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Madrid has been the center of Spanish musical scene and industry since the 80s, when "la movida" becomes the metaphor for the new colorful, young and cosmopolitan country established with the arrival of democracy. The city, in this way, is basically a place. But this sense of place started to crash with the arrival of digital music. In the new paradigm, intermediaries were supposed to disappear and music was something contained in networks and computers. The question now is how to integrate digital music, a nonphysical, individual experience, with the way in which the city of Madrid is lived through in musical terms. With the advent of digital music, concerts became the primary source of income for musicians. The centrality of the gig can be understood as the confirmation that we are living in an economy of experience. This centrality also reorganized the way in which music is produced and consumed: now, records are produced in order to create the opportunity of a musical event (band promote their tour as presentation of their latest recordings) that can be promoted in social networks and media; concerts are the places where musicians construct their fans' communities and are the places were records are sold, not a way to know the band but to demonstrate both the support for the band and the status of the listeners. To study the place of music in the process of metropolization in Madrid we need to understand music as a field of tension

The article presents a review and consideration of the main aspects, directions and specifics of research publications on the history of liberal parties in Russia in the early 20th century and their parliamentary representatives (factions) in the State Duma over this period. Carrying out this research, the author used methods of structural-functional analysis, historical-comparative and problem-chronological method, as well as the principle of scientific objectivity. The author carefully examined the enormous work done by researchers on archival materials and sources related to the history of political life in Russia in the early 20th century, its institutions and representatives. At the same time, the research goes beyond consideration of the accumulated experience and views of Russian scientists (A.Ya. Avrekh, D.V. Aronov, A.N. Egorov, V.V. Shelokhayev and others) on the subject matter stated in the title of the article, but also presents the relevant opinions of international historians (L. Edmondson, W.G. Rosenberg, D. Wartenweiler, R. Williams, J. Hosking, M. Stockdale). One of the research results is the analysis of works on the history of the People's Freedom Party (Cadets) as one of the largest liberal parties in Russian politics during the studied period. The author claims that at present moment it seems viable to look at the main aspects of the history of the liberal movement (parties) in Russia in the early 20th century and their parliamentary representatives both for general understanding of the work done by domestic and international historians in this area, and for understanding the specifics of its transformational change regarding the temporary development factor.

The article deals with the formation of the dictatorship of General Maximiliano Hernández Martínez between 1931 and 1935 and its constitutional consecration in 1939, to which the title refers. For this, he describes the impact that the Great Depression had on the Salvadoran economy, as well as the repercussions of the generalized crisis that the country experienced and that manifested itself in the reorganization of the State, the mobilization of rebel groups and, more importantly, the shift towards the dictatorship as a political regime. It is, suggested that the opposition between democracy and authoritarianism has summarized the political problems of the constitutional evolution of the 20th century in El Salvador. From a historical perspective, it argues that the tension between these two poles created, on the one hand, constitutional formality and, on the other, the reality of disrespect for the rights of citizenship. Throughout the century, the relationship between the struggles for democracy, the validity of authoritarianism and constitutional production was decisive in three periods: 1939–1944, 1950 1962 y 1983–1992. The first period was of the splendor of the dictatorship; the second corresponded to the authoritarian validity. In the latter, in the middle of the war, when the foundation of democracy, was configured. This approach is part of the broader research project on the "Salvadoran constitutional evolution in the 20th century", within the framework of the research agenda of the Evangelical University of El Salvador, with a view to the celebration of the Bicentennial of Independence, 1821-2021. ; El artículo aborda la formación de la dictadura del general Maximiliano Hernández Martínez entre 1931 y 1935 y su consagración constitucional en 1939 a la que se refiere el título. Para ello describe el impacto que tuvo la Gran depresión en la economía salvadoreña, así como las repercusiones de la crisis generalizada que experimentó el país y que se manifestó en la reorganización del Estado, la movilización de grupos rebeldes y, más importante, el giro hacia la dictadura como régimen político. Se sugiere que la oposición entre la democracia y el autoritarismo ha resumido la problemática política de la evolución constitucional del siglo XX en El Salvador. Desde un enfoque histórico plantea que la tensión entre esos dos polos creó, de un lado, la formalidad constitucional y, de otro, la realidad de irrespeto a los derechos de la ciudadanía. A lo largo del siglo, la relación entre las luchas por la democracia, la vigencia del autoritarismo y la producción constitucional fueron decisivas en tres periodos: 1939–1944; 1950–1962; 1983–1992. El primer periodo fue del esplendor de la dictadura; el segundo, correspondió a la vigencia autoritaria. En el último, en medio de la guerra, se configuró la fundación de la democracia. Este planteamiento está inscrito en el proyecto más amplio de investigación sobre la «Evolución constitucional salvadoreña en el siglo XX», en el marco de la agenda de investigación de la Universidad Evangélica de El Salvador (UEES), de cara a la celebración del Bicentenario de la Independencia, 1821-2021.

The notion of secularization as an incompatibility between modernization and religion derives from the analysis of the process of modernization of Western European societies. This process led to a weight loss of religion in society and to a progressive differentiation of social spheres, such as religion, politics, science, etc. Following on from this analysis the category and the theory were extended to take on a universal scope in order to describe the modernization processes that would occur in other societies. From the very beginning, sociology has provided exceptions to the rule of secularization. The first was noted by de Tocqueville: American exceptionalism. Then came the processes of rapid economic growth of some Asian Pacific countries (Japan, Korea, Singapore, etc.). Progressively, the entry of new countries into the field of interest of sociologists is showing the Eurocentric nature of the concept. The case of Western Europe, which was the rule, became the exception. Even the notion of religion as a separate social sphere is considered by some social scientists to be ethnocentric. Despite its previous Eurocentrism, the notion of secularization remains useful for sociologists. It has served to account for European religious change, and its analytical instruments can be applied to other cases and may be useful for interpreting these cases either with regard to how they adhere to the Western European model, or how they differ from it – still further, if we consider the huge extent of contemporary international migration. If sociologists want to understand the new Western European societies, they must reapply this analytical rather than predictive version of the concept.

Historians have discussed and debated the many reasons for the Colombian Catholic church'sdecline. National trends such as the growing secularization of society, emergence of Protestantism, and the decline of the Conservative Party have all been cited as contributing to the weakening of the Catholic Church's importance. This article examines the evolution of theCatholic Church in the department of Cauca during the twentieth century. It focuses specifically on the changes in the relationship between the Catholic Church and indigenous people.

Historians have discussed and debated the many reasons for the Colombian Catholic church'sdecline. National trends such as the growing secularization of society, emergence of Protestantism, and the decline of the Conservative Party have all been cited as contributing to the weakening of the Catholic Church's importance. This article examines the evolution of theCatholic Church in the department of Cauca during the twentieth century. It focuses specifically on the changes in the relationship between the Catholic Church and indigenous people.

In Colombia, towards the middle of the 20th century, the university had an enormous responsibility in the face of the various social events and phenomena that were presented. Therefore, it was hoped that it would contribute to the solution of the different national conflicts and problems that threatened in a different way the stability of the State, based on situations of political violence and economic crisis. Here the position was directed: "in the face of this cyclone that threatens, the university is called to rescue the nation from such a sad situation […] Chronic illiteracy in Colombia has allowed this imbalance, and if there is no concern for such a failure, the road to The disorder is immediate. Only through education and the energies and money that are dedicated to it -education- can this state of affairs be relieved". In that sense, women were called to recognize their role through responses to the challenges posed, with a view to generating development processes for the generation of new knowledge. ; En Colombia, hacia mediados del siglo XX, la universidad tuvo una enorme responsabilidad frente a los diversos hechos y fenómenos sociales que se fueron presentando. Por ello, se esperó que contribuyera a la solución de los diferentes conflictos y problemas nacionales que amenazaban de diversa manera la estabilidad del Estado, a partir de situaciones de violencia política y crisis económica. Aquí se dirigía la postura: "ante este ciclón que amenaza, la universidad está llamada a rescatar a la nación de tan triste situación […] El analfabetismo crónico en Colombia ha permitido este desequilibrio, y si no existe preocupación alguna por semejante falla, el camino hacia el desorden es inmediato. Solo a través de la educación y de las energías y dineros que a ella -la educación- se consagren puede aliviarse tal estado de cosas" ("Educación de la Juventud", 1954). En ese sentido, la mujer estuvo llamada a reconocer su papel a través de respuestas a los retos planteados, con miras a generar procesos de desarrollo para la generación de nuevos conocimientos.

Este artículo es una introducción a la biografía intelectual de Raymond Aron como intérprete del siglo XX; refiere a algunas de sus influyentes producciones científicas e intervenciones en política y periodismo; y presenta el contenido de este dossier centrado en la obra de este notable sociólogo francés, infrecuentemente enseñado en las universidades y cuyo legado ha sido escasamente valorizado en investigaciones en ciencias sociales en Argentina. ; This article is an introduction to the intellectual biography of Raymond Aron as an interpreter of 20th century. It refers to some of his influential scientific productions and interventions in politics and journalism. It presents the contents of this dossier focused on the work of this remarkable French sociologist, infrequently taught at universities and whose legacy has been poorly valued at research in social sciences in the Argentina. ; Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación

Correspondence between Mr. Carlos Roel, from the legation of Mexico in France, and Gen. Alvaro Obregón, in which the former compliments Gen. Obregón on his MANIFESTO TO THE NATION and informs him of the high approval that it has received in the legation of Mexico in France. Mr. Carlos Roel refers Benjamín Barrios, B.A. to Gen. Obregón for collaborating on his campaign. Mr. Carlos Roel informs Gen. Obregón of the work done in the legation by Mr. Alberto J. Pani. / Correspondencia entre el Sr. Carlos Roel de la Legación de México en Francia y el Gral. Alvaro Obregón, en la que el primero felicita al Gral. Obregón por su MANIFIESTO A LA NACION y le informa de la buena acogida que ha tenido en la Legación de México en Francia. El Sr. Carlos Roel recomienda con el Gral. Alvaro Obregón al Lic. Benjamín Barrios para colaborar en su campaña. El Sr. Carlos Roel comenta al Gral. Obregón la labor realizada en la Legación por el Ing. Alberto J. Pani.

Correspondence of Mr. Roberto Roel, Mr. Francisco Pérez, Director General of the National Railroads of Mexico, and Gen. Alvaro Obregón, in which Mr. Roel congratulates Gen. Obregón on his presidential nomination and expresses his sympathy and condolences for the passing of Carranza. Gen. Obregón requests Mr. Francisco Pérez to reinstate Mr. Roel in his job. Positive reply. File R-33. / Correspondencia entre el Sr. Roberto Roel, el Sr.Francisco Pérez, Director General de los Ferrocarriles Nacionales de México y el Gral. Alvaro Obregón, en la que el primero felicita al Gral. Obregón por su candidatura y le da el pésame por la muerte de Carranza. El Gral. Obregón solicita al Sr. Francisco Pérez que sea restituido en su puesto el Sr. Roel. Respuesta afirmativa. Exp. R-33

In the middle of the most pronounced economic crisis since its inception, many of the communication policies initiated by the European Union in recent decades must be evaluated and redefined considering the future of the Union. The challenge to define Europe and create a common identity that respects the diversity of cultures within the Union has been attempted through various media policies. We explore the recent evolution of European radio policies, considering a range of projects from the global to network levels (e.g. Radio E, Euranet and Euranet Plus) that are fundamental to our understanding of the use of media in the development of a European identity that respects the diversity of cultures within the Union.

Studies on the evolution of agricultural relationships focus on input substitution and ignore the impact and influence of social groups. However, the behaviour of these groups has important effects on the implementation of the legislation in different scenarios. We also focus on environmental factors and the interdependence between these factors and land distribution, such as occurs in the Agricultural Reform of the Spanish Republic. ; Los discursos que recogen los cambios de las relaciones agrarias no pueden reducirse a un sentido mecanicista de liberar factores de producción, la tierra o el trabajo, al margen de los grupos sociales; debe tenerse en cuenta la actuación de éstos para acomodar la legislación que viene de arriba a la práctica que se sigue abajo en cada caso concreto. Se llama también la atención sobre la importancia de los factores medioambientales y su posible conflicto con los temas de distribución de la renta, ejemplificados en el caso de la reforma agraria republicana.

Correspondence of Engr. Faustino Roel, Mr. J.H. Perestrejo, Mr. Guajardo, and Gen. Alvaro Obregón concerning the feeling of disapproval to the appointment of Mr. Domingo Valdez Llano as Governor of the state of Nuevo León. Reports on the political situation in Nuevo León. Elections in the state of Nuevo León. Engr. Faustino Roel informs Gen. Obregón that his credentials as senator were rejected and he attaches a printed letter of complaint signed by his supporters. Gen. Obregón's visit to the Dallas, Texaz Expo. File R-32. / Correspondencia entre el Ing. Faustino Roel, Sr. J.H. Perestrejo, Sr. Guajardo y Gral. Alvaro Obregón, relativa al desagrado con que se ha recibido el nombramiento del Sr. Domingo Valdés Llano como Gobernador del estado de Nuevo León. Informes sobre situación política en Nuevo León. Elecciones en el estado de Nuevo León. El Ing. Faustino Roel informa al Gral. Obregón que su credencial de Senador fue rechazada y anexa carta de protesta impresa que firman sus partidarios. Visita del Gral. Obregón a la Exposición de Dallas, Tex. Exp. R-32

This paper examines the case of Madrid with examples of mobilisation and transformative actions in public spaces of the city. It discusses how virtualisation of networks and spaces through ICTs (information and communication technologies) has contributed to new patterns of mobilisation and social networks among participants and supporters. Following sections will give an account of the transformation of political action in the real and virtual public space of Madrid and on the evolution of Spanish urban social movements in relation to these issues, and the role of new urban activists in the governance patterns of the neoliberal city in crises.