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"This paper proposes a tractable model to study the equilibrium diversity of technological progress and shows that equilibrium technological progress may exhibit too little diversity (too much conformity), in particular, foregoing socially beneficial investments in "alternative" technologies that will be used at some point in the future. The presence of future innovations that will replace current innovations imply that social benefits from innovation are not fully internalized. As a consequence, the market favors technologies that generate current gains relative to those that will bear fruit in the future; current innovations in research lines that will be profitable in the future are discouraged because current innovations are typically followed by further innovations before they can be profitably marketed. A social planner would choose a more diverse research portfolio and would induce a higher growth rate than the equilibrium allocation. The diversity of researchers is a partial (imperfect) remedy against the misallocation induced by the market. Researchers with different interests, competences or ideas may choose non-profit maximizing and thus more diverse research portfolios, indirectly contributing to economic growth"--National Bureau of Economic Research web site

Under the utilitarian justification for the patent system, patents advance overall well-being by promoting technological progress. As patents incentivize innovation through the grant of market exclusivity, market demand has a leading role in directing innovation. The reliance on market demand reflects a choice of preference satisfaction as the criterion of well-being underlying the patent system. Accordingly, the concept of technological progress that the patent system is set to promote is rather simplistic. It includes those future goods that current market participants would value the most, or in other words: new stuff that sells. This Article deviates from this conventional account of technological progress that governs the field. It criticizes the reliance on preference satisfaction and the ensuing equation between market value and social value. Drawing on philosophical literature and empirical studies in economics and psychology, this Article reveals the shortcomings of the preference satisfaction criterion of well-being, and demonstrates that an innovative product's high-market demand does not guarantee that it will significantly enhance overall well-being. Ultimately, by incentivizing the development of certain innovations with a relatively low social value, the patent system might divert resources away from other, more beneficial, activities. To better align incentives with social value, this Article contends that innovation law and policy should be predicated on an objective criterion of well-being rather than on preference satisfaction. By holding that certain things are intrinsically valuable for people, an objective criterion allows a shift away from a view of technological progress as an end in itself to a view of technological progress as a means to enable better lives.This new perspective entails a more significant role for the state in directing innovation.On a prescriptive level, the proposed approach mandates assigning greater weight to various schemes of direct government funding of innovation, including prizes and grants, as well as certain revisions within patent law itself.

AbstractChina's old model of growth was heavily energy intensive, with energy overwhelmingly reliant on coal. This imposed immense pressures on the global and domestic environment. Since 2012, there has been decisive change in the trajectory of coal use and emissions. Renewable energy has been encouraged by a wide range of policies. Increased scale and innovation have radically reduced renewables costs and China has become the main generator of renewable energy and source of wind turbines and solar panels for the world. The whole of the increase in China's electricity since 2012 is from low emissions sources, making attainment of global climate goals possible.