My dissertation is intended to analyze the work of Gershom Scholem with the scope of outlining his importance within the context of twentieth century Jewish thought. A great deal of this thesis is thus devoted not only to Scholem's political interventions and interviews, indeed a marginal part of his research, but also to detect the trace of a constant philosophical interest in his scholarship. First chapter provides the historical context, dealing briefly with some of the most important figures of the German-Jewish philosophical scene: Hermann Cohen, Martin Buber, and Franz Rosenzweig. The role of Ahad Ha'am and cultural Zionism is also presented. Second chapter is devoted to Scholem's conception of language and to the analysis of the notions of Revelation and Tradition as developed in some of his most important essays. Central in this context is the role played by Franz Kafka, whose novels can be seen indeed as a sort of paradigm through which Scholem interpreted not only the main figures of Kabbalah, but also the whole theology of Judaism. An investigation of Scholem's methodology and conception of history is to be found in third chapter. Three elements that contributed very much to shape Scholem's scholarship are taken in particular account. First of all, Scholem's polemics against the Wissenschaft des Judentums, which finds its ground on an organicistic and non-essentialistic approach to Jewish history. Then, the early appreciation for Nietzsche and Lebensphilosophie, though later neglected by Scholem, is here seen as a possible source for the vitalistic and anarchic elements that characterize his research. Finally, a great part of this chapter is dedicated to a comparison between Scholem's conception of Jewish history and Walter Benjamin's Thesis on the concept of History (1940). Although much of scholarly effort has already been devoted to the relation between Scholem and Benjamin, the presence of Benjamin's last work in Scholem's research still needs to be considered in all its significance. With the aim of investigating Scholem's approach to Jewish history and historiography, two essays are taken in particular consideration: Memory and Utopia in Jewish History (1946), a lecture Scholem gave in the aftermath of the Holocaust in front of a Zionist audience, and On History and Philosophy of History, the text of Scholem's response to a talk on "History and Hermeneutics" given by Paul Ricoeur within the context of the "First Jerusalem Philosophical Encounter" (1974). Chapter four deals with Scholem's conception of messianism. After showing the importance of messianism in Scholem's research and the originality of his interpretation, the relevance of Scholem's position is highlighted through the analysis of the two most important polemics in which Scholem has been involved. The critiques of Scholem's opponents, Baruch Kurzweil and Jacob Taubes, have been taken here as a tool to show the philosophical and political concerns hiding behind the core of Scholem's analysis. With the help of some unpublished material, the last part of the chapter presents an overview of the relation between messianism and zionism in Scholem's work. His early zionism being loaded with metaphysical and messianic overtones, after moving to Palestine Scholem had to face a strong disenchantment, which lead him to separate his zionist affiliation, as a part of a historical responsibility and political decision, from messianism, which indeed he considered to be something rather un-historical and confined to an utopian plane. Fifth chapter intends to show the peculiarity of Scholem's attitude toward secularization. According to Scholem, the passage through secularism in Judaism has to be intended as a necessary moment, though not definitive, being part of a dialectics that cannot be foreseen in advance. An analysis of Scholem's 1926 letter to Rosenzweig is also offered, showing the philosophical significance of Scholem's reflections on the importance and the risks entailed in the secular revival of the Hebrew language.
Oggetto della tesi è un ventennio cruciale della storia contemporanea turca, compreso tra il colpo di Stato militare realizzato dalla giunta del generale Kenan Evren il 12 settembre 1980 e la prima vittoria del Partito della Giustizia e dello Sviluppo (AKP) di Recep Tayyip Erdoğan alle elezioni generali del 3 novembre 2002. L'obiettivo è spiegare le premesse, le motivazioni e le dinamiche storico-politiche sia domestiche sia internazionali che, nel corso di tale ventennio, hanno condotto al progressivo declino dell'establishment kemalista e all'affermazione di uno specifico ramo del movimento islamico sulla scena politica, economica e culturale turca. Una simile analisi consentirà di formulare anche delle linee di interpretazione per le vicende attuali, che appaiono strettamente legate a quanto accaduto tra il 1980 e il 2002. La ricostruzione storica dei principali avvenimenti verificatisi nel ventennio si basa sullo studio di fonti primarie e secondarie in massima parte in lingua turca. Tra le prime, è prevalente la documentazione ufficiale (dibattiti parlamentari, programmi di governo, rapporti di commissioni d'inchiesta, documenti di partito, atti processuali, discorsi di personalità politiche, etc.) disponibile negli archivi digitali delle istituzioni turche. Per quanto riguarda le fonti secondarie, si privilegia la storiografia turca più recente e non ancora tradotta in altre lingue. Allo scopo di favorire una comprensione più completa delle dinamiche in esame, accanto alla contestualizzazione storica si offre una riflessione critica su alcuni aspetti significativi di natura maggiormente teorica, riguardanti in particolare l'ideologia kemalista, lo sviluppo dell'islam politico, il rapporto tra religione e secolarismo nel Paese. L'Introduzione chiarisce gli interrogativi e le ipotesi della ricerca, argomentandone tra l'altro la rilevanza rispetto ai recenti fatti di cronaca e alla situazione politica corrente; vengono inoltre presentati lo stato dell'arte, le fonti di riferimento e l'approccio teorico. Nel Capitolo I viene ricostruito il clima antecedente al 1980, discutendo innanzitutto alcune contraddizioni intrinseche dei principi kemalisti e il ruolo dell'Esercito nella vita politica. Successivamente ci si sofferma sul colpo di Stato del 1960, sul memorandum militare del 1971 e sulla crisi economico-politica che ha interessato il Paese negli anni Settanta. Il Capitolo II è dedicato alla trattazione del colpo di Stato del 1980, delle sue cause, delle sue conseguenze e dei provvedimenti imposti dalla giunta militare al potere fino al 1983. In seguito, vengono descritte la trasformazione neoliberale e la graduale liberalizzazione promosse durante il governo decennale di Turgut Özal, leader della Nuova destra turca. Nel Capitolo III viene affrontata l'ascesa dell'islam politico e della borghesia conservatrice in Turchia, riservando un approfondimento al movimento della Visione Nazionale e alla comunità religiosa di Fethullah Gülen. Si ripercorre quindi l'affermazione del Partito islamico del Benessere, fino alla formazione del governo di coalizione affidato a Necmettin Erbakan. Il Capitolo IV si apre con il golpe post-moderno che ha abbattuto il governo di Erbakan e represso il movimento islamico; questo ha quindi intrapreso una fase di rinnovamento, culminata nella fondazione dell'AKP sotto la leadership di Erdoğan (del quale viene fornita una sintetica biografia). La tesi si conclude con la descrizione dello scenario politico risultato dalle elezioni del 2002. In conclusione, verranno offerte delle risposte agli interrogativi di ricerca alla luce di alcune ricorrenze storiche e dei paradigmi politici fondamentali emersi dallo studio del ventennio. In particolare, si propone una lettura non dicotomica del rapporto tra kemalismo e islam politico, che risulta caratterizzato da interazione ed influenza reciproca piuttosto che da conflitto e opposizione. Tale rapporto può essere meglio compreso nella cornice della sostanziale continuità dell'autoritarismo nei regimi politici turchi post-1980. Come prospettiva di ricerca futura, verrà suggerito uno studio dell'era dell'AKP in un'ottica di comparazione e di continuità storica con il ventennio cruciale. ; THE DECLINE OF KEMALISM AND A NEW FACE OF POLITICAL ISLAM. TWENTY CRUCIAL YEARS IN TURKEY'S HISTORY: 1980-2002. The present dissertation focuses on twenty crucial years of contemporary Turkey's history, between the 12th September 1980 military coup d'état staged by General Kenan Evren's junta and the first victory of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan's Justice and Development Party (AKP) in the 3rd November 2002 general elections. It aims to explain the background, motivations, historical and political dynamics (both domestic and international) underlying the gradual decline of the Kemalist establishment and the rise of a specific branch of the Islamic movement on the political, economic and cultural stage of Turkey during those twenty years. Such an analysis makes it also possible to draw some guidelines to understand the current circumstances, being these closely linked to what happened between 1980 and 2002. The historical reconstruction of the main events occurred during the crucial twenty years relies on primary and secondary sources that are mostly in Turkish language. Among the first, official documentation prevails (parliamentary debates, governments programs, reports by parliamentary committees of enquiry, party manifestos, procedural documents, statements made by Turkish authorities, etc.); such documentation is largely available in the digital archives of Turkish institutions. As regards the secondary sources, more recent and still untranslated Turkish historiography is preferred. Along with the historical context, a critical comment is given on some significant aspects, which are more theoretical and mainly concern the Kemalist ideology, the development of political Islam, the relationship between religion and secularism in Turkey. This should provide a deeper understanding of the research objects. The Introduction explains the research questions and hypotheses, arguing their relevance with reference to the recent events and ongoing political issues of the country. The literature review, sources and theoretical approach are presented too. The Chapter I describes the situation before 1980. First, it discusses some contradictions inherent in the Kemalist principles and the role of the Army in Turkish politics. Then, it looks in more detail at the 1960 coup, the 1971 military memorandum, the economic and political crisis afflicting the country throughout the 1970s. The Chapter II analyses the 1980 coup, its roots, its consequences, and the measures implemented by the military junta in power until 1983. Subsequently, it traces the history of the neoliberal transformation and the gradual liberalization promoted by Turgut Özal, the leader of Turkish New Right who ruled for ten years. The Chapter III deals with the upsurge of political Islam and conservative bourgeoisie in Turkey, with a focus on the National Outlook movement and the religious community of Fethullah Gülen. It also illustrates the rise of the Islamic Welfare Party, until the creation of a coalition government led by Necmettin Erbakan. The Chapter IV begins with the post-modern coup that overthrew Erbakan's government and repressed the Islamic movement; consequently, the latter entered a phase of regeneration culminating in the establishment of AKP under the leadership of Erdoğan (whose short biography is also included). The dissertation ends with a description of the political landscape resulting from the 2002 elections. In conclusion, answers to the research questions are provided under the light of some recurring historical patterns and fundamental political paradigms, which emerged from the crucial twenty years. In particular, it is argued that the relationship between Kemalism and political Islam is characterized by interaction and reciprocal influence, rather than conflict and dichotomous opposition. Such a relationship can be better understood in the framework of the substantial continuity of authoritarianism in the post-1980 political regimes in Turkey. As a perspective for future research, it is suggested to study the AKP era in terms of comparison and historical continuity with the crucial twenty years.
