Suchergebnisse

Whether the change indicates an important degree of secularization.

Challenges to the Italian Communist Party, 1967 to the present. Partial contents: The student revolt 1967-68; The workers' rebellion 1968-1970; Black terrorism 1969-1984; Secularization 1972-1981; National solidarity 1976-1979; Autonomia and red brigades.

Published data on Muslim women's participation in sport in 29 predominantly Islamic countries and personal observations in Middle East sport were used. The situation varies from country to country, from rural to urban areas, and depends on impact of Islamic resurgence, secularism, nationalism, Westernization and socialism. Physical education is officially compulsory in schools but, partly due to traditional attitudes and lack of facilities for segregation of the sexes, often neglected in practice. If at all, women are prepared for teaching of rather than for active participation in sport. The original teachings of Islam, actually favoring physical and spiritual development of both sexes, were overshadowed by other restrictive cultural influences. A change is taking place, but very slowly.

The Peoples' Republic of Bangladesh initially adopted a constitution in 1972 that sought to direct the state power to develop ways and means for the society's transition to a socialistic economic order through a secular parliamentary democracy.1 Today, through constitutional changes, Bangladesh is neither a parliamentary democracy, nor does it follow a path to a socialistic economy. Secularism also is no longer a constitutional dictum.2 These clearly indicate changes in the fundamentals of the Constitution (1972), and such changes, wheneuer they occur, require probing in terms of the basis, the process and method of constitution making, constitution-amending and the legitimacy of these processes. The following analysis attempts to explore the Bangladesh case.3

In no region of the world have so many political entities intermingled with so many religious traditions for so long as in India. The early Hindu experience established a legitimizing link between religion & the state, later adopted by non-Hindu faiths. British colonialism displaced local religions as political legitimizers of the state & replaced them with Anglicized Christianity. Indian religions then became legitimizers of anticolonial freedom movements. After independence in 1947, India had a predominantly Hindu population, but the new state was created as a secular entity. Although secularism has been endangered in the past four decades, it remains largely intact at the national level; there are inconsistencies in its application & threats to its integrity at the regional & state level. Democratic voting has replaced religion as the key legitimizing instrument of the state, but religious issues remain a vital part of Indian politics. The future appears optimistic for the continuity of the secular state, although severe problems could erode the concept. HA

In no region of the world have so many political entities intermingled with so many religious traditions for so long as in India. The early Hindu experience established a legitimizing link between religion and the state. Later, non-Hindu faiths adopted similar legitimizing practices. British colonialism displaced local religions as political legitimizers of the state and replaced them with Anglicized Christianity. Indian religions then became legitimizers of anticolonial freedom movements. After independence and partition of the subcontinent in 1947, India had a predominantly Hindu population, but the new state was created as a secular entity. Although secularism has been endangered and pressured in the past four decades, it remains largely intact at the national level; however, there are inconsistencies in its application and threats to its integrity at the regional and state level. Religion has, however, ceased to be the key legitimizing instrument of the state; democratic voting has replaced it. Yet, religious issues remain a vital part of Indian politics. The future appears optimistic for the continuity of the secular state, although severe problems could erode the concept.

This study questions a prevalent view of the First Amendment religion clauses which maintains they were intended to establish neutrality of the federal government between religion and nonreligion and thereby to establish not merely governmental religious pluralism but governmental secularism. Since the Bill of Rights is said to have been adopted to satisfy anti-Federalist objections to the original Constitution, what they said about religion in the ratification debates is comprehensively examined. They turn out to have been primarily concerned that the unamended Constitution was particularly dangerous to and tilted against religion. Hence they wanted not simply to prevent the new government from infringing on "religious liberty" (of individuals or states) but to redress the unamended Constitution's actual or potential tilt against religion. The First Congress debates are then examined from this rather different perspective to see what effect this concern may have had on the First Amendment religion clauses. It is argued that this concern produced a more complex constitutional position on religion and religious liberty than is commonly maintained. This position is not simply Madison/Jefferson separationism but a compromise which to some extent redressed the original Constitution's tilt against religion.