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Although, in the past, religion had been of great interest to those engaged in general sociology, the sociology of religion had developed as a sub-field only in the second part of last century. In Western Europe, the emerging sub-field was first of all institution-bound and sociographic. Studies of normative integration gradually enlarged the field of study to include more than the ritualistic dimension of religion. The reference to general sociology was mostly at the level of using general sociological insights that facilitated the development of middle range theories. At the end of the sixties, a more general frame of reference emerged: secularization theory. Hencefort, sociologists studied religion to analyse the changes in Western societies. In Belgium, the focus was on secularization and pillarization; the study of a market of meaning systems; religious bricolage as an aspect of high modernity; comparative studies of different religions; and studies based on international surveys.

Noting how explanations for the peculiar patterns of working-class (Wc) formation in Imperial Germany rely on insufficient data, a fuller picture is offered to show that religious institutions & mentalities -- along with economic, social, & political factors -- played decisive roles. Sources of historical data include worker autobiographies, local newspapers, poems, songs, local & regional studies, & political & religious intellectuals' writings. Major patterns considered include: state-control of churches & lack of democratization of religious life, which faciliated widespread Wc secularization, particularly among Protestants; & transition to alternative secular-religious belief systems. 106 References. C. Grindle

Objective: This article argues that the classical theory on the differentiation of the religious sphere and the following secularization of modernity has provoked erroneous interpretations and generalizations, since, in the complexity of the socio-historical processes, there are no clearly identifiable boundaries that would allow to analytically separate the political from the religious. Method: The critique presented here is based on a segmented analysis of secularization theory and on a revision of the concept of "religion" as an analytical category frequently used in the social sciences. Results: It is argued that, if religion is conceived as a separate sphere (differentiation) that has lost its power and tends to disappear (secularization), this is not only highly questionable from an empirical point of view, but is absolutely dependent on what is understood by the concept of "religion", a precision that is not usually made in the social sciences. Conclusions: It is concluded that the spheres differ only in their institutional dimension, and that the contributions of Émile Durkheim are of great value in identifying the sacred in modern politics, thus demonstrating that the religious is present even in secular institutions. This is demonstrated through the case of the sacralization of the individual in contemporary liberal democracies. ; Objetivo: En este artículo se argumenta que la teoría clásica sobre la diferenciación de la esfera religiosa y la consecuente secularización de la modernidad ha dado pie a interpretaciones y generalizaciones erradas, puesto que, en la complejidad de los procesos socio-históricos, no existen fronteras claramente identificables que permitan separar analíticamente lo político de lo religioso. Método: La crítica aquí expuesta se basa en un análisis segmentado de la teoría de la secularización y en una revisión del concepto de "religión" como categoría analítica frecuentemente usada en las ciencias sociales. Resultados: Se sostiene que, si la religión se concibe como una esfera separada (diferenciación) que ha perdido su poder y tiende a desaparecer (secularización), ello no solo es muy cuestionable desde el punto de vista empírico, sino que es absolutamente dependiente de lo que se entiende por el concepto de "religión", una precisión que no se suele hacer en las ciencias sociales. Conclusiones: Se concluye que las esferas se diferencian únicamente en su dimensión institucional, y que los aportes de Émile Durkheim son de gran valía para identificar lo sagrado en la política moderna, demostrando así que lo religioso está presente incluso en las instituciones seculares. Ello se demuestra mediante en caso de la sacralización del individuo en las democracias liberales contemporáneas.

Понятия «религиозное пробуждение», «религиозное возрождение» отражают процессы, реально происходящие на протяжении истории в духовной жизни нашей европейской цивилизации. Об этом свидетельствует их активное использование в языке и в научной литературе. Споры среди социологов, религиоведов и политологов о природе и характере возникшего в последней трети XX начале XXI в. и затронувшего все религии глобального явления, описываемого как «десекуляризация», «религиозное возрождение» или «духовное пробуждение», поставили вопрос о его месте в мировой истории. Автор предпринял попытку включить это явление в более широкий исторический контекст западноевропейской и отечественной истории последних 500 лет и рассмотреть его через призму циклично-волнообразной теории общественного развития. С этой целью он вводит понятие «духовное (религиозное) напряжение». Человеку и человечеству в целом не под силу находиться в состоянии постоянного духовного напряжения. Поэтому вслед за волной духовного напряжения (религиозного возрождения) идет (наступает) «возвратная волна» (период) духовного равнодушия (спокойствия). Вместе они составляют единый цикл. В качестве критерия для оценки наличия или отсутствия этого напряжения автор взял характеристики народного благочестия и духовной атмосферы кануна Реформации XVI в., чтобы наложить их как матрицу на подобные проявления в религиозной жизни других исторических эпох. Статья посвящена изложению теоретических аспектов проблемы и характеристике «возвратной волны 40-60-х гг. XX века», послужившей основой для создания теории секуляризации. Автор предполагает продолжить эту тему и дальше, посвятив свои следующие публикации характеристике духовного напряжения второй половины XX начала XXI столетия. ; The notions of «religious awakening» and «religious revival» refer to processes which took place in the history of European civilization. These notions are widely used in academic language and literature. During the last third of the twentieth and the beginning of the twenty-first century, a global phenomenon emerged which can be described as «de-secularization», «religious revival» or «spiritual awakening». This was characteristic of all religions. Sociologists, researchers of religions and political scientists have begun to discuss its nature and character. The author attempts to place it in the broader context of Western European and Russian history of the last five hundred years. He wishes to examine it with reference to the cyclic-wave theory of social development. He introduces the concept of «religious tension» defined as the idea that mankind and the individual cannot be in a state of constant religious tension. Following the wave of spiritual tension or religious revival a «return wave» of spiritual indifference or tranquility succeeds. The two periods taken together constitute a single cycle. As a criterion for assessing the presence or absence of tension, the author highlights popular piety and the religious atmosphere just before the Protestant Reformation. These models are later employed as part of a pattern underlining similar characteristics of religious life at other times. The first section of the article presents the theory behind the problem and the characteristics of the return wave lasting from 1930 to 1960. This was the wave that served as the basis for the theory of secularization. The second section of the article highlights the religious tension characteristic of the second half of the twentieth and the start of the twenty-fi rst century.

In order to grasp what is happening in the Middle East, we must set aside a number of deep-rooted prejudices. First among them is the assumption that democracy presupposes secularization: The democratization movement in the Arab world came precisely after thirty years of what has been called the "return of the sacred," an obvious process of re-Islamization of everyday life, coupled with the rise of Islamist parties. The second is the idea that a democrat must also, by definition, be a liberal. What is at stake is the reformulation of religion's place in the public sphere.

Why do Gods persist in contemporary society? This book provides an insight on a new approach to religious studies, drawn from systems theory to consider religion as a means of communication, and offering a critical alternative to the secularization theory to explain why religion persists in modernity.

This book provides an account and explanation of a fundamental dilemma facing secular states: the "legitimacy gap" left by the withdrawal of religion as a source of legitimacy. Legitimacy represents a particular problem for the secular state. The "secular" in all its manifestations is very much linked to the historical rise of the modern state. It should not be seen as a category that separates culture and religion from politics, but rather as one that links these different dimensions. In the first part of the book, Depaigne explains how modern constitutional law has moved away from a "substantive" legitimacy, based in particular on natural law, towards a 'procedural' legitimacy based on popular sovereignty and human rights. Depaigne examines three case studies of constitutional responses to legitimacy challenges which articulate the three main sources of "procedural" legitimacy (people, rights, and culture) in different ways: the "neutral model" (constitutions based on the "displacement of culture"); the "multicultural model" (constitutions based on diversity and pluralism); and the "asymmetric model" (constitutions based on tradition). Even if secularization can be considered European in its origin, it is best seen today as a global phenomenon, which needs to be approached by taking into account the particular cultural dimension in which it is rooted. Depaigne's detailed study shows how secularization has moved either towards "nationalization" linked to a particular national identity (as in France and, to some extent, in India)-or towards "de-secularization", whereby secularism is displaced by particular cultural norms, as in Malaysia --Front flap of book

This dissertation concerns the feminization of the Italian teaching profession between the introduction of pre-Unification schooling in 1859 and the nationalization of that system in 1911. By feminization, this dissertation refers both to the gradual assumption of the majority of elementary teaching positions by women and to a transformation in the nature of the position itself. Through an examination of educational periodicals, school records, government inquests, and accounts by teachers and pedagogical theorists, it argues that rather than the unintended consequence of economic constraints or shifting labor patterns, feminization was fundamentally connected to larger processes of centralization and modernization in the Italian school system. Following an introductory chapter outlining the major national, religious, and gender debates of the Unification era, the second chapter of the dissertation argues that the figure of the female elementary teacher became embroiled in the contest between local and national interests, furthering the drive toward centralization. The third chapter examines a subject generally ignored in most studies of Italian women's education: the impact of international and domestic pedagogy. The chapter shows that the development of an Italian pedagogy combining positivism and progressivism with a maternalist, child-centered methodology was both a result and a cause of the feminization of the teaching profession. The fourth chapter focuses on the divide between the secularizing nation and the entrenched Catholic Church, arguing that carefully trained female teachers were employed as agents of the encroaching State and examining the connection between religious education debates and women's rights movements. The fifth chapter is an institutional history of the teacher-training normal schools; an analysis of institutional and government records reveals that normal school feminization reflected the centralization, secularization, and pedagogical reformation of the school system in general.

In this book deviance through technology and media is explained. Contributors examine substance abuse, gun violence, terrorism, adolescent substance use, deviance and crime, fear of terrorism, Kurdish pride gang, media exposure, secularization and modernity, social control, social order, and the impact of Covid-19 on children's lives.

Frontmatter -- Contents -- Acknowledgments -- Introduction -- Part One: Postwar Religious Nationalism -- 1. Imperialist Secularization -- 2. Shinto Responses to the Occupation -- 3. Disasters and Social Crisis -- Part Two: The Neonationalist Agenda Contested -- 4. The Politics of Yasukuni Shrine -- 5. Patriotic Education -- 6. Promoting Constitutional Revision -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Permissions -- Index