Search results

The article reveals the position of the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania representing different trends of political thought toward the union with the Kingdom of Poland in the midst of the intensive processes of centralisation taking place in the state. The analysis focuses on the period of 1788–1793, which was marked by significant changes in the governance of the state: (1) the period of the Four-Year Sejm (1788–1792), which adopted the Constitution of 3 May 1791 and the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations of 1791; (2) the activities of the General Confederation of the Two Nations of 1792–1793 having abolished the reforms enacted by the Four-Year Sejm; and (3) the period of the activity of the last Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, which was held in Grodno in 1793 and sought to return status quo to the relations between Poland and Lithuania. The article does not cover the ideas brought forward during the Uprising of 1794 and the division between Lithuanian and Polish military leaders, which came to the fore in its course. The analysis of historiography and the sources of the period under discussion leads to the conclusion that, in the final decades of the 18th century, the aspirations for the preservation of the Polish– Lithuanian union were shared by the entire Lithuanian nobility irrespective of political views. The adoption of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 was a significant concession of Lithuanian representatives made because of the complicated situation throughout the entire state. The result of this concession was the compromise reached on 20 October 1791. The Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations passed by the Sejm re-established the union of Lithuania and Poland. However, the founders of the Confederation of 1792, ignoring the Reciprocal Guarantee of the Two Nations, declared the restoration of Lithuanian– Polish relations established by the Union of Lublin and the return of the separation of all institutions of Lithuania. In practice, the confederates went even further: the institutions, which had been integrated since the establishment of the union, were separated. This policy reflected the programme of the conservative pro-Russian republicans of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Thanks to the efforts of the Republican Reformers representing the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a dualistic model of the state was established in the Grodno Sejm of 1793. ; Straipsnyje atskleidžiama skirtingų Lietuvos Didžiosios Kunigaikštystės politinių grupuočių laikysena unijos su Lenkijos Karalyste atžvilgiu šalyje vykstant intensyviems centralizacijos procesams. Analizei pasirinktas 1788–1793 m. laikotarpis, kurį ženklino reikšmingi valstybės valdymo pokyčiai: 1) Ketverių metų seimo laikotarpis (1788–1792), per kurį buvo priimta 1791 m. Gegužės trečiosios konstitucija ir 1791 m. Abiejų tautų tarpusavio garantijos įstatymas (įžadas), 2) Ketverių metų seimo reformas naikinusios generalinės Abiejų Tautų konfederacijos veikla 1792–1793 m. ir 3) paskutinio Abiejų Tautų Respublikos seimo, veikusio Gardine 1793 m., veikla Lenkijos ir Lietuvos santykiams siekiant sugrąžinti status quo. 1794 m. sukilimo keliamos idėjos ir jame išryškėjusi takoskyra tarp Lietuvos ir Lenkijos kariuomenės vadų šiame straipsnyje neaptariama. Atlikus istoriografijos bei aptariamo laikotarpio šaltinių analizę prieinama prie išvadų, kad XVIII a. paskutiniais dešimtmečiais Lenkijos ir Lietuvos unijos išsaugojimo siekiai buvo bendri visai Lietuvos bajorijai, nepriklausomai nuo to, kokiai politinės minties srovei atstovauta. 1791 m. Gegužės trečiosios konstitucijos priėmimas buvo reikšminga Lietuvos atstovų nuolaida, priimta įvertinus sudėtingą visos valstybės situaciją. Šios nuolaidos rezultatas buvo 1791 m. spalio 20 d. pasiektas kompromisas. Seimo priimtas Abiejų Tautų tarpusavio garantijos įstatymas naujai įtvirtino unijinį Lietuvos ir Lenkijos ryšį. Tačiau 1792 m. konfederacijos kūrėjai, ignoruodami Abiejų Tautų tarpusavio garantijos įstatymą, deklaravo atkuriantys Liublino unijos aktu nustatytus Lietuvos ir Lenkijos santykius bei sugrąžinantys visų Lietuvos institucijų atskirumą. Praktiškai eita netgi toliau – atskirtos nuo pat įsteigimo buvusios bendros institucijos. Ši politika atspindėjo konservatyviųjų prorusiškos orientacijos Lietuvos respublikonų programą. Lietuvos atstovų dėka 1793 m. Gardino seime buvo įtvirtintas dualistinis valstybės modelis.

The Four-Year Sejm is one of the events of critical importance both in the history of parliamentarism and the eighteenth-century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This article attempts to present the events of 1788–92 from two perspectives: on the one hand, by placing them in the tradition of the functioning of the Sejm as the highest organ of power in the Commonwealth; on the other, by considering them as a kind of revolution, interwoven with the 'revolutionary cycle', which began with the rebellion of the American colonies and culminated with the groundbreaking eruption in France. Following and describing the course of the Sejm's debates, the author divides them into stages that she describes as 'destruction – discussion – creation', seeing in them certain features typical of all events of this period that bear the hallmarks of revolution. She analyses both the play of political forces within the Sejm and the more fundamental changes in the political attitudes and political awareness of the nobility, as well as the revival of the townspeople. She also takes into account the changing international position of the Commonwealth. In this broad context, she presents the subsequent events and decisions of the Sejm up to the most important – the adoption of the Government Act on 3 May 1791.

Development planning in Venezuela began in 1959 as a result of the changes in the economic conditions and in the political situation that occurred in 1958. In that year, on January 23, Pérez Jiménez government was deposed after 10 years of military rule. A provisional government was established and elections were held December 7, 1958 with Rómulo Betancourt (Democratic Action Party) winning a near majority (49%) of votes for Presidency. A coalition government of the Democratic Action party (AD), Democratic Republic Union party (URD), and the Christian social party (COPEI) was established according to a pre-election agreement among these parties.The economic conditions also changed in 1958. Until that year Venezuela was able to achieve a high rate of economic growth (see Table I) and to accumulate considerable foreign exchange that prevented balance of payments crises such as those which interrupted economic development in other countries.

AbstractA study of tax defaults and their remedies in cities of over 50,000 population.