Examines increasing difficulties encountered by Green parties in Western Europe since the late 1980s; economic constraints, competition with and in some cases absorption by traditional parties, decline of party militancy, and other issues. Summary in English. Some focus on Die Grünen in Germany and Les Verts--Génération Ecologie in France.
The history of the conceptualization & application of the notions of culture, political/civic culture, & social capital in politology, & comparative political science in particular, is traced, discussing: (1) treatments of the relationship between civic culture & democracy in classical works of sociology & political science (eg, Montesquieu, Guizot, Herder, or Tocqueville), (2) the pioneering study in Gabriel A. Almond & Sidney Verba's Civic Culture (Princeton: Princeton U Press, 1963), (3) neglect of the notion of civic culture in the 1970s & 1980s, (4) civic culture as a dependent & independent variable, (5) J. Coleman's (1988) definition of social capital, (6) Robert D. Putnam's definition of social capital & its use in La tradizione civica nelle regioni italiane ([The Civic Tradition in Italian Regions] Milan: Mondadori, 1993) & Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2000), (7) the effectiveness of the concept of social capital as a descriptive-explanatory tool in comparative political science, & (8) the continued controversy & debate on this notion in contemporary politology. References. Z. Dubiel
Long-term trends suggest that Italy's current economic crisis is not the result of an unfavourable business cycle or of the global economic and financial crisis. Instead, Italy's crisis accompanied by persistent slow economic growth is above all the result of decade-long structural shortcomings and impediments. Many factors explain why and how Italy experienced sluggish economic growth and increasingly uncompetitive productivity over decades. The causes of Italy's economic crisis are deeply rooted in the past and strictly interconnected. These causes will be discussed and analysed in a historical perspective. While embracing free economic market principles firmly integrated Italy in an international setting leading to fast export-led economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s, the focus on export-led economic growth became a problem and impediment in the decades after that. Export-led growth favoured the consolidation of a productive system centred around small and medium-sized manufacturing firms, many of which are concentrated in Italy's north. Such firms needed low labour costs, cheap natural resources and energy to survive in an increasingly competitive international setting. Social cohesion and strong domestic consumption, in a setting of relatively low wages, was supported and indeed guaranteed by generous public expenditures. After the oil crisis of the 1970s up until the beginning of the 1990s, Italy was able to remain internationally competitive through the regular devaluation of the Italian lira. Today, due to Italy's Euro membership, this kind of adjustment is no longer possible. At the end of the 1980s, the converging path towards other European countries stopped. The burden of a rising public debt, the distorted composition of public expenditure, the decline of the country's manufacturing sector and insufficient investments into research and development had a negative and lasting impact on the country's competitiveness. But also failures coming from the institutional and political setting, the lack of a good ruling class, the inefficiency of the public administration and family ties, added to what is referred to as Italy "lost opportunities". A ruling class above all oriented at short-term profits instead of a long-term commitments and gains, was unable and unwilling to adopt the needed structural reforms. In order to restore Italian economic growth not only new and effective monetary and fiscal policies, but also and above all changes to Italy's administrative and industrial policies in order to reduce the various kinds of dualism are needed: dualism between the country's north and south, between industries using and not using advanced technology, between regular and temporary workers, between big and medium-small firms, between relatively protected old and not protected young workers. Reducing the above-mentioned dualism is imperative to promote investments in research, infrastructure and human capital and to reduce the dependence on energy imports, the youth unemployment rate and the increasingly growing inner-Italian inequalities and poverty. Adapted from the source document.
