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3 general observations can be made about specialization. (1) The specialist has a commitment only to what falls within his sphere of interest, & COMM with other spheres is therefore difficult. (2) Specialization makes for limitation of vision & onesidedness. This slows down human growth & creates obstacles to horizontal & vertical COMM & to inter-generational COMM. (3) Mere coordination of existing specialists is often not enough for action-oriented programs. These characteristics account for 3 costs of specialization: (a) The costs of coordination, which have diff degrees of visibility. Visible costs are the explicit outlays, less visible costs are incident upon the use of sub-optimally coordinated services. (b) The costs of judgment, which results from the fact that mere coordination of specialists is adequate only when the processes are completely routinized & mechanized. (c) The costs of discontinuity, resulting from the specialist's difficulty, if not inability, to adjust to unforeseen situations. The costs of specialization are greater in the services than in the production of goods because services are less subject to the market test. This is true particularly of the Med services & even more so of the public services, the latter being even less subject to the market test than the former. This proposition is illustrated through an examination of the Med services at the present time. A. Peskin.

This paper studies the implications of cross-border financial integration for financial stability when banks' loan portfolios adjust endogenously. Banks can be subject to sectoral and aggregate domestic shocks. After integration they can share these risks in a complete interbank market. When banks have a comparative advantage in providing credit to certain industries, they will exploit the enhanced risk sharing opportunities through more specialization in lending. The enhanced concentration in lending does not increase risk, because a well-functioning interbank market allows to achieve the necessary diversification. The greater need for risk sharing through it increases, however, the risk of cross-border contagion. Better risk sharing and greater risk of contagion tend to offset each other and financial integration improves welfare since specialization benefits are realized. -- Financial integration ; specialization ; interbank market ; financial contagion

Recreation specialization was examined as an underlying element of behavior that varies with the type and importance of environmental settings desired by recreationists. Subjects were backcountry hikers from three Intermountain West primitive areas who responded to a mailed questionnaire that assessed their level of hiking specialization and preferences for 38 environmental setting attributes. These attributes were representative of physical, social, and managerial settings. All three types of setting attributes exhibited significant relationships, with the degree of hiking specialization suggesting that specialization may be a useful concept for explaining developmental related changes in environmental perception. The results were interpreted as suggesting that current recreation management practices that focus on broad generalizations about recreation activities may be insensitive to the array of diversity sought by the recreating public.

This report summarizes some of the findings of an experimental investigation motivated by the question, How might exchange, specialization, and property—rules governing actions—emerge jointly in human economic betterment? Sparse experimental instructions in a virtual village environment serve to inform individual subjects how to produce items and the payoffs earned by items moved into their homes. Unknown to the subjects, but discoverable through repeat trials and discussion (via a "chat" space), are the possibilities for wealth creation through production, specialization, and exchange. There is no external enforcement of contracts and (in one series) no rules preventing "theft." Group performance—either in success or in failure—well illustrates Hume's notion of rules as conventions that arise, or not, through common experience and by consent. In shaming or praising each other's actions, we rediscover the wisdom of Adam Smith.

The study was undertaken to establish the socioeconomic determinants of A' level subject choice in Zimbabwe in an effort to understand why there is the low uptake of sciences in Zimbabwean high schools. Using data from over 2300 randomly selected Advanced level students from all provinces and across each of the three main subject specializations, under the Logit and Granger causality methods, we established that students who are more exposed to science environment prior to enrolling by having relatives with a science-related profession or attending a carrier guidance, are more likely to take up sciences. Boys are more likely to take sciences so are those who would have performed well in sciences relative to non-sciences at ordinary level. Children whose tuition is paid by biological parents are more likely to take up sciences at A' level, so are children from smaller families. Students with either or all of their parents deceased are less likely to take sciences. The results show that those enrolling at boarding schools are more likely to take up sciences than their day school counterparts. Rural students are less likely to take up sciences so are students learning at school with poor prior science pass rate. We recommend collaborative effort from governments, NGOs, industry and tertiary education institutions to improve student's interest in science. This can be accomplished by undertaking well-timed carrier guidance workshops. More so, the government should improve the quality of schools to improve their ability to teach sciences. This involves improving the quality of both laboratories and teaching staff. Like any investment, uptake of sciences is seen to be heavily dependent on the perceived rate of return, and hence the government should improve employment opportunities for science graduates by resuscitating industry and provide funding for research and development so that students can be inspired by observing successful people from science backgrounds.

Researchl supports ani attributional theory of leadership: that people judge as leaders those who matchi an implicit set of valued leadership behaviors. This study explores whether such value bases or whether distor-ted perceptions of procedural, task or analytical, or socialemotioncal communication behaviors occur. Results indicated that 150 subjects chose a proceduiral specialist 85.33% as leader and selected a task or analytical specialist as most influenitial 63.33% in smnall group decision-making discussion. Chi-square analyses on the choices and an analysis of variance and t tests on ratings of specialists'behaviors indicated that no perceptUal distortion seemed to occur and suggested support for the value-based, or attributional, theory of leadership.

The European and Asian parts of Russia are very different: in the former, the climate is milder, the population is many times larger, there are many jobs, high incomes. The latter is losing population – educated youth and qualified personnel leave for European Russia, or even further away, the de-industrialization of Asian regions of Russia continues – processing industries are closing. The Russian government is allocating almost 900 billion rubles for seven priority projects, the goal of which is the infrastructural development of a stagnating economy. About half of these funds will go for the development of Asian Russia. This will undoubtedly give an impetus to the development of new industries, and it is important to understand which ones of them will become the industries of specialization of the region, and which ones will contribute to higher levels of diversification of the regions of Asia (subject of research). Can the region itself influence the change in the structure of its economy, if its main specialization loses its relevance (de-industrialization, depletion of sources of natural resources, etc.)? To do this, it is necessary to assess the current state of the region and determine a new vector of its development. One or two selected industries of specialization should be supported by a set of related industries that can help balance the situation and make the region sustainably diversified (goal). Assessment and comparison of the spatial characteristics and potentials of the economies of Asian and European regions of Russia are based on the comparative analysis of current regional statistics of Russia and the analysis of publications on this issue (method). Comparative analysis of the sectoral structure in European and Asian regions of Russia in the territorial context confirmed significant differences in the specialization and diversification of their economies, which led to a steady slowdown in growth rates in the Asian part of the country over the past 10 years. For a greater effect during the restoration of the destroyed sectoral structure, the active participation of the regions themselves in the formation of a new structure of the economy (results) is necessary

The potential value of increased specialization within ecological psychology is described, based on the model employed in the natural sciences. The basic unit of the field is the behavior setting, and the most likely unit for specialization is the genotype, which is comprised of functionally similar settings. In particular, mundane and ubiquitous settings, whose influence has been neglected by psychologists, deserve study. Specialists must develop subject-matter knowledge of their chosen genotype, including its history, technology, nomenclature, economics, and environmental context. Specialization does not preclude acquiring basic disciplinary knowledge nor the ability to teach and do research in traditional areas of psychology.

The differentiation of profiles of institutions over the past several decades emphasizes their relevance for higher education. Unlike in the United States, there is currently no broad classification of higher education institutions in Europe. Building on European Tertiary Education Register data, we propose a new comprehensive and cross-country classification in six classes that recognizes the diversity of functions and specializations of institutions within European higher education.

Політичні процеси є породженням різноманітних інтересів і концентрують різноспрямовані впливи, ініціатори та суб'єкти яких переслідують загальні чи специфічні цілі. Методологія їх пізнання, особливості застосування механізмів впливу на політику становлять ядро предметного інтересу політичного менеджменту. Ці питання формують проблемну структуру пропонованої програми, яка передбачає ознайомлення студентів із сутністю і завданнями аналізу політики, принципами, моделями і комунікаційними аспектами політичного менеджменту. Робоча програма навчальної дисципліни «Політичний менеджмент» сприяє виробленню рекомендацій, реалізації управлінських рішень, проектуванню нових типів мислення, життєдіяльності соціальної організації. Political processes are the product of diverse interests and concentrate multi-directional influences, the initiators and subjects of which pursue general or specific goals. The methodology of their knowledge, especially the application of mechanisms of influence on politics, is the core of the substantive interest of political management. These questions form the problem structure of the proposed program, which involves familiarizing students with the nature and objectives of policy analysis, principles, models and communication aspects of political management. The work program of the discipline "Political Management" promotes the development of recommendations, implementation of management decisions, the design of new types of thinking, the life of a social organization.

This study investigates the dichotomy of specialization in Literature and English language. In many primary and secondary schools in Nigeria, many teachers who teach Literature are the same teachers who teach English Language. This is responsible for lack of ultimate successes in academic performance, foundational establishment and progressive developments in Literature and English language. Set against the backdrop of the inseparability and non-specialization in individual subjects in question, the study examines the need for a dichotomy of specialization in English Language and Literature with a view to reducing the rate of errors and students' failures in both subjects. Adopting the simple randomisation, the researcher uses selected primary and secondary schools in Lagos State as the case study; the paper raises four questions and these are: Can English Language teachers effectively teach poetic devices? Are segmental phonemes easily taught by Literature teachers? Can English Language teachers proficiently teach oral literature, literary criticism and non-African literature? Can Literature teachers competently teach stress and intonation? This research uses a qualitative approach and adopts The Speech Act Theory as its theoretical framework. Questionnaire of fifteen (15) items was used for data collection and the simple percentage was applied for data analysis. The researcher discovered that: It is not possible for English Languageteachers to effectively teach poetic devices. Segmental phonemes cannot be easily taught by Literature teachers. Students would lag behind in areas where teachers are not proficient in the subjects they teach. Also, it is not possible for a teacher to place equal emphasis on both English Language and Literature in classrooms. The study therefore recommends the need for a dichotomy of specialization in the two subjects so as to ensure effective teaching and learning of these subjects.

I conducted a randomized field experiment in traditional public elementary schools in Houston, Texas designed to test the potential productivity benefits of teacher specialization. The average impact of encouraging schools to specialize their teachers on student achievement is −0.11 standard deviations per year on a combined index of math and reading test scores. I argue that the results are consistent with a model in which the benefits of specialization driven by sorting teachers into a subset of subjects based on comparative advantage is outweighed by inefficient pedagogy due to having fewer interactions with each student, though other mechanisms are possible. (JEL D31, E32, J22, J24, J31)

Alexandria was both an important city and a place of inspiration in the history of medicine since the 3rd century BC until 7th century AD. Its fertile intellectual and scientific environment gave rise to a radical and new thinking and understanding of the disease process. King Ptolemy I (323−285 BC) established the Museion and the Great Library of Alexandria fabled in Antiquity for its treasures of wisdom. This complex interaction between Greeks and Egyptians before and under the Ptolemies gave scientists an opportunity to live and work under royal patronage with excellent repercussions. Scholars were attracted to take part in scientific research, especially in medicine and mathematics, developing different known areas and programs. Furthermore scholars in Alexandria also brought back new ideas and activities each with specialized knowledge of the subjects. As the medical science of ancient Greece plunged into political decadence and setbacks - scientific work was renewed in this city with the arriving of the greatest minds of the day. The 'Faculty' of Medicine in Alexandria seems to be an integral part of the Mouseion. In the 3rd century BC, the Ptolemaic capital caught the different trends and became the seat of divergent and independent schools. The debt of the Alexandrian physicians to the native Egyptian doctors, highly specialized, was very considerable. Coan school in this time had general professionals who recommended therapeutic and nutricional strategies and diets while Alexandria science provided academic specialization. On the other hand the court physicians, involved in high politics, could be medical specialists meanwhile the teachers of advanced medicine were sometimes left undisturbed in the pursuit of their research. Being able to commit poisoning crimes with drugs by political interests, they were scared of them. Animal and plants toxins became an accepted and divulged study, very fashionable, and Alexandrian school developed scientific research in iology, name given later to this science. ...

Scholars have long debated why the sciences became organized into specialized disciplines during the nineteenth century. The Prussian university reforms and the institutionalization of research in the German universities have occupied a central position in these discussions. Using records of the appointments of full professors in the life sciences at German universities from 1770 to 1880, this paper investigates whether the Prussian and other reforms led professors to specialize into disciplines and universities to hire from an open academic labor market. The results show that the reforms did not encourage competition and disciplinary specialization across the German universities. Until the 1840s, reforms encouraged professors to pursue scientific research to the exclusion of traditional subjects, but not to specialize within single disciplines. Outside of Prussia, Baden, and Bavaria, university hiring practices also continued to favor the internal promotion of students until relatively late in the century. In contrast to theories of disciplinary specialization emphasizing the institutionalization of scientific autonomy through the Prussian university reforms, I argue that the political integration of German territories and the exploding university enrollments of the late nineteenth century were necessary conditions for the initial adoption of disciplinary organization. These changes did not directly follow from the university reforms, but rather we connected to the ongoing political and economic development of German states over the course of the nineteenth century.

This article investigates variations in visual and verbal memory for television messages as a function of the emotional valence of the message. It is theorized that emotional processing is lateralized, with positive emotions receiving greater left-brain processing and negative emotions greater right-brain processing. Because the left brain is the primary locus for verbal information processing and the right brain is the primary locus for visual-spatial processing, it is hypothesized that memory for negative emotional messages will be more visual than verbal, whereas memory for positive emotional messages will be more verbal than visual. This hypothesis is tested at the encoding and recall stages of processing by measuring subjects' recall and recognition for messages that vary in emotional valence. Results suggest that message valence may be related to the amount of visual or verbal information encoded. However, the effect is less evident at the retrieval stage.