinctive elements between different groups. Security governance has mainly focused on four challenges to solve. First, the expansion of the research agenda to specific contexts; second, the greater attention that academic production should give to the relationship between intergovernmental organizations and other non-state actors in defined spaces; third, the predominance of explanations on security in the Euro-Atlantic region and, finally, the need to further link the security governance agenda to debates on region and regionalism. In the same way, the construction and specific behaviors developed in the regions cannot be detached from global dynamics. In this sense, regardless of the geographical character of a region such as Europe or South America, these are mainly political factors, as Hurrell well recognizes, that regional dynamics are a historical social construction, which has been politically contested and criticized. with the intention of recognizing patterns of continuity and transformation, which facilitate the identification of dynamics that particularize and distinguish between them. In this sense, Latin America has not neglected the use of governance, as a concept and as a valid analysis methodology to understand the distinctive characteristics that have made up a particular set of elements that, on the one hand, endure over time and, on the other hand, have recently changed. When referring to security, the opposing points of view show the emergence and incipient development of a heterogeneous, incomplete, and controversial governance. The main objective of this article, based on a hybrid and eclectic approach, will be to understand the evolution of the concept of governance and establish the characteristics of security for Latin America. Thus, in matters of security governance, this article highlights the hybrid character from two lines of argument; on the one hand, there are defenders of a vision based on geopolitics, the balance of power and the latent tension between states; and on the other, there is one more oriented to analyze security characteristics from a constructivist, associative and cooperative perspective. Indeed, Adler and Greve presented an interesting initial reflection on the subject, in the sense that both are necessary for the holistic understanding of the movements, not always ascending, that states carry to equip themselves with instruments and mechanisms that enable them. They allow you to live together in a more harmonious and peaceful way. First, some authors situate regional governance in mainly realistic terms, in which the dynamics of balance of power between states continue to prevail two hundred years after independence. They underline, for example, realities of ungovernability, while a series of specific variables, among which at least five stand out: first, the old geopolitical tensions between states continue to determine situations of conflict and mistrust; secondly, the competencies of individual and personal leaders in provision of common goods and dispute resolution stand out. Third, regional disputes have continued to be fueled both by internal competition - that is, between the states of the region - and, at the same time, by permissiveness in the face of the influence of external powers; Fourth, the importance of the quality of democracy for the countries of the region, which facilitates internal governance processes and strengthening the rule of law and, finally, the link between security and the economy in terms of economic development, that is, the effect of economic independence and economic autonomy in strengthening state security. Second, there is the most interpretive line of reflection on reality, highlighting that beyond the instruments of power and geopolitical, political processes and new ideological realignments must be understood, in which the following variables can be highlighted: first, the internal factors that condition or reinforce the international action of the States; second, the regional redefinition based on the creation of alternative multilateral forums, beyond the OAS, such as CELAC, UNASUR or ALBA, in which there are also components not only of trade and integration, but also of security and, finally, the little regional cooperation in security with low institutional, political and budgetary density. ; La gobernanza global es un enfoque que se incorpora con mayor interés en el estudio de las Relaciones internacionales. Su versatilidad y utilidad amplían el alcance conceptual, metodológico y práctico de la disciplina, lo cual permite investigar y explicar las interacciones y procesos en ocasiones poco claros que se producen entre actores de distinta naturaleza. Desde esta aproximación, la Gobernanza se ha erigido como una herramienta que amplía las explicaciones de los enfoques conceptuales y metodológicos tradicionalmente utilizados, en otras palabras, la gobernanza es un enfoque multidisciplinario y reflexivo que logra desvanecer fronteras interpuestas por los lentes teóricos convencionales y adicionalmente genera nuevas comprensiones entre lo global y lo local. Con base en lo anterior, se ha abierto y estimulado la utilización de la gobernanza al estudio de los órdenes regionales, pues aquellos se encargan de gestionar la agenda internacional, variada y compleja, ubicándose en un punto medio entre dinámicas globales y afectaciones locales. En ese sentido, ha contribuido a fortalecer una comprensión holística de los patrones históricos de comportamiento entre los miembros que los conforman, otorgándole mayor profundidad, ampliación y reflexividad a los procesos y desafíos allí presentes, así como a las respuestas requeridas a disyuntivas estructurales y coyunturales que evolucionan o emergen. En ese sentido, América Latina ha vivido en los últimos veinte años importantes transformaciones en la forma en la que se relacionan los estados y otros actores. La agenda de seguridad no ha sido ajena al fenómeno, por el contrario, el estudio de la gobernanza de seguridad se ha insertado como una categoría adicional de estudio. Así las cosas, la seguridad contemporánea emerge de una combinación entre estructuras políticas, sociales y culturales, que reflejan tendencias históricas, así como nuevos marcos de comprensión analítica, generando un espacio gris, híbrido y heterogéneo. El objetivo central de este artículo es establecer aquellas variables teóricas y prácticas necesarias para el estudio de la gobernanza híbrida de seguridad en América Latina a lo largo del siglo XXI a partir de un enfoque metodológico analítico, ecléctico y situado que señale los elementos distintivos y al mismo tiempo disputados o enfrentados que le han dado forma a la región. Se señala entonces que, la gobernanza híbrida seguirá alterando las definiciones tanto de seguridad como de región, conforme se alteren las dinámicas de poder, los principios y valores que guían el comportamiento de los agentes involucrados y la eficacia que tengan las organizaciones regionales para la gestión de los desafíos presentes y futuros. Para lo anterior, este escrito consta de tres partes. En la primera, se hará una revisión exhaustiva de las definiciones y alcance de la gobernanza global para así facilitar la comprensión sobre su utilidad teórica, revisando algunas críticas. Posteriormente se validará su beneficio para formular nuevos marcos de comprensión acerca de los órdenes regionales y las características que allí se forjan y, finalmente, se empleará para mostrar cómo ha consolidado una estructura heterogénea, disputada y conflictiva que no se ha terminado de completar o de desarrollar en América Latina.
[spa] Los Programas Caminos Escolares1 (CE) constituyen estrategias de intervención multidisciplinaria y multidimensional, que se han implantado en muchos países, especialmente en Europa y en el mundo anglosajón. Sus objetivos pueden asumir distintas perspectivas de acuerdo con los territorios y comunidades donde se implantan, siempre enfocando el estímulo a la movilidad infantil activa y autónoma. Mientras las investigaciones anteriores, ponen el foco sobre todo los aspectos que inciden en los resultados de referidos programas, en este caso se analizan sus impactos, considerándolos como intervenciones psico-socio-ambientales. Más específicamente, estos impactos se refieren a aspectos tales como: el conocimiento, el uso, el disfrute y la apropiación de los entornos escolares; la gestión comunitaria de la seguridad y la convivencia en el vecindario, así como la promoción de la participación de los niños y niñas en la toma de decisiones en la vida diaria y en las políticas públicas. El planteamiento general de la tesis se despliega en algunos principios o referencias metodológicas, como el estudio de caso colectivo (Stake, 1999), que se justifica por el interés instrumental en los casos a la vez que en una perspectiva comparativa. Ésta se caracteriza como una investigación cualitativa y comparativa que trata de mostrar la especificidad de cada contexto como cuestión fundamental, poniendo en valor el carácter situado del conocimiento y de la aplicación. Por lo tanto, lo que se busca en la comparación es no tanto la convergencia entre resultados sino resaltar las diferencias inter-contextuales. Además, se utilizó el método de comparación constante de la Grounded Theory como procedimiento de recogida y análisis simultáneo de datos, basado en Charmaz (2006). También se realizó una validación con los actores participantes de ambos casos del estudio y, asimismo, se utilizó del multimétodo o triangulación, empleándose diferentes técnicas para la recogida de los datos: observación, entrevistas, mapas cognitivos y análisis de documentos. Todo ello, guiado por el análisis interpretativo constructivista referenciado en Charmaz (2006), una aproximación interpretativa de la Teoría Fundamentada. La tesis está compuesta por tres estudios: 1) Caminos escolares y modelos de desplazamientos de los niños y niñas a la escuela – analiza los patrones de movilidad infantil encauzando el caso bus a pie2. A partir de las perspectivas de los participantes, se analizan los beneficios o posibles impactos positivos en sus contextos, pero, además, se enfocan sus límites y contradicciones, especialmente tomando como parámetro el desarrollo de la autonomía infantil comprometido en esta modalidad. 2) Posicionamientos de los actores acerca de los programas, presenta la posición de las familias sobre los desplazamientos autónomos, configurándose ésta en la intersección de tres aspectos: modelo de crianza, modelo de ciudad y percepción de seguridad. El foco se pone en la percepción de los actores sobre su entorno, conformando una imagen del barrio. Y, 3) Impactos psico-socio-ambientales (percibidos o potenciales) y sus dinámicas – abarca el análisis a partir de cuatro dimensiones: a) Actuación comunitaria/territorial e implicación de los actores locales; b) CE como un instrumento de participación ciudadana; c) ¿Camino escolar o proyecto de barrio/ciudad? d) Impactos y potencialidades en las políticas públicas para la infancia. A partir del análisis realizado de los impactos (tanto percibidos como potenciales) se evidencia que, más allá de una estrategia instrumental de carácter práctico -generar rutas seguras a la escuela facilitando que las familias enfrenten los miedos relativos al desplazamiento de sus hijos e hijas- estos programas representan una herramienta para promover la inclusión de la infancia en las ciudades. A la vez, en la teoría interpretativa propuesta, se explica la incidencia de dinámicas psico-socio-ambientales en la gestión de estos programas. Según esta interpretación, dichas dinámicas satelizan los programas de CE, potenciando sus impactos en la comunidad local y facilitando el desarrollo de una movilidad activa y autónoma. Poner el foco en las dinámicas psico-socio-ambientales en los Programas Caminos Escolares, constituye una aportación de esta tesis. En esta perspectiva, se puntúa la importancia estratégica del análisis de estos programas a partir del conocimiento organizado en la perspectiva transversal, teniendo como referente central la Psicología Socioambiental, especialmente en su contribución teórica para una comprensión holística de los fenómenos psico-socio-ambientales, aquí estudiados. Se enfatiza la importancia de factores como la identidad con el entorno (imagen del vecindario, apego al lugar, etc.), el sentido de comunidad, la cohesión social, así como aspectos ambientales de los barrios/vecindarios, como mediadores y propulsores de los impactos percibidos en los programas Camino Escolar. 1 Programas internacionalmente conocidos con distintos nombres: Walk to School (Inglaterra y otros países del norte europeo); Safe Routs to School en el mundo anglosajón fuera de Europa, especialmente Estado Unidos, Chemin de L'école, en Francia; son algunos de los ejemplos. 2 Traducción utilizada en España del Walking school bus o Pédibus, – Modalidad de desplazamiento infantil en que se forman grupos para caminar juntos hacia la escuela y que cuenta con el acompañamiento de adultos. ; [eng] Walk to school or Caminos Escolares (CE6) Programs are multidisciplinary and multidimensional intervention strategies that have been implemented in many countries, especially in Europe and the Anglo-Saxon world. Their objectives can assume different perspectives according to the territories and communities where they are implemented, always focusing on the stimulation of active and autonomous child mobility. Most of the previous research focused on the results of this kind of programs, but in this study, their impacts are analysed, considering them as psychosocial-environmental interventions. More specifically, these impacts refer to aspects such as the knowledge, use, enjoyment and appropriation of school environments; community management of security and coexistence in the neighborhood, as well as promoting the participation of boys and girls in decision-making in daily life and in public policies. The general approach of the thesis is deployed in some principles or methodological references, such as the collective case study (Stake, 1999), which is justified by the instrumental interest in the cases as well as in a comparative perspective. The research takes a qualitative and comparative perspective that tries to show the specificity of each context as a fundamental question, putting in value the situated nature of knowledge and application. Therefore, what was sought out in the comparison, was not mainly the convergence between results, but rather, to highlight the inter-contextual differences. In addition, the Grounded Theory constant comparison method has been used as a simultaneous data collection and analysis procedure, based on Charmaz (2006). The participating actors of both cases of the study also have carried out a validation and, likewise, the multi-method or triangulation was managed, using different techniques for data collection: observation, interviews, cognitive maps and document analysis. All this, permeated by the constructivist interpretive analysis referenced in Charmaz (2006) that characterizes an interpretive approach to Grounded Theory. This thesis is composed of three studies: 1) School paths and models of children's movements to school - analyzes children's mobility patterns, focusing on 'Walking bus' strategy. From the perspectives of the participants, the benefits or possible positive impacts in their contexts are analysed, but, in addition, their limits and contradictions has been focused, especially taking as a parameter the development of children's autonomy engaged in this modality. 2) Stakeholders' positions on the programs, presents the position of families on autonomous displacements, configuring it at the intersection of three aspects: parenting model, city model and perception of security. The focus is on the perception of the actors about their environment, shaping an image of the neighborhood. And, 3) Psycho-socio-environmental impacts (perceived or potential) and their dynamics - the analysis is based on four dimensions: a) Community / territorial action and involvement of local actors; b) CE as an instrument of citizen participation; c) School Path or neighborhood/city project? d) Impacts and potentialities in public policies for children. From the analysis of the impacts (perceived and potential), it becomes evident that, in addition to a practical instrumental strategy - generating safe routes to school, facilitating families to face fears regarding the displacement of their sons and daughters - these programs represent a tool to promote the inclusion of children in cities. At the same time, in the proposed interpretive theory, the incidence of psycho-socio-environmental dynamics in the management of these programs has been explained. According to this interpretation, these dynamics surrounding CE Programs, enhancing their impact on the local community and facilitating the development of active and autonomous mobility. Putting the focus on the psycho-socio-environmental dynamics in the Caminos Escolares Programs constitutes a contribution of this thesis. In this perspective, the strategic importance of the analysis of these programs are scored from the knowledge organized in the transversal perspective, having Social Environmental Psychology as a central reference, especially in its theoretical contribution to a holistic understanding of psycho-socio-environmental phenomena studied here. The importance of factors such as identity with the environment (image of the neighborhood, attachment to the place, etc.), the sense of community, social cohesion, as well as environmental aspects of the neighborhoods, as mediators and promoters of the Perceived impacts of the Camino Escolar Programs. 6 Internationally known programs with different names: Walk to school (England and other northern European countries); Safe routes to school in the Anglo-Saxon world, especially the United States; Chemin de L'école, in France and 'Caminos Escolares' (CE) or 'School Paths' in Spain and Latin countries are some examples.
[eng] The general objective of the doctoral thesis is to evaluate the effects of macroeconomic policies on the economy and the environment. Chapter 2 examines the composition of fiscal policy and its transmission mechanisms on various macroeconomic aggregates in open economies. Chapter 3 examines the transmission mechanisms of conventional and unconventional monetary policies on the macroeconomic aggregates in open economies. Chapter 4 explores the interactions among macroeconomic policies, the energy market and environmental quality. The analysis of the effects of fiscal and monetary policies on the economy and the environment is conducted using the structural vector autoregressive (VAR) methodology. This procedure is suitable when the variables of interest are endogenous, which is typically the case with macroeconomic and environmental variables. Structural VAR models allow to examine the dynamic interactions among the variables and feedback effects, through the impulse response functions and the variance decomposition. Chapter 2 provides a detailed examination on the composition of fiscal policy and its transmission mechanisms on various macroeconomic aggregates for two Anglo-Saxon countries, the United States and the United Kingdom, over the period 1964-2017. While research on fiscal policy has been substantial, the study of the transmission mechanisms and effects of tax revenue and government spending components in an open economy framework has received less attention. This chapter contributes to the literature on the disaggregated analysis of fiscal policy in open economies. We examine the composition of fiscal policy by asking whether government spending disaggregation matters for the transmission of fiscal policy on the macroeconomic aggregates. In addition, the chapter explores the role of the exchange rate and the trade balance in the transmission of shocks to tax revenue and government spending components. We estimate the effects of disaggregated fiscal policy shocks on the macroeconomic aggregates. Using the recursive approach, we identify a tax revenue and a government spending component shock that rotates between (i) government non-wage consumption (ii) government wage consumption (iii) public investment. The conducted analysis reveals that the disaggregation of fiscal policy matters since each fiscal instrument implies different transmission channels and effects on the real economy. It therefore seems essential to disaggregate government spending into its main components to uncover significant and different patterns that an aggregated analysis cannot reveal. However, as expected, the effects of government spending components on certain economic variables are weak and insignificant. In addition, our findings suggest that fiscal policy can be operative, besides the interest rate channel, via an exchange rate and trade balance channels. Considering an open economy framework is therefore essential since a part of the fiscal stimulus propagates abroad through external channels. The results occurring from this chapter have several policy implications. First, government non-wage consumption increases could have contractionary effects on the real economy as observed in the countries and the period considered in our analysis. Our findings also indicate that, as expected, public wage policies have a greater impact on the labor market than changes in the other components of government spending, while they have a relatively small effect on the output. Moreover, government efforts to stimulate the real economy through the increase in public investment should be accompanied by other types of macroeconomic policy instruments in order to offset the crowding out effect on private activity. Besides, the examination of tax revenue reveals different implications. In the United States, tax revenue cuts can stimulate economic activity and increase prices in the short run. In contrast, tax revenue cuts do not seem to be effective in stimulating the United Kingdom economy. Chapter 3 examines the transmission mechanisms of conventional and unconventional monetary policies on the macroeconomic aggregates in open economies. While research on monetary policy has been substantial, less attention was given to the study of the role of stock prices and consumer expectations in the transmission of monetary policy. In addition, very few studies have analysed the effects of monetary policy in open economies outside the euro area. Taking this into account, the analysis is carried out for two non-EMU countries, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, over the period 1990-2017. First, we examine whether conventional monetary policy is operative, besides other well-known channels, via a stock price and consumer confidence channels. We then explore the role of long-term interest rates, exchange rates and stock prices in the transmission of unconventional monetary policy. The chapter proposes two distinct structural VAR models based on a novel specification. The baseline model for the case of conventional monetary policy covers the pre-2009 period and is estimated using quarterly data, while the baseline model for the case of unconventional monetary policy covers the post-2009 period and is estimated using monthly data. The official bank policy rate and central bank's reserve assets are used as instruments for conventional and unconventional monetary policy. Considering stock prices is of key importance since monetary policy decisions have an impact on financing conditions and market expectations, thus leading to adjustments of asset prices. If central banks are forward looking, the monetary policy instrument cannot be properly identified unless expectations are taken into account. Our modelling approach consists in augmenting the structural VAR model with a forward-looking informational variable of near-term development in economic activity and several foreign exogenous variables to control for international spillovers. For the case of conventional monetary policy, the consumer confidence indicator is used since it contains important information used by central banks about consumer expectations as regards future economic conditions. For the case of unconventional monetary policy, the long-term government bond yields are used to capture consumer expectations about future short-term interest rates. The conducted analysis reveals that the inclusion of a forward-looking informational variable of near-term development in economic activity and a financial variable such as the stock prices are of key importance for the monetary policy assessment. We provide evidence for the existence of a consumer confidence channel in the transmission mechanism of conventional monetary policy. An expansionary policy enhances households' perception with regards future economic conditions, which may result in a tendency to consumer more and save less. Thus, changes in consumer confidence can potentially amplify the effects of monetary policy on the real economy. Moreover, the results indicate that the long-term government bond yields have an important role in the transmission mechanism of unconventional monetary policy. Although these results have limited policy implications, they reveal the importance of considering these specific transmission channels and controlling for global supply and demand shocks in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the effects of monetary policy. Overall, our findings indicate that conventional and unconventional monetary policies were effective in providing temporary stimulus to the economies of Switzerland and the United Kingdom during the considered periods. Chapter 4 examines the interactions among macroeconomic policies, the energy market and environmental quality. These interactions and channels among them are studied through structural VAR models based on a macroeconomic framework including the energy market. This chapter builds on the growing literature analysing the links between macroeconomic policies and environmental variables. It examines for the first time how the implementation of macroeconomic policies, that aim to stimulate the economy, may also affect the quality of the environment along the business cycle and the specific role of energy markets as transmission channels. On the one hand, the chapter evaluates the implications of macroeconomic policies on the price of non-renewable energy and the use of both renewable and non-renewable energy. On the other hand, it assesses the influence of fiscal policy components, conventional and unconventional monetary policies on greenhouse gas emissions generated by the energy sector. The empirical analysis is conducted for Switzerland and the United Kingdom over the period 1990-2016. The geographical and physical characteristics of these two countries make them particularly vulnerable to global warming. For the case of monetary policy, the analysis is explicitly made on sub-periods since the implementation of quantitative easing can be viewed as a new monetary policy regime. The results occurring from Chapter 4 reveals several policy implications. Fiscal policy, besides its primary role in stabilizing economic activity, can contribute to the achievement of environmental sustainability. Our findings indicate that public investment is more efficient than government consumption in reducing non-renewable energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. The analysis of the composition of government spending seems crucial to establish how the different spending categories can complement the efforts to conserve natural resources, promote the use of clean energy and enhance environmental quality. On the other hand, the examination of monetary policy reveals that central banks should investigate the impact of their interventions on environmental quality through the renewable and non-renewable energy markets. In the United Kingdom, conventional monetary policy proves to be effective in promoting the deployment of renewable energies and reducing emissions. In Switzerland, central bank's efforts to stimulate the real economy through the decrease in interest rates should be accompanied by more strict environmental regulations in order to offset the rise in emissions. Moreover, the conducted analysis reveals that unconventional monetary policy can lead to enhancements of environmental quality. However, as expected, quantitative easing is not by itself capable of substantially reducing emissions and other types of environmental policies need to be implemented jointly. Although monetary policy cannot yet be considered as a policy instrument for climate change and energy, central banks should incorporate environmental issues in their welfare maximization problem.
Les années 1990 constituent un tournant décisif dans la gestion de la migration dans l'espace européen et ceci pour plusieurs facteurs. En effet, au moment où une régionalisation ou une communautarisation se mettait en place progressivement en Europe (Schengen 1985 et Convention d'application de 1990), des ressortissants de certains pays tiers tentaient de rejoindre le continent européen dans le but d'améliorer leurs conditions de travail et de vie, de trouver une protection internationale, de fuir les guerres, les conflits et des conditions climatiques peu propices au respect de leurs fondamentaux. Elles coïncident avec la réduction des possibilités de migrer également vers l'Europe, la fermeture et le contrôle des frontières extérieures de l'Union européenne (UE), l'organisation internationale qui regroupe 27 pays membres ayant pour mission de créer une communauté économique et politique et qui a mis en place une politique de lutte contre l'immigration irrégulière. La lutte européenne contre l'immigration vise principalement à stopper l'arrivée de migrants irréguliers et à renvoyer des étrangers irréguliers présents sur le sol européen vers des pays tiers. Désormais, l'accès à l'Europe forteresse devient presque impossible pour des ressortissants provenant de certaines régions notamment d'Afrique subsaharienne qui ont orienté leur choix vers l'immigration irrégulière. De pays d'émigration, le Sénégal et le Maroc deviennent aussi des pays de transit pour les candidats à l'émigration irrégulière vers l'Europe. Cet état de fait explique amplement les choix opérés par l'UE de renforcer sa coopération avec ces pays tiers en vue de mieux lutter contre l'immigration irrégulière. Il s'agit pour l'UE de transférer des obligations et des responsabilités aux pays d'origine ou de transit dans la gestion des flux migratoires et le contrôle des frontières extérieures de l'UE. C'est l'externalisation de la lutte européenne contre l'immigration irrégulière. Cette externalisation se réalise au travers de l'adoption d'accords internationaux qui peuvent mener à l'introduction de clause migratoire également dans des accords généraux conclus entre l'UE et les pays tiers, notamment dans l'accord de Cotonou, conclu entre l'UE et les pays ACP. En outre, l'adoption de déclarations politiques entre l'UE et les pays tiers afin de transférer à ces derniers la responsabilité de limiter les départs et d'accepter de réadmettre leurs ressortissants ou des étrangers ayant transité sur leur sol, qui sont présents irrégulièrement en Europe, est un instrument de mesure de l'externalisation. L'externalisation se réalise aussi dans les pays tiers qui criminalisent la sortie de leurs ressortissants et des étrangers y résidant légalement ou non, dans le but de se rendre en Europe. Par ailleurs, les cadres législatifs adoptés par les autorités marocaines et sénégalaises criminalisent l'immigration et l'émigration irrégulières et la migration clandestine. Le but de la recherche est de démontrer que l'externalisation de la lutte contre les migrations irrégulières de l'UE porte atteinte aux droits des migrants dans les pays d'origine ou de transit, et il paraît essentiel de définir un cadre conceptuel et une méthodologie. Pour ce faire, reposant sur une méthodologie positiviste suivant une approche critique (herméneutique), la recherche analyse les cadres juridiques de l'UE et de pays tiers (Sénégal et Maroc). Ainsi, l'examen de la jurisprudence des juridictions marocaines et sénégalaises relative au contentieux du droit des étrangers montre que les pays tiers contribuent clairement à la lutte européenne contre l'immigration irrégulière, à travers la poursuite et les sanctions appliquées aux ressortissants marocains, sénégalais et étrangers résidant également ou non dans ces pays, pour leur volonté présumée de partir vers le continent européen de façon irrégulière et lors de leur retour dans leur pays d'origine ou de transit. En outre, l'étude de ces deux pays démontre un autre aspect important dans cette externalisation : la difficulté d'établir les responsabilités des États comme de l'UE dans les différentes violations des droits de l'homme des migrants dans ce contexte d'externalisation. Nonobstant la complexité de définir les responsabilités des acteurs dans cette externalisation, la documentation de l'UE et de ses institutions, ainsi que le rôle des agences et particulièrement de Frontex, peuvent apporter un éclairage essentiel à nos interrogations sur la responsabilité des États et de l'UE dans les différentes violations des droits de l'homme constatées lors du renvoi des migrants et de leur blocage dans les pays tiers. Dès lors, il est pertinent d'étudier les positions des juridictions internationales afin d'établir cette responsabilité des États et de l'UE, mais les décisions rendues à ce jour ne permettent pas d'arriver à cette conclusion. Ce faisant, il est plus qu'indispensable de poser de nouvelles orientations si l'on souhaite mettre fin à cette externalisation et à ses conséquences néfastes sur les droits de l'homme des migrants irréguliers même dans les pays tiers, car l'adoption des deux pactes (pacte mondial sur la migration et pacte mondial sur les réfugiés) ne semblent pas apporter des solutions judiciaires et une meilleure protection des droits des migrants ; The 1990s were a decisive turning point in the management of migration in the European area, for several factors. Indeed, at the time when regionalization or communitarization was gradually taking place in Europe (Schengen 1985 and 1990 Implementation Convention), nationals of certain third countries were trying to join the European continent in order to improve their conditions of work and life, of finding international protection, of fleeing wars, conflicts and unfavorable climatic conditions for the respect of their fundamentals. They coincide with the reduction in the possibilities of migrating also to Europe, the closure and control of the external borders of the European Union (EU), the international organization which brings together 27 member countries whose mission is to create an economic and policy and which has implemented a policy to combat irregular immigration. The main objective of the European fight against immigration is to stop the arrival of irregular migrants and to return irregular foreigners present on European soil to third countries. From now on, access to fortress Europe is becoming almost impossible for nationals coming from certain regions, notably from sub-Saharan Africa, who have turned their choice towards irregular immigration. From emigration countries, Senegal and Morocco also become transit countries for applicants for irregular emigration to Europe. This fact amply explains the choices made by the EU to reinforce its cooperation with these third countries with a view to better combating illegal immigration. It is a question for the EU of transferring obligations and responsibilities to the countries of origin or transit in the management of migratory flows and the control of the external borders of the EU. It is the outsourcing of the European fight against irregular immigration. This outsourcing is achieved through the adoption of international agreements which can lead to the introduction of a migration clause also in general agreements concluded between the EU and third countries, in particular in the Cotonou Agreement, concluded between the EU and ACP countries. In addition, the adoption of political declarations between the EU and third countries in order to transfer to the latter the responsibility for limiting departures and agreeing to readmit their nationals or foreigners having transited on their soil, who are present irregularly in Europe, is an instrument for measuring outsourcing. Outsourcing is also carried out in third countries which criminalize the exit of their nationals and foreigners legally or illegally resident there, with the aim of traveling to Europe. In addition, the legislative frameworks adopted by the Moroccan and Senegalese authorities criminalize irregular immigration and emigration and illegal migration The aim of the research is to demonstrate that the outsourcing of the fight against irregular migration from the EU infringes the rights of migrants in the countries of origin or transit, and it seems essential to define a conceptual framework and a methodology. To do this, based on a positivist methodology following a critical (hermeneutical) approach, the research analyzes the legal frameworks of the EU and third countries (Senegal and Morocco). Thus, the examination of the jurisprudence of the Moroccan and Senegalese jurisdictions relating to the litigation of the right of the foreigners shows that the third countries clearly contribute to the European fight against the irregular immigration, through the prosecution and the sanctions applied to the Moroccan nationals, Senegalese and foreigners residing or not also in these countries, for their presumed will to leave towards the European continent in an irregular way and at the time of their return in their country of origin or transit. In addition, the study of these two countries demonstrates another important aspect in this outsourcing: the difficulty of establishing the responsibilities of States and of the EU in the various violations of the human rights of migrants in this context of outsourcing. Notwithstanding the complexity of defining the responsibilities of the actors in this outsourcing, the documentation of the EU and its institutions, as well as the role of the agencies and particularly of Frontex, can shed essential light on our questions about the responsibility of States and the EU in the various human rights violations observed during the return of migrants and their blockage in third countries. Therefore, it is relevant to study the positions of international courts in order to establish this responsibility for States and the EU, but the decisions delivered to date do not allow this conclusion to be reached. In doing so, it is more than essential to set new directions if we want to put an end to this outsourcing and its harmful consequences for the human rights of irregular migrants even in third countries, because the adoption of two pacts (global pact on migration and global pact on refugees) do not seem to provide legal solutions and better protection of the rights of migrants.
