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A scientific industrial and commercial Europe, by Laurent Fabius
Whatever its successes may have been in the past, Europe will neither survive nor progress unless it can face up to the major challenge of our time ― the third technological revolution. Our greatest handicap in this respect is the excessive fragmentation of our industries. A coordination of efforts in industry and research would strengthen European identity. But such initiatives have to come from the firms themselves. The EEC's industrial strategy should concentrate on stimulating cooperation between European firms. A common commercial policy would necessarily be linked to European industrial strategy, to which the inevitable complement is common social policy.

The Village Fete
By observing local fetes in Mayenne the author was able to ascertain the effects of the transformations which have taken place in the world of the peasants. The change from the village fete, in which ail the inhabitants participate, to the communal fete, which, with its distinction between actors and spectators, is more like a show, can be correlated with the spread within the peasant milieu of the townsman's image of the peasantry. The organization of «fetes a l'ancienne», in which the peasants are encouraged to play themselves, is doubtless an extreme case. All the same, the mixture of serious and burlesque in the sketches that the peasants present of their way of life reveals the ambiguity of a situation in which they do not always know if they are playing at being themselves or at being someone else. They have been deprived of a hold on the social definition of their identity, and it is almost always from others that they receive the definition of what they ought to be. Through these fetes, then, the peasants return, as it were, to their origins ; are they not seeking in this way to recover a social identity of their own ?

Ariette Apkarian-Lacout and Pierrette Verges
The Irresistible Rising of the New Middle-Class against Communist Hegemony :
Martigues.
In spite of the growth of the middle class employee categories (foremen, technicians, upper white collars, teachers..), the communist Party, on local polls, keeps and reinforces its power. The new middle class has entered into an alliance with them on a local basis, but keeps voting for other parties (S.P.), on national or regional polls. Through this alliance, the middle class can bend the communist Party actions. In this context, it is the only way for them to build and impose their own social identity.

The comparison of contemporary Hasidic communities with a recently started Cevenol Church, discloses structural similarities, in spite of obvious dissimilarities. Both fundamentalist types combine high religiosity with strong socio-cultural roots, moral strictness, political conservatism, rather dynamic economic values and specific occupations. The congruence of these factors warrant the persistence of religions ways that are relatively similar to Jewish and Protestant {Cevenol) standards prior to the Industrial Revolution. In both cases the religious attitudes can not be disassociated front socio-cultural identity, be it Jewish or Cevenol : an identity which is certainly turned to the past but which has a strong ethnic style.

The Polish Farmers' Struggle for their Identity.
In the People's Republic of Poland, setting up an independent union of private farmers means more than organizing an occupational group ; it is a political act. The ideology which puts the workers of the State farms at the top of the social hierarchy makes the individual farmers second-class citizens, because it does not regard them as genuine «workers» having the same rights and duties as others. The notion of political contempt makes it possible to understand the structure of relations between the State and the farmers. The opposite notion, that of social dignity, sums up the aspirations of this group : official recognition of individual farming, private land ownership, local self-management. These are central themes in the identity they are fighting for.

Classification, De-classification, Re-classification.
The strategies of reproduction and in particular the strategies of re-conversion depend on the objective profit-risks offered to investments in a given state of the institutional instruments of reproduction and of the capital they are to reproduce ; it follows that the recent transformations of the relationship between the different classes and the educational System —which have resulted in the massive increase in schooling and all the corresponding changes in the educational System itself, and all the transformations of the social structure which, at least in part, are due to the transformation of the relationships holding between qualifications and job-openings— are the result of an intensification of competition for educational qualifications. Thus, those fractions of the ruling and middle classes which are richest in economc capital have had, in order to ensure their reproduction, to greatly intensify the use they made of the educational System, constraining the fractions whose reproduction was hitherto ensured chiefly by schooling to intensify their investments in schooling. Hence the inflation of qualifications and their devaluation. As a consequence of devaluation, the broadening of the monopoly of the holders of educational qualifications over positions which were until then open to non degree-holders means that the chief victims of this process are those who go onto the job-market without qualifications. Hence a reinforcement of the way in which schooling predetermines professional career opportunities and of the interdependence of qualification and job-opening. The re-conversion of the economic capital into cultural capital permits the middle classes to maintain the position of its heirs and explains the morphological changes within the middle classes and, in particular, the emergeance of a new type of craftsmen and trade with a high cultural investment.
The hysteresis of the habitus tends to conceal the devaluation of qualifications from the classes which are furthest from the educational System. The other classes can, in order to escape loss of position, either produce new professions more adapted to their social claims, or else modify in accordance with these claims, by a redefinition implying a re-evaluation, those professions to which their qualifications give access. This creative redefinition effect can be observed in professions of sparse distribution and low degree of professionalisation, such as the new sectors of cultural and artistic production and all those professions which ensure the best return on the cultural capital transmitted by the family; consultative occupations, and those of presentation and representation. One can only understand the emergeance of that new petty-bourgeoisie which harnesses to its function as intermediary between the classes new instruments of manipulation by reference to the transformations in the methods of ruling which, since they are concerned to ensure the symbolic integration of the ruled classes, grant more importance to the prescribing of needs rather than the instilling of norms.
The increase in school-attendance underlies a whole group of transformations in the educational System itself; the well-defined boundaries of the old system are supplanted by the vague classifications of a system which sanctions vagueness of aspirations. It is as if the new logic of the educational system and the economic system promoted the maximum postponement of the moment when, by a series of imperceptible degrees, the final balance-sheet of the semi-bourgeois abortive careers is settled at last. Hence the type of structural instability we find in the representation of social identity and aspirations.
The outcome of all the opposing effects of re-conversion and re-classification, is a global movement upwards of the structure of the distribution, between classes and segments of classes, of the wealth which is the stake of competitiveness, the maintenance of order, that is to say of relational property, being therefore ensured by the ceaseless changes in substantial properties.

The title and the job : the relationship between the system of production and the system of reproduction.
All the surveys of mobility, all the historical comparisons consider as out of the question what must be the central object of inquiry -that is, the permanence of the relationship between the words and the things, between the titles and the jobs, between the nominal and the real. What sense is there in considering as identical the primary school teacher of 1880 and the primary school teacher of 1930, or of 1974 ? Is the son of a primary school teacher really a "teacher's son" in the sense that he is himself a teacher ? Doesn't the nominal identity hide the real disparity ? The dialectic of title and job is a manifestation of the dialectic of de-classifying and re-classifying that is one aspect of the class struggle.

The authors try to set out the conditions for the emergence of collective action for employment. If there are no movements of the unemployed then, it is because the collective identity of the unemployed disappears with their work community. The unemployed even refuse to identify with their condition and blame themselves for it. Struggles for employment are developed by those workers who are still in the plants. Another reason for demobilisation among the unemployed is the absence of a political representation of unemployment. The latter is perceived as an individual accident or a social plague, and no social actor is identified as responsible for the situation.

Usury in the XlXth Century : a Real Pest in Rural Areas

Usury is one of the components of rural life in the 19th century. As a form of economic violence, it remains a hidden social fact. Through archives, we can grasp the peasant vision of village communities of the Rambouillet district. The resort to a money-lender reveals the latter 's identity and risks undergone, it gives precisions on the extent and profits of this illicit trade. It shows the ambivalent attitudes of individuals and couples, stresses their outcome and testifies of the rivalry between town and country.

COMMUN'IST CANDIDATES IN THE 1973 AND 1978 PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS, by PHILIPPE BROYER, DIDIER CASSAN, OLIVIER DA LAGE
Analysis of communist candidates in the 1973 and 1978 parliamentary elections shows a substantial change in candidatures, and a strong trend towards younger candidates and increased female participation. The socio-occupational structure of this population changed very little, however, particularly as regards the worker element, and medium-level managerial staff were the only category whose representation increased significantly. Lastly, there was a certain tendency for party executives to be replaced by newly elected local Communist Party representatives. While the changes observed reflect the recognition of both the exigencies and possibilities of the social and political environment, the fact that they are so slight as regards social composition would seem to be chiefly the resuit of deliberate political choices aimed at preserving the original traits on which, historically, the identity of the French Communist Party is based.
[Revue française de science politique XXIX (2), avril 1979, pp. 213-229.]

Boar-Hunting Passion in a Cévenol District.

Boar- hunting appeared in the cévenol district of Valleraugue at the beginning of the century. At first there were only a few hunters, then small groups, and in the last ten years they organized themselves in a sort of team-game, in which the major part of the men of the district participate. This paper tries to show that such a craze is directly linked with the social change. In this district which completely lost its rural traditions, boar hunting is the only local activity which allows the inhabitants to assert their mastery over the land and their cévenol identity.Boar- hunting is a passion because it backs up an identity which was dying out.

Par « conformité supérieure de soi » on désigne le comportement, maintes fois observé chez des sujets adultes, selon lequel chacun, lorsqu'il se compare à autrui, a tendance à se présenter personnellement comme plus conforme aux normes de la situation sociale dans lequel il est impliqué que ne le sont les autres participants de la même situation.
On s'interroge dans cet article sur l'existence et l'évolution d'un tel comportement chez les adolescents de 12 à 18 ans.
411 adolescents (204 filles et 207 garçons) ont ainsi à comparer leurs propres caractéristiques à celles de leurs camarades de classe, en relation avec les caractéristiques jugées les plus normatives au sein de la classe.
Conformément à l'hypothèse faite, on montre notamment qu'à un âge donné, le comportement de conformité supérieure de soi est d'autant plus important que les sujets de cet âge ont davantage tendance à vouloir se différencier d'autrui, tout en recherchant simultanément les contacts sociaux. with the characteristics which are judged as the most normative in the form.
In agreement with an explanatory hypothesis of the superior conformity of self behavior, results show that PIP effect appears more strongly for the ages where are both present :
— an intense social activity leading to conformist behavior,
— and, simultaneously, an important development of the research of personal identity and autonomy, leading to social différenciation.