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This paper provides new empirical insights on the joint distribution of consumption, income, and wealth in three of the poorest countries in the world — Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda — all located in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The first finding is that while income inequality is similar to that of the United States (US), wealth inequality is barely one-third that of the US. Similarly, while the top of the income distribution (1 and 10 percent) earns a similar share of total income in SSA as in the US, the share of total wealth accumulated by the income-rich in SSA is one-fifth of its US counterpart. The main contributions of the paper are to document: (i) this dwarfed transmission from income to wealth, which suggests that SSA households face a larger inability to save and accumulate wealth compared with US households; and (ii) a lower transmission from income to consumption inequality, which suggests the presence of powerful institutions that favor consumption insurance to the detriment of saving. These features are more relevant for rural areas, which represent roughly four-fifths of the total population. The paper identifies the few successful pockets of the SSA population that are able to accumulate wealth by exploring sources of inequality such as age, education, migration, borrowing ability, and societal systems.

Droughts are phenomena that occur worldwide, in humid and arid environments as well as in the Global North and the Global South. They are considered as slow onset hazards that affect more people than any other natural process with an estimated economic damage of USD 135 Billion and 12 Million casualties globally between 1900 and 2013 (Masih et al., 2014, p. 3636). Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is a major drought hot-spot due to vulnerable livelihoods (e.g. dominance of rain-fed agriculture), limited capacities (e.g. financial, institutional), weak infrastructure (e.g. water, mobility) and political instability (e.g. conflicts, corruption). When droughts occur, as recently triggered by El Niño (2015/2016), vulnerability conditions of the affected societies determine, if drought risk manifests as a disaster. As a critical, recent example, the drought in Somalia resulted in a serious humanitarian disaster primarily as the precarious vulnerability situation was further deteriorated by political and violent conflicts (Maxwell et al., 2016). Overall, SSA faces severe challenges to manage drought risk, primarily due to two reasons: First, despite progress, the living conditions remain difficult with prevailing poverty, limited health services and ongoing political unrest in many regions (UNECA et al., 2015). This is alarming, especially against the projected population growth of about 1.3 Billion people in Africa until 2050 (UN-DESA, 2015, p. 3). Second, achieving good living conditions for all, as envisioned by the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), is a challenge, as climate projections indicate a likely increase of drought frequency and severity in SSA. Higher rainfall variability paired with a strong increase in average temperatures (Niang et al., 2014) will render today's exceptional droughts as the new normal in the near future. These urgent problems require sustainable solutions to improve short- and long-term adaptation. Transdisciplinary science that conflates the strengths of academic disciplines and stakeholders from politics and society is needed to develop risk reduction strategies. Under the umbrella of the Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL), this thesis makes a contribution to integrated drought risk management schemes by assessing the drought hazard conditions and the societal vulnerability settings in a case study region: the Cuvelai-Basin. This transnational region across Namibia and Angola regularly experiences droughts as recently during 2012 – 2015 with hundreds of thousands of people being water and food insecure (DDRM, 2013; UN-OCHA, 2012). Environmentally, it covers a gradient from humid in the north to semi-arid conditions in the south with associated vegetation patterns. The population practices subsistence agriculture and livestock herding with tendencies of urbanization and lifestyle changes. The societal pre-conditions in both countries are heterogeneous with Angola having experienced decades of civil war until 2002 while Namibia saw continuous institutional and infrastructural development particularly after independence in 1990. To capture the multi-layered impacts of droughts on people's livelihoods, the thesis follows an interdisciplinary approach in the sense of integrating methodologies from physical and human geography. Key questions to be answered are (i) how droughts impact on local livelihoods, (ii) how the environmental drought hazard manifests, (iii) which societal groups are most vulnerable and (iv) what are risk mitigation strategies. Based on the theory of societal relations to nature, a guideline for a social-ecological drought risk assessment is proposed and exemplarily carried out in this thesis. First, a qualitative research phase was conducted to gain system knowledge, followed by quantitative analyses of environmental parameters on the drought hazard and socio-economic variables for drought vulnerability. Finally, this data was conflated in the Household Drought Risk Index (HDRI) to gain orientation knowledge and quantify risk levels among the households in the basin. This provided transformation knowledge to develop and identify risk mitigation strategies. The initial qualitative survey (n = 26) explored the drought impact on local livelihoods. It revealed structural insights into people's utilization of water resources and the negative impacts of drought on physical and mental health, family/community life and livelihood maintenance. Coping mechanisms were identified on multiple levels from the household level (e.g. selling of agricultural products) via the community (e.g. neighbourly support) to the governmental level (e.g. drought relief). As critical entry point for droughts, the water and food consumption patterns were identified that shape a household either more or less sensitive. The internal capital endowment (human, social, financial, physical and natural) and the infrastructural and institutional endowment of an area determine a household's ability to cope with drought. These qualitative insights culminated in the construction of the HDRI indicator that was populated with data in the subsequent research phases. To capture the drought hazard, three common drought indicators were combined in the Blended Drought Index (BDI). This integrated drought indicator incorporates meteorological and agricultural drought characteristics that impair the population's ability to ensure food and water security. The BDI uses a copula function to combine common standardized drought indicators that describe precipitation, evapotranspiration, soil moisture and vegetation conditions. Remote sensing products were processed to analyse drought frequency, severity and duration. In this regard, the uncertainty among a range of rainfall products was evaluated to identify the product that corresponds best to local rain gauge measurements. The integrated drought hazard map indicates the north of the Etosha pan and the area along the Kunene River to be most threatened by droughts. Temporally, the BDI correlates well with millet/sorghum yield (r = 0.51) and local water consumption (r = -0.45) and outperforms conventional indicators. The vulnerability perspective was captured using primary socio-economic data from a household survey (n = 461). The consumption patterns reveal a statistically significant switch from critical sources (e.g. wells, subsistence products) during the rainy season to more reliable sources (e.g. tap water, markets) during the dry period. Households with a high dependence on critical sources are particularly sensitive to drought. The capital endowment of households is heterogeneous, especially on a rural-urban gradient and between Namibia and Angola. Human and financial capital turned out to be important control variables in addition to the infrastructural and institutional endowment of an area. Overall, the HDRI results show that the Angolan population shows higher levels of risk, particularly caused by less developed infrastructural systems, weaker institutional capabilities and less coping capacities. Urban inhabitants follow less drought-sensitive livelihood strategies, but are still connected to drought conditions in rural areas due to family relations with obligations and benefits. Furthermore, the spatial HDRI estimates point to areas in Angola and Namibia that are both drought-threatened and vulnerable. The thesis results indicate the following recommendations for policy and science: First, the continuous monitoring of drought patterns in the basin should consider drought indicators that go beyond precipitation metrics and incorporate people's vulnerability to develop integrated Drought Information Systems. Second, reducing the sensitivities of the population requires enhanced local water buffers via better water use efficiencies. This is true for both blue and green water flows. Water-saving irrigation schemes in combination with decentral rain- and floodwater harvesting are promising opportunities. Furthermore, centralized backup infrastructures of water supply and market systems need to be expanded. Third, local community solidarity is an important institutional backbone for the population to cope with drought and adapt to future changes. In particular rural development efforts should go beyond technological interventions and support community-building, collective-action and capacity development in water management and agricultural production to decouple livelihoods from local rainfall. ; Dürren sind Phänomene, die weltweit sowohl in humiden als auch ariden Räumen sowie im Globalen Norden und im Globalen Süden auftreten. Sie gelten als langsam einsetzende Gefahren, die mehr Menschen betreffen als jeder andere natürliche Prozess mit einem geschätzten wirtschaftlichen Schaden von 135 Mrd. US-Dollar und 12 Mio. Toten weltweit zwischen 1900 und 2013 (Masih et al., 2014, p. 3636). Sub-Sahara Afrika gilt als Krisenherd aufgrund vulnerabler Lebensgrundlagen (z.B. Dominanz des Regenfeldbaus), begrenzter Kapazitäten (z.B. finanzielle, institutionelle), schwacher Infrastruktur (z.B. Trinkwasser, Mobilität) und politischer Instabilität (z.B. Konflikte, Korruption). Treten Dürren auf, wie kürzlich verstärkt durch El Niño (2015/2016), bestimmt die Vulnerabilität der Gesellschaft, ob sich das Dürrerisiko als Katastrophe manifestiert. Ein kritisches Beispiel ist die Dürre in Somalia, die v.a. zu einer humanitären Katastrophe wurde, da die prekären Vulnerabilitäts-bedingungen durch gewaltsame, politische Konflikte weiter verschlechtert wurden (Maxwell et al., 2016). Insgesamt steht Afrika aus zwei Gründen vor großen Heraus-forderungen bei der Bewältigung des Dürrerisikos: Erstens, sind die Lebensbedingungen u.a. aufgrund anhaltender Armut, begrenzter Gesundheitsversorgung und politischer Unruhen weiterhin schwierig (UNECA et al., 2015). Dies ist alarmierend, v.a. vor dem Hintergrund eines prognostizierten Bevölkerungswachstums von 1,3 Mrd. bis 2050 (UN-DESA, 2015, p. 3). Zweitens, ist die Schaffung guter Lebensbedingungen nach den Zielen für nachhaltige Entwicklung (SDG) eine Herausforderung, da mit dem Klimawandel eine Zunahme von Dürrehäufigkeit und -stärke zu erwarten ist. Höhere Niederschlags-variabilität gepaart mit einem starken Anstieg der Durchschnittstemperatur (Niang et al., 2014) werden die heutigen extremen Dürren in Zukunft zur neuen Normalität machen. Diese Probleme erfordern nachhaltige Lösungen, um kurz- und langfristige Anpassungen zu ermöglichen. Transdisziplinäre Forschung ist gefordert, welche die Stärken wissenschaftlicher Disziplinen und Akteure aus Politik und Gesellschaft bündelt, um geeignete Strategien zur Risikominderung zu erarbeiten. Unter dem Dach des Southern African Science Service Centre for Climate Change and Adaptive Land Management (SASSCAL) leistet diese Dissertation einen Beitrag zu integrierten Managementansätzen von Dürrerisiken, indem sie die naturräumliche Gefährdung kombiniert mit der gesellschaftlichen Vulnerabilität anhand einer Fallstudie untersucht: dem Cuvelai-Becken. Diese transnationale Region in Namibia und Angola ist regelmäßig Dürren ausgesetzt, wie zuletzt in den Jahren 2012 – 2015 mit Wasser- und Ernährungsunsicherheit für Hunderttausende von Menschen (DDRM, 2013; UN-OCHA, 2012). Naturräumlich erstreckt sich die Region von einem humiden Norden in einen semi-ariden Süden mit entsprechenden Vegetationsverhältnissen. Die Bevölkerung betreibt Subsistenzland-wirtschaft und Viehzucht, wobei Urbanisierungstendenzen und Lebensstiländerungen an Dynamik gewinnen. Die gesellschaftlichen Voraussetzungen sind heterogen: Während Angola bis 2002 Jahrzehnte des Bürgerkriegs erlebte, erfuhr Namibia v.a. nach der Unabhängigkeit 1990 eine kontinuierliche institutionelle und infrastrukturelle Entwicklung. Um die vielschichtigen Auswirkungen von Dürren auf die Lebensgrundlagen zu erfassen, verfolgt diese Dissertation einen interdisziplinären Ansatz im Sinne der Integration von Methoden aus der Physischen- und Humangeographie. Kernfragen darin sind (i) wie sich Dürren auf die Lebensgrundlagen auswirken, (ii) wie sich die naturräumliche Dürregefährdung manifestiert, (iii) welche gesellschaftlichen Gruppen vulnerabel sind und (iv) welche Strategien zur Risikominderung geeignet sind. Dabei entwickelt die Dissertation auf Basis der Theorie gesellschaftlicher Naturverhältnisse einen Leitfaden für eine sozial-ökologische Risikoabschätzung und wendet diesen in der vorliegenden Fallstudie an. Zunächst wurde eine qualitative Forschungsphase durchgeführt, um Systemwissen zu gewinnen, gefolgt von einer quantitativen Analyse von Umweltparametern zur Abschätzung der Dürregefahr sowie sozioökonomischer Variablen für die Abschätzung der Vulnerabilität. Schließlich wurden diese Daten im Household Drought Risk Index (HDRI) zusammengeführt, um Orientierungswissen zu generieren und das Dürrerisiko der Haushalte zu bestimmen. Daraus abgeleitetes Transformationswissen ermöglichte dann die Identifizierung geeigneter Risikominderungsstrategien. Die qualitative Erhebung (n = 26) explorierte die Wirkung von Dürren auf die lokalen Lebensbedingungen. Sie eröffnete Einblicke in die Nutzung von Wasserressourcen und die negativen Auswirkungen von Dürren auf die körperliche/geistige Gesundheit, das Familien-/Gemeinschaftslebens sowie den Lebensunterhalts. Bewältigungsmechanismen konnten auf mehreren Ebenen identifiziert werden, vom Haushalt (z.B. Verkauf landwirtschaftlicher Produkte) über die Gemeinde (z.B. Nachbarschaftshilfe) bis hin zur staatlichen Ebene (z.B. Dürrehilfe). Als kritische Wirkpunkte für Dürren wurden Nutzungsmuster von Wasser- und Nahrungsmitteln identifiziert, die einen Haushalt mehr oder weniger anfällig machen. Die interne Kapitalausstattung (Humanes, Soziales, Finanzielles, Physisches und Natürliches) und die infrastrukturelle und institutionelle Ausstattung eines Gebiets bestimmen weiterhin die Fähigkeit eines Haushalts, mit der Dürregefahr umzugehen. Diese Erkenntnisse ermöglichten die Konstruktion des HDRI Indikators, der in den Folgephasen mit entsprechenden Daten bestückt wurde. Zur Erfassung der Dürregefahr wurden drei Dürreindikatoren im Blended Drought Index (BDI) zusammengefasst. Dieser integrierte Dürreindikator berücksichtigt meteorologische und landwirtschaftliche Merkmale, die die Ernährungs- und Wassersicherheit der Bevölkerung beeinträchtigen. Der BDI verwendet eine Copula-Funktion, um gängige Dürreindikatoren zu kombinieren, die auf Niederschlag, Evapotranspiration, Bodenfeuchte und Vegetation zurückgreifen. Fernerkundungsprodukte wurden verarbeitet, um Häufigkeit, Stärke und Dauer der Dürren zu analysieren. Dabei wurden verschiedene Niederschlagsprodukte einer Unsicherheitsanalyse unterzogen, um jenes Produkt zu identifizieren, das am besten mit lokal gemessenen Stationsdaten korrespondiert. Die resultierende, integrierte Dürregefahrenkarte zeigt den Norden der Etosha-Pfanne und das Gebiet entlang des Kunene-Flusses als am stärksten von Dürren bedroht an. Zeitlich korreliert der BDI gut mit den Daten des Hirseertrages (r = 0,51) und dem lokalen Wasserverbrauch (r = -0,45) und übertrifft dabei konventionelle Indikatoren. Die Vulnerabilität wurde anhand von sozioökonomischen Daten aus einer Haushalts-befragung (n = 461) erfasst. Die Nutzungsmuster zeigen einen statistisch signifikanten Schwenk von kritischen Wasser- und Nahrungsquellen (z.B. Brunnen, Subsistenz-produkte) hin zu verlässlichen Quellen (z.B. Leitungswasser, Märkte) während der Trockenzeit. Haushalte mit einer starken Abhängigkeit von kritischen Quellen sind besonders sensitiv gegenüber Dürren. Die Kapitalausstattung der Haushalte variiert v.a. zwischen Land und Stadt sowie zwischen Namibia und Angola. Dabei treten Human- und Finanzkapital gemeinsam mit der infrastrukturellen und institutionellen Raumausstattung als wichtige Kontrollvariablen hervor. Die HDRI Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die angolanische Bevölkerung ein höheres Risiko aufweist, was v.a. durch weniger entwickelte Infrastruktursysteme, schwächere institutionelle- und geringere Bewältigungskapazitäten verursacht wird. Insgesamt gehen Stadtbewohner weniger dürresensitiven Nutzungsmustern nach, sind aber aufgrund familiärer Beziehungen weiterhin mit den ländlichen Gebieten verbunden. Die integrierte, räumliche Risikoabschätzung zeigt Gebiete in Angola und Namibia die sowohl dürregefährdet als auch vulnerabel sind. Die Ergebnisse erlauben zentrale Empfehlungen für Politik und Wissenschaft: Erstens sollte die Dürrebeobachtung im Cuvelai-Becken ein breiteres Spektrum von Indikatoren berücksichtigen und zusätzlich die Verwundbarkeit der Bevölkerung einbeziehen. Dies ermöglicht die Entwicklung von integrierten Dürreinformationssystemen. Zweitens, zur Verringerung der Sensitivität der Bevölkerung müssen lokale Wasserspeicher durch eine verbesserte Wassernutzungseffizienz erhöht werden. Dies gilt sowohl für blaues als auch grünes Wasser. Wassersparende Bewässerungssysteme in Kombination mit dezentralen Regen- und Flutwasserspeichern sind vielversprechende Möglichkeiten. Darüber hinaus müssen zentrale Infrastrukturen der Wasserversorgung und der Marktsysteme ausgebaut werden. Drittens, ist der Zusammenhalt der lokalen Gemeinschaften ein wichtiges institutionelles Rückgrat zur Bewältigung von Dürren und zur Anpassung an künftige Veränderungen. Anstrengungen zur Entwicklung des ländlichen Raums sind erforderlich, die über technische Interventionen hinausgehen und Gemeinschaften durch kollektive Maßnahmen und Ausbildung sowohl in der Wasserwirtschaft als auch der Landwirtschaft unterstützen und so die Lebensgrundlagen von den Niederschlägen entkoppeln.

This paper contributes to the methodological literature on the estimation of poverty lines for country poverty comparisons in Latin America and the Caribbean. The paper exploits a unique, comprehensive data set of 86 up-to-date urban official extreme and moderate poverty lines across 18 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, as well as the recent values of the national purchasing power parity conversion factors from the 2011 International Comparison Program and a set of harmonized household surveys that are part of the Socio-Economic Database for Latin America and the Caribbean project. Because of the dispersion of country-specific poverty lines, the paper concludes that the value of a regional poverty line largely depends on the selected aggregation method, which ends up having a direct impact on the estimation of regional extreme and moderate poverty headcounts.

In the 20th Century, Brazil rapidly urbanized and is now not only an urban nation but a metropolitan one. Brazils sprawling regioes metropolitanas (metropolitan regions, or RMs, which are municipal clusters) are now home to almost 50 million people and much of the countrys economic vitality. The RM spatial level and its supporting governmental institutions have thus become critical to Brazils future development. While challenges remain for tackling deprivation in rural areas, poverty in Brazil is now predominantly urban. More than six in 10 Brazilians in extreme poverty were living in urban settings as of 2012. Of these, over a fourth was concentrated in the 10 largest RMs.

Scholars and pundits frequently argue that contemporary professional journalism is experiencing an unprecedented legitimacy crisis. Although the public's dissatisfaction with news media is not a new phenomenon, its extent, manifestations, and potential democratic implications are becoming increasingly worrisome. Extant communication scholarship typically interprets this crisis in terms of rapidly increasing media distrust. However, several conceptual and measurement issues surrounding the construct of media (dis)trust have impeded the development of a coherent theory explaining the relevance, causes, and solutions for growing public animosity toward media. Chief among these issues is the absence of a clear understanding of the nature of media distrust, which at times has been described as a reflection of the public's probing skepticism, and at other times has been equated to a form of debilitating cynicism. The main argument in this dissertation is that media distrust and cynicism are two related but distinct perceptions of news media that indicate qualitatively different ways in which audiences relate to news media. Diverse theoretical and empirical evidence is presented to substantiate this argument. Combining insights from multidisciplinary research on cynicism and the study of media perceptions, this dissertation proposes a new conceptual definition of media cynicism. Here, media cynicism is defined as a generalized antagonism toward news media characterized by the belief that media actors are motivated exclusively by self-interests and pessimistic views that journalism could not be improved. Based on this definition, a new set of indicators was developed to measure media cynicism. This made it possible to compare and contrast this newly proposed measure of cynicism with the widely used instrument that measures media distrust in terms of dimensionality and relationships with external variables. Following a complementary mixed-methods design, both quantitative and qualitative data were gathered for analysis. Data were collected in Serbia, a transitioning democracy with recent experience with oppressive regimes. The country's turbulent history has left a strong mark on how the media operate and how the media are perceived by audiences, making Serbia an appropriate context to study negative media perceptions. Study 1 employed a web-based survey (N = 502) to test hypotheses relating to dimensionality, antecedents, and consequences of media distrust and cynicism. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses results consistently showed that the indicators of media distrust and cynicism are not influenced by the same underlying dimension. Further, structural equation modeling results indicated that the two perceptions could have different origins and consequences. Media (dis)trust appears to be predominately a function of perceived media professionalism, whereas media cynicism was found to be influenced by audience-related, media-related, relational, and contextual factors. The two perceptions may also indicate different ways in which citizens interact with politics and the news. Media distrust was associated with lower political trust and reduced news exposure through mainstream outlets and on social media. Cynicism, in contrast, was found to increase news engagement and exposure to the news through social media. To complement the findings of Study 1 and elaborate on identified patterns, Study 2 adopted an audience-centric approach to explore perceptions of and experiences with news media in a more holistic manner. This was accomplished by conducting in-depth interviews (N = 20) with diverse participants. Thematic coding of the data revealed that experiences of media distrust and cynicism may differ based on the audience's political interest, motivation, and self-efficacy. Whereas general media cynicism consistently applies to all media actors indiscriminately, partisan media cynicism only affects uncongenial outlets, and ambivalent media cynicism coexists with a relatively high degree of empathy for newspersons. Participants typically assessed the trustworthiness of specific news outlets or groups of homogenous outlets, and many struggled to apply these assessments to more abstract targets (i.e., news media in general). Although participants commonly used normative terms when evaluating the media (e.g., objectivity, accuracy, and neutrality), many infused such terms with their own biases, indicating a gap between academic and lay understandings of professionalism and trustworthiness of the media. In some cases, participants strongly relied on their self-efficacy instead of media trust, indicating that some audiences perceive much more control over public information than is recognized in the literature. Finally, practices relating to audiences' media repertoires, news avoidance, and news engagement were found to vary based on the expressions of media distrust and cynicism. Importantly, the findings indicated that under certain conditions, media cynicism could lead to disruptive civic behaviors. The findings of this dissertation have important theoretical and practical implications. In order to more precisely describe the characteristics of the crisis in audience-media relationships and understand its causes and consequences, future studies should include media cynicism when analyzing media perceptions. Moreover, this dissertation provides analytical tools that can help media practitioners and civic educators to formulate promising solutions to counter the public's growing discontent with the media and forge democracy-supporting audience-media relationships. ; 많은 학자와 전문가들은 오늘날의 저널리즘이 전례 없는 정당성 위기를 겪고 있다고 주장한다. 역사적으로 볼 때, 언론에 대한 이용자의 불만이 완전히 새로운 현상은 아니지만, 그 규모와 양상, 특히 민주주의에 끼치는 영향의 측면에서 과거와는 다른 우려를 낳고 있다. 이와 관련해 많은 연구자들이 언론과 이용자의 관계를 분석하는 과정에서 '미디어 냉소주의'를 '미디어 신뢰' 또는 '미디어 불신'과 연관시켜왔다. 그러나 미디어 신뢰(또는 불신)와 미디어 냉소주의를 개념적으로 명확히 구분하지 않은 연구는 오히려 현상의 원인과 해법을 적절하게 제시하는 이론의 개발을 더디게 만들었다. 이러한 혼란은 미디어 불신 및 미디어 냉소주의의 본질적 특성을 명확하게 구분하지 못한 것에서 비롯된 것으로 보인다. 이 논문은 미디어 불신과 미디어 냉소주의가 상호 연관되면서도 질적으로 구분되는 개념이라는 점을 규명했다. 냉소주의에 대한 다학제적 이론적 접근과 뉴스 미디어에 대한 시민의 인식을 다루는 다양한 연구 결과를 바탕으로, 이 논문은 '미디어 냉소주의'에 대한 새로운 개념 정의를 제안했다. 이 논문이 재개념화한 미디어 냉소주의는 뉴스 미디어에 대한 일반화된 적대감을 뜻한다. 이는 언론 행위가 주로 자사이기주의적 동기에서 비롯된다는 인식과 저널리즘이 개선되기 어렵다는 비관적 태도로 구성된다. 이 연구는 하위 차원과 지표, 그리고 외적 변수들과의 관계를 중심으로 미디어 냉소주의와 미디어 불신을 비교하고 대조할 수 있었다. 이 연구는 혼합적 연구방법을 적용하여 양적, 질적 자료를 모두 수집했으며, 최근까지 억압적 정치체제를 겪었던 신생 민주국가 세르비아를 대상으로 연구를 수행했다. 세르비아가 겪은 정치사회적 굴곡은 뉴스 미디어의 작동 방식과 시민들의 미디어 인식에도 큰 영향을 미쳤으며, 이는 언론에 대한 부정적 인식을 연구하는 데에 적절한 환경을 제공했다. 은 온라인 설문조사(N = 502)를 통해 미디어 냉소주의와 불신에 대한 측정모델을 검증했다. 탐색적/확증적 요인 분석 결과, 미디어 냉소주의와 불신은 공통의 차원에 영향을 받지 않았으며 상이한 차원들로 구성되는 것을 확인할 수 있었다. 미디어 냉소주의와 불신의 원인 및 결과에 대한 구조방정식 모형 분석도 두 개념 사이의 차별성을 확인해 주었다. 미디어 불신의 가장 큰 원인은 미디어 전문성에 대한 이용자 인식으로 나타난 반면, 미디어 냉소주의는 이용자와 미디어 관계와 이용자를 둘러싼 맥락적 요인(예컨대, 지인들의 미디어 적대감 등)에서 비롯되는 것으로 관찰됐다. 또한 미디어 냉소주의와 불신은 미디어 행위와 정치적 행위에도 상이한 결과를 초래하는 것으로 나타났다. 미디어 불신은 정치 불신을 촉진하는 한편 전통적 뉴스 이용을 감소시키는 효과를 보인 반면, 미디어 냉소주의는 소셜미디어를 통한 뉴스 이용을 높이고 뉴스 관여도를 증진하는 것으로 나타났다. 의 결과를 보완하고 정교화하기 위해, 는 이용자 중심의 접근을 통해 이용자의 미디어 인식과 경험을 직접적으로 탐색했다. 이를 위해 다양한 연령대의 미디어 이용자들(N = 20)과 심층 인터뷰를 실시했다. 연구 결과, 시민들이 경험하는 미디어 냉소주의와 불신은 그들의 정치적 관심, 뉴스와 정치에 관심을 가지는 동기, 자기효능감 등에 따라 다르게 나타났다. '일반적 미디어 냉소주의' 집단은 모든 언론인과 언론사를 부정적으로 인식한 반면, '정파적 냉소주의' 집단은 정치적 입장이 다른 언론사에 대해서만 적대감을 나타냈다. '양가적 미디어 냉소주의' 집단은 미디어에 대해 비관적 태도를 보이면서도 언론인들의 상황에 대해서는 상대적으로 높은 공감을 보였다. 인터뷰 참여자들은 특정한 뉴스 미디어의 신뢰성은 수월하게 평가했으나, 추상적 대상, 즉 뉴스 미디어 일반을 평가하는 것에는 능숙하지 않았다. 뉴스 미디어를 평가할 때 인터뷰 참여자들은 종종 규범적 용어들(예컨대, 객관성, 정확성, 혹은 중립성)을 사용했지만, 그 중 많은 사람들이 주관적이고 편향된 방식으로 각 용어를 해석하고 사용하는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 미디어 전문성과 신뢰성에 대한 학문적 이해와 보통 시민들의 인식 사이에 격차가 존재할 수 있음을 암시한다. 일부 시민들은 미디어 신뢰가 아닌 자기효능감에 의존하여 공적 정보의 객관성을 파악하고 판단하는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 선행 연구에서 제기한 것보다 더 높은 수준으로 시민들이 뉴스에 대한 자신의 통제력을 평가하고 있음을 보여준다. 더 나아가, 미디어 냉소주의나 불신의 형태에 따라 이용자들의 미디어 레퍼토리, 뉴스 회피, 뉴스 관여도 등도 달라지는 것으로 나타났다. 특히 특정 미디어 냉소주의 유형은 시민적, 사회적 소통에 매우 부정적인 영향을 주는 것으로 나타났다. 이 논문의 연구 결과는 중요한 이론적, 실천적 함의를 가진다. 무엇보다 이 연구는 이용자-미디어 관계 위기의 본질을 정확하게 이해하고 그 원인과 결과를 적절하게 설명하기 위해서 향후 연구는 냉소주의를 중심으로 시민들의 미디어 인식을 탐색해야 한다고 제안했다. 미디어에 대한 시민들의 불만에 대처하고 민주주의에 기여하는 방식으로 미디어와 이용자 관계를 개선하기 위해, 미디어 전문가와 시민 교육자들은 이 논문의 분석적 도구를 유용하게 활용할 수 있을 것이다.

Background and Objective: To resource allocating at national levels as results of productivity, cost calculation helps to determine the size of the problem and revealed cost benefits of injury prevention and it can also ensure the better resource using and cost benefit assessment. This study was conducted to determine the method of calculating road traffic injuries cost. Materials and Methods: In a literature review study using internet searching and library resources' all references related to health cost determination was derived. Then among all the methods, methods of road traffic injury cost estimation were studied and a result with component of the two common methods is presented here. Results: Findings showed that road traffic cost methods including: life insurance approach, court award(compensation), compensation method, the method of implicit public sector valuation, gross output method, using GDP(human capital) method, value change risk or willingness to pay. Mentioned methods have been used based on each section policies, but each method faced to its limitation and may be accompanied with under reporting. Conclusion: Among the stated methods willingness to pay is more accurate, but because of the complexity of the method, human capital method according to available resources and capacity to perform the higher permeability is recommended for low and middle income countries. REFERENCES1- UNAIDS. Status report on road safety in the world: it is time for action: World Health Organization, 2009.2- Mathers CD, Loncar D. Projections of global mortality and burden of disease from 2002 to 2030. PLoS medicine. 2006;3(11):e442.3- Üstün T, Ayuso-Mateos JL, Chatterji S, Mathers C, Murray CJ. Global burden of depressive disorders in the year 2000.The British Journal of Psychiatry. 2004;184(5):386-92.4- Toroyan T. Global status report on road safety: time for action2009.5- Pareto V. Coursd'economiepolitique: LibrairieDroz; 1964.6- Lorenz D. 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The Better Work Program has its roots in the Better Factories Cambodia (BFC) program, established in 2001 as a follow-on from the 1999 U.S.-Cambodia Bilateral Trade Agreement. The free trade agreement (FTA) was the first to link improved labor conditions with greater market access. The BFC program benefitted all the key stakeholders by improving work conditions, supporting the growth of the apparel sector in Cambodia (benefitting all local stakeholders), and boosting developed world buyers' reputation by sourcing from ethical workplaces. BFC has also helped to cushion the negative effects of external changes to the trading environment in the apparel sector (the end of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement quota system in 2005 and the global financial crisis in 2008–09). The program has grown substantially; as of December 2014, BW has reached over a million workers in more than 1,000 factories across eight countries (Bangladesh, Cambodia, Haiti, Indonesia, Jordan, Lesotho, Nicaragua, and Vietnam).

Tunisia emerges today the only success story of the Arab Spring revolution that swept the Arab world five years ago. This poverty assessment seeks to learn from the pre and post revolution periods with a view of avoiding the repetition of past mistakes in the future. Specifically, it will provide Tunisians with a more detailed and updated diagnostics of poverty, regional disparities, trends over time and the strong links between poverty, inequality, opportunities, and vulnerability. Beyond statistics, this report will also provide a somber but more balanced alternative explanation of socioeconomic development in the country, which will hopefully complement the efforts of the Government of Tunisia to develop and implement its strategic development plan. This poverty assessment questions the extent to which growth was truly pro-poor in Tunisia and, more importantly, capable of reducing inequalities and increasing inclusion in society. This questioning sheds light on Tunisia's prospects for a more prosperous society if substantive changes in the socioeconomic model are not introduced. The poverty assessment analysis goes into a post-2010 analysis; expanding as well the analysis of monetary poverty to broader concepts of vulnerability and equal opportunities; and by enriching traditional instruments with more sophisticated tools to measure poverty, analyze poverty dynamics, and simulate the effects of certain policy reforms for the first time in Tunisia.

ABSTRAKPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui pengaruh karakteristik Islamic corporate governance terhadap kinerja bank syariah di Indonesia dan Malaysia. Dengan menggunakan regresi data panel 28 bank syariah di Indonesia dan Malaysia periode 2013-2019, penelitian ini menemukan adanya pengaruh Islamic corporate governance (ICG) secara simultan terhadap kinerja bank syariah. Hasil estimasi dengan dan tanpa variabel kontrol menunjukkan hanya variabel tingkat pendidikan Dewan Pengawas Syariah (DPS) yang konsisten memiliki pengaruh negatif signifikan terhadap kinerja bank syariah. Dengan menambahkan variabel kontrol, hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa variabel gender diversity dan frekuensi rapat DPS masing-masing berpengaruh positif dan negatif terhadap kinerja bank syariah. Hasil penelitian ini memberikan wawasan bagi regulator untuk dapat meningkatkan kinerja bank syariah melalui praktik ICG. Kata Kunci: Bank syariah, Dewan Pengawas Syariah, Indonesia, Islamic corporate governance, Kinerja bank, Malaysia. ABSTRACTThis study aims to determine the impact of Islamic corporate governance characteristics on the performance of Islamic banks in Indonesia and Malaysia. By using panel data regression of 28 Islamic banks in Indonesia and Malaysia for the 2013-2019 period, this study found the simultaneous influence of Islamic corporate governance (ICG) characteristics on the performance of Islamic banks. The results with and without control variables show that only the Sharia Supervisory Board (SSB) education level consistently has a significant negative effect on the performance of Islamic banks. By adding the control variable, the results show that the gender diversity variable and the frequency of SSB meetings have a positive and negative effect on the performance of Islamic banks, respectively. The results of this study provide insights for regulators to improve the performance of Islamic banks through ICG practices.Keywords: Bank performance, Indonesia, Islamic corporate governance, Islamic banks, Malaysia, Syariah Supervisory Board. DAFTAR PUSTAKAAgrawal, N., & Lakshmi, V. (2020). Board composition and board size impact on financial performance of the company. International Journal of Public Sector Performance Management, 6(5), 737–747. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJPSPM.2020.110142Ajili, H., & Bouri, A. (2018). Corporate governance quality of Islamic banks: measurement and effect on financial performance. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 11(3), 470–487. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMEFM-05-2017-0131Alam, N., & Homy, A. (2020). The impact of corporate governance and agency effect on earnings management – A test of the dual banking system. Research in International Business and Finance, 54(April), 1–16.Al-Jaifi, H. A. (2020). 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Modifying the national poverty line to the context of observed consumption patterns of the poor is becoming popular. A context-specific poverty line would be more consistent with preferences. This paper provides theoretical and empirical evidence that the contrary holds and that the national poverty line is more appropriate for comparing living standards among the poor, at least under prevailing conditions in Mozambique and Ghana. The problem lies in the risk of downscaling the burden associated with cheap-calorie diets and the low nonfood component of the rural poor. The paper illustrates how observed behavior may neither reveal preferences nor detect heterogeneous preferences among the poor. Rather, the consumption pattern is the upshot of the poverty condition itself. Poverty is confused with preferences if observed cheap-calorie diets are seen as a matter of taste, whereas in fact they reflect a lack of means to consume a preferred diet of higher quality, as food Engel curve estimates indicate. Likewise, a smaller nonfood component is not a matter of a particular distaste, but an adaptation to the fact that various nonfood items (such as transport) and basic services (such as electricity and health) are simply absent in rural areas.

This document presents the Systematic Country Diagnosis (SCD) for Mali. The SCD was prepared following a consultative process within and outside the World Bank. It identifies constraints and opportunities for achieving the twin goals of ending poverty and improving shared prosperity by 2030 while acknowledging (i) the need for selectivity in pro-poor interventions, and (ii) the many competing 'binding' reasons for poverty in Mali. The objectives of the twin goals are similar for Mali as the incidence of dollar-a-day poverty exceeds 40 percent of the population. Selectivity means the identification of principal opportunities for poverty reduction in the next 15 years, as well as the identification of binding constraints to reaping such opportunities. In the search for selectivity, there is the risk of not identifying the correct set of opportunities and constraints. However, the risk of not being selective would probably have more serious implications as it could lead the government and its development partners to disperse their resources and attention too thinly over too many competing priorities. Selectivity also implies making trade-offs between immediate and longer term objectives. In this document priority is given to the identification of poverty reduction opportunities which could deliver results before 2030, while acknowledging that efforts should not undermine the prospects for poverty reduction and shared prosperity beyond 2030. In this regard, particular attention is paid to environmental and fiscal sustainability.

With 2015 marking the transition from the Millennium to the Sustainable Development Goals, the international community can celebrate many development successes since 2000. Three key challenges stand out: the depth of remaining poverty, the unevenness in shared prosperity, and the persistent disparities in non-income dimensions of development. First, the policy discourse needs to focus more directly on the poorest among the poor. While pockets of ultra-poverty exist around the world, Sub-Saharan Africa is home to most of the deeply poor. To make depth a more central element in policy formulation, easy-to-communicate measures are needed, and this note attempts a step in this direction with person-equivalent measures of poverty. Second, the eradication of poverty in all of its forms requires steady growth of the incomes of the bottom 40 percent. Yet, economic growth, a key driver of shared prosperity, may not be as buoyant as before the global financial crisis. Third, unequal progress in non-income dimensions of development requires addressing widespread inequality of opportunity, which transmits poverty across generations and erodes the pace and sustainability of progress for the bottom 40. To meet these challenges, three ingredients are core to the policy agenda: sustaining broad-based growth, investing in human development, and insuring the poor and vulnerable against emerging risks.

This systematic country diagnosis (SCD) for Chad aims to identify how to achieve the twin goals of ending poverty and improving shared prosperity. It acknowledges both: (i) the need for selectivity in pro-poor interventions, and (ii) the inherent difficulty to do so given the many competing binding reasons for poverty. Selectivity means the identification of principal opportunities for sustainable poverty reduction in the next 15 years, as well as the identification of binding constraints to reaping such opportunities. Selectivity also implies making trade-offs between immediate and longer term objectives, with priority given to the identification of poverty reduction opportunities which will: (i) deliver the highest possible results before 2030, and (ii) not undermine prospects for poverty reduction and shared prosperity beyond 2030. The analysis presented in the SCD draws on a variety of information sources. These include domestic statistics and reports, evaluations by the country's development partners, original research conducted by the World Bank team, and consultations held in N'Djamena with nongovernmental organizations and the private sector. Reaping poverty reduction opportunities will require addressing a selected number of binding constraints.

Afghanistan faces a severe problem of poor nutrition and food insecurity. Chronic malnutrition among Afghan children is one of the highest in the world. This report investigates the status of food insecurity in Afghanistan with a focus on mapping provincial differences and an emphasis on understanding the impact of rising food prices on key measures of food security. It synthesizes findings from analysis of rising food prices and their impact on different measures of food access and utilization (such as calorie intake, protein consumption and the quality of diet) in Afghanistan. The findings are based on the analysis of data from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) 2007/08, a sample of over 20,000 households from all 34 provinces of Afghanistan. This analytical work is an integral part of the on-going collaboration between the Government of Afghanistan and the World Bank in the domain of poverty and vulnerability assessment. It aims to further the understanding of household wellbeing and vulnerability from the standpoint of food security and complements the earlier work presented in 'poverty status in Afghanistan. Finally, given that poor nutrition and food insecurity affect a sizeable proportion of the Afghan population year-round but more so during bad times, there is genuine need for a scaled-up and well-targeted safety nets program in Afghanistan.

INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENTIFIC UNIONS - ICSU SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL Newsletter No.65 August 1997 Code Number:NL97009 Sizes of Files: Text: 100.8K Graphics: No associated graphics files MEETING REPORTS ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR THE ICSU'S PROGRAMME ON CAPACITY BUILDING IN SCIENCE Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director, ICSU The first meeting of the Advisory Committee for the newly launched ICSU Programme on Capacity Building in Science (PCBS) took place in Paris at the end of June. The Members of the Advisory Committee are listed. The meeting was also attended by a number of invited observers from UNESCO and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The Advisory Committee reviewed plans for launching a Programme organized around the previously identified themes of Primary Level Education; Public Understanding of Science, and the Organization of Actions to Reduce the Isolation of Scientists. It was agreed that the Programme should initially concentrate on a few highly visible pilot projects in each of the areas and that some of these should begin immediately. FIRST MEETING OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE ON RESPONSIBILITY AND ETHICS IN SCIENCE (SCRES) Oslo, Norway, 19-22 June 1997 Kathinka Evers, Executive Secretary, SCRES The recently established Standing Committee on Responsibility and Ethics in Science (SCRES) held its first meeting 19-22 June 1997 at the Norwegian Academy of Science in Oslo, Norway. The main task of the meeting was to establish the precise role that SCRES should play in the future: what are its main goals? what does SCRES aim to produce? who is the intended audience? The first discussion focused on how the committee intends to operate, and how it should communicate with other ICSU members. ICSU PRESS ACTIVITIES: ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING IN SCIENCE Sir Roger Elliott, Chairman ICSU Press When the General Assembly in Washington received the report of the UNESCO/ICSU Press Expert Conference on Electronic Publishing in Science it charged the ICSU Press Committee with the task of undertaking the follow-up activities which derived from the recommendations of the Conference. SPOTLIGHTS ON SCIENCE WORLD CLIMATE RESEARCH PROGRAMME (WCRP): Further Strategic Steps in Internationally Coordinated Climate Research: a report of the eighteenth session of the Joint Scientific Committee (JSC) for the WCRP H. Grassl, Director, WCRP The WCRP is jointly sponsored by ICSU, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. Overall scientific guidance for the programme is provided by the ICSU/WMO/IOC Joint Scientific Committee (JSC), consisting of eighteen scientists selected by mutual agreement between the three sponsoring organizations and representing the atmospheric, oceanographic, hydrological and polar science communities. At the kind invitation of the Atmospheric Environment Service of Canada, the eighteenth annual session of the Committee was held in Toronto from 17 to 21 March 1996. IGCP: INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMMES CENTRAL TO THE IGCP ENVIRONMENTAL DEBATE Edward Derbyshire Chairman IGCP What's in a name? Seen from outside, a programme with the title of "international Geological Correlation Programme" might appear rather narrow and prescriptive. in particular, the word "correlation" could even be construed as indicating that the IGCP is concerned with ensuring that national programmes conform to some kind of scientific norm. in fact, neither of these two impressions could be farther from the truth. It may not be generally known that the IGC]? is widely regarded as the most successful international collaborative programme of its type. Jointly sponsored by UNESCO and the international Union of Geological Sciences (lUGS), it brings together researchers in all aspects of the study of the solid earth sciences. It is open to scientists from any nation, and may be led by geoscientists of any nationality. This is vitally important for, after all, geological boundaries do not stop at national borders! THREAT TO FULL AND OPEN ACCESS TO DATA Ferris Webster, Chairman, ICSU Group on Data and Information New intellectual property laws may have potential adverse effects on the conduct of science and education. That was the principal concern of the Group on Data and Information of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) and the Commission on Data Access of the Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), which met jointly at ICSU Headquarters in June. At issue is the protection of databases that lack creativity in the selection, arrangement, or presentation of the information even though they may require a substantial amount of time, effort, or financial investment to produce. The creative elements of databases are already protected under copyright. The proposed sui generis right would in addition protect the contents (i.e., the facts themselves) of databases. Thus, all. sorts of compilations of data or datasets that have traditionally been in the public domain for lack of sufficient "originality" (to make them copyrightable) will now be protected against unauthorized uses and would enable the database owners to charge at whatever level they chose for authorized use. ENVIRONMENT EARTH COUNCIL: RIO+5 - FROM AGENDA TO ACTION Rio de Janeiro, 13-19 March 1997 Sophie Boyer King, Environmental Science Officer, ICSU The Earth Council was set up in 1992, with ICSU's sponsorship, and is principally aimed at encouraging non-governmental bodies to be involved in environment and development issues. The culmination of these activities led to a series of events in Rio de Janeiro in March 1997, five years after the Earth Summit: Rio+5, from Agenda to Action. ICSU agreed to contribute to the Earth Council's Rio+5 activities, providing inputs before the conference, and playing an important facilitator and participatory role during the March events. As part of preliminary reporting activities, ICSU conducted a survey among its members regarding the progress and difficulties in the implementation of ASCEND 21 (Agenda of Science for Environment and Development into the 21st Century). Responses received were incorporated into a Special Focus Report, one of the many documents which shaped the Rio+5 agenda. DIALOGUE SESSION ON SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES Fifth Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development, United Nations, April 1997 Sophie Boyer King, Environmental Sciences Officer, ICSU ICSU was invited by the UN Commission on Sustainable Development (UN CSD) to participate in and facilitate a dialogue session of scientific and technological communities with UN government delegates, as part of the Fifth session of the CSD. Each Major Group had three hours in which to make presentations and respond to questions from the floor, in a first-time event at a UN session. JOINT SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL COMMITTEE FOR GLOBAL OCEAN OBSERVING SYSTEM (J-GOOS) Sophie Boyer King, Environmental Sciences Officer, ICSU The fourth meeting of J-GOOS took place in Miami on the 23-25 April 1997. During the two days preceding J-GOOS IV, the JGOOS ad hoc planning group had met to discuss the progress and direction of the J-GOOS plan, GOOS 1998. J-GOOS was informed of a proposal to merge the Strategic Sub Committee (SSC) of the Intergovernmental Committee of GOOS (I-GOOS), with J-GOOS to form a GOOS Steering Committee. This committee would have more executive functions than the present J-GOOS and would include members from operational organisations to reflect this. After some discussion, J-GOOS endorsed the proposal for a restructured GOOS. The new director of the GOOS Project Office, Dr Colin Summerhayes, updated participants on the activities of the office, including increasing coordination with the various communities which contribute to the development of GOOS. IGBP AT UNGASS EXHIBITION During the Special Session of the United Nations General Assembly on Rio+5 (UNGASS), an exhibition was held showing "Sustainable Development in Action". The IGBP was part of this exhibition and presented posters that were specially developed for this event. In addition, the homepage was made available for browsing and a selection of IGBP Reports and Newsletters was displayed. ENVIRONMENT OCEAN CIRCULATION AND CLIMATE: The 1998 WOCE Conference, Halifax, N.S. Canada, 24-29 May 1998 World Ocean Circulation Experiment: WOCE is a component of the World Climate Research Programme investigating the role played by the ocean circulation in the earth's climate system. Its aim is to develop improved ocean circulation models for use in climate research. The WOCE observational phase from 1990-1997 has used satellites and in-situ physical and chemical measurements to produce a data set of unprecedented scope and precision. WOCE is now entering its phase of Analysis, interpretation, Modelling and Synthesis (AIMS) which will continue until the end of WOCE in 2002. The reconciliation of model results and observations, and ultimately the assimilation of ocean data into models, presents the ocean science community with a novel set of challenges. HOUSE NEWS NEW EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF ICSU Jean-Francois Stuyck-Taillandier has been appointed to replace Julia Marton-Lefevre and will become Executive Director of ICSU, for an initial 2-year period, as of 1 September. NEW EXECUTIVE SECRETARY OF SCRES Kathinka Evers, a native of Sweden, graduated in Philosophy at the Lund University and later obtained a doctorate in philosophy of science and logic in 1991. NEW CHAIRMAN OF IGBP Dr. Berrien Moore III was recently appointed to replace Dr Peter Liss as the Chair of the SC-IGBP and will start his term at the beginning of 1998. Moore is a mathematician from the USA and is Director of the Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans and Space at the University of New Hampshire. NEW EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF IGBP IGBP and ICSU are happy to announce the appointment of the new Executive Director of IGBP. Will Steffen, an Australian national, is due to replace Chris Rapley in January 1998. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT SCIENCE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES G.Thyagarajan, Scientific Secretary, COSTED-IBN EXCERPTS FROM THE PRESENTATION AT THE 25TH ICSU GA, WASHINGTON D C The Global Science & Technology Scenario Threat of Scientific and Technological Marginalisation Special Problems of Small States INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS During the last five years no other issue has engaged the attention of national governments, politicians, scientists and technologists, industrialists, trade leaders, the media and the wider public, as the Uruguay Round, GATT, the Marrakech Agreement and the arrival of the World Trade Organisation (WTO). Reactions have ranged from complete faith in the new order to its abject rejection. The issues generated are complex and have the potential to have far-reaching implications because, unlike the original GATT (which concerned international trade rules in the goods sector only) the 'Final Round' entered three new areas namely, Investment, Intellectual Property Rights and Services. It also extended to the sensitive areas of agriculture and textiles. 32ND COSPAR SCIENTIFIC ASSEMBLY and Associated Events - 40th Anniversary Nagoya, Japan, 12 - 19 July 1998 Preliminary Program CALENDAR Details of forthcoming events from August 1997 to November 1997. PLANS TO FOLLOW UP TO THE REPORT ON THE ASSESSMENT OF ICSU Members of the ICSU family received a memorandum sent from Paris on 4 July with information pertaining to the preparation of the Extraordinary General Assembly of ICSU to be held in Vienna, Austria on 25 April 1998 and with the Executive Board's proposals to follow up the recommendations contained in the Report on the Assessment of ICSU. The Extraordinary General Assembly, was called for by a Resolution at the 25th General Assembly of ICSU which requested "that the Executive Board formulate a strategy for responding to the recommendations of the Assessment Panel Report and present its suggestions for approval by an Extraordinary General Assembly.". Summary of Executive Board's proposals to follow up the Report on the Assessment of ICSU LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE ICSU GENERAL COMMITTEE FOR THE PERIOD 1996-1999 EUROPEAN RESEARCH CONFERENCES Co-sponsored by the European Science Foundation and the Euroconferences Activity of the European Union Space-Time Modelling of Bounded Natural Domains: Virtual Environments for the Geosciences near Kerkrade The Netherlands, 9-14 December 1997 GLOBAL CHANGE SCIENTIST The Global Analysis, Interpretation and Modelling task force (GAIM) of the lnternational Geosphere Biosphere Program (IGBP) invites applications and nominations for a Science Officer to begin in September, 1997.