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The article contains a comparative historiographical study of the works which are devoted to the life of the Emperor Alexander II and are qualified as the examples of the genre of historical biography. The study is based on historiographical sources: works of professional historians as well as popular and fictionalized biographies. The main aim of the study is to reveal how the interpretations of Alexanders reign and the perceptions of his personality have changed over the times. The author argues that the personality of Alexander II aroused the interest of historians, biographers, and writers in the times which could be compared with the Era of Great Reforms: in the times of imperial modernizations in the early 20thcentury; during the first post-revolutionary decade; at the period of the perestroika and the building of the new Russian state. The biographies of Alexander II were written from the perspective of different ideologies: monarchic, liberal-reformist, revolutionary-radical, as well as from the perspective of priority of humanist values. The genres of Emperors biography were also varied from a solemn eulogy to a pamphlet or a romantic love story. However, the author draws attention to some constant, unchanging components of the image of the Emperor which can be traced through all versions of his biography: his sensitivity, sentimentality, and hesitancy; she points that these personal qualities of the Emperor were evaluated differently within the frames of different discourses. The author reveals the tendency inherent in contemporary works about Alexander II: static descriptions of Emperors personality give way to situational analysis of his motives and practices of decision-making, as well as to attempts to reconstruct the system of political priorities of the Emperor. ; Статья посвящена сравнительному изучению работ о жизни императора Александра II, создававшихся на протяжении ХХ начала XXI вв. в жанре исторической биографии. Задача исследования состоит в том, чтобы проследить, как изменялись с ходом времени трактовки правления Александра II и восприятие его как личности. Работа основана на историографических источниках: трудах профессиональных историков, а также научно-популярных, беллетризованных изданиях. В статье доказывается, что личность Александра II вызывала интерес историков и биографов-беллетристов на тех этапах истории страны, которые можно было сопоставить с эпохой Великих реформ: в эпоху модернизации империи начала ХХ в., в первое послереволюционное десятилетие, в годы перестройки и становления новой российской государственности. Биографии Александра II создавались с позиций различных идеологий: монархической, либерально-реформаторской, революционно-радикальной, с точки зрения приоритета гуманистических ценностей. Жанр исторической биографии применительно к императору оборачивался разными гранями: от торжественного панегирика до памфлета или романтической любовной истории. В массиве исторических биографий можно выявить некоторые константы, неизменные составляющие образа императора (чувствительность, сентиментальность, склонность к колебаниям), но в рамках различных дискурсов эти качества получают разную оценку. Сделан вывод, что в современных историко-биографических работах об Александре II на смену статичным характеристикам императора приходит ситуативный анализ мотивов и инструментария принятия его решений, стремление воссоздать систему политических приоритетов императора.

We turn to Olga Artyomova's research done in the school of markemology at Voronezh State University. The task of the research was to single out the keywords of the 17th-20th century English literature. Selecting 16 prose-writers of each half a century, the author undertakes a quantitative analysis of the resulting corpus of texts. The choice of materials, methodology, the terminology used, and 50 keywords ('markemes') for each author got through calculations are studied in the paper. Artyomova determines the so-called "straight-through" markemes common for each half a century and specifically - markemes common for all the four centuries. Both the scientific approach and the results obtained are evaluated. The authors' own experiments are described carried out to specify the functioning of the word stock of Anglo-Saxon and Romance origin in random extracts from the works of three authors figuring in the research: O. Wilde, G. Orwell and I. Murdoch. Besides, the vocabulary of one novel by each of these authors was subjected to computer analysis to find out the correlation of Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) and Romance nouns.

For over two hundred years, 19th-century British literature was being translated in Russia. The process of literary translation has suffered two radical changes in translation norm within that time. The first had happened after the 1917 revolution; the second after the perestroika of the early 1990s. Before the revolution there were no established principles of translation: very often different translations of the same text were published at the same time; in some cases translation was reduced to retelling the story. In the Soviet era there was a concept of the ultimate 'ideal' translation of each work of literature, but the question of the translation method came into dispute. Initially translation accuracy was recognized as the most important factor, but later so called 'formalism' was stigmatized and more domesticating method was recognized as the only proper approach. After perestroika multiple translations of the same text started to appear, and the translations of the 19thcentury came back into print. The article reviews the details of each of those periods, the influence of economic, cultural, and political issues on publishing practice, methods of translation and commentary, problems of authorship, editing, censorship, and the choice of target audience. Particular attention is paid to the practice of reusing pre-revolution translations. The problem of professional translation criticism that could help readers make sense of several coexisting translations, is discussed.

The first mention of the Crimean court registries - sijils - belong to the 1800s. At that time, translations of some texts were made, the content of these monuments was relatively minutely described and their historical and philological significance was evaluated. However, separate volumes of presented documents still have not been published. Neither comprehensive linguistic study nor description of terminology and style of these texts have not been made. Research objectives: study of the Crimean court registries of the 17th-18th centuries. One of the problems lying on the surface of this field of study of the Crimean Tatar language history and the right is the question about the compilers of these judicial materials. Whom we can consider the author or scribe of a court registry? How competent is an assertion that these books are kadiaskers books? Research materials: the court registries, kadylyk, kadiasker defters. The paper also raised the question of authenticity of the Crimean law and the two sources of the entire justice system of this Eastern European Turkic state: Sharia and actual Turkic law - Tore implemented subsequently in various legislative compilations, such as the Yasa of Chinggis Khan. Another issue of research of these monuments is the question of their content. Fedor Lashkov identified the Crimean records of Sharia courts as a sort of land records' acts. Research results and novelty: As a result of a detailed study, the author found that its own jurisdiction and its own laws, which did not always coincide with the laws of the Ottoman Empire, functioned in the Crimean Khanate. Despite their historical and philological value as well as more than a century of study, Crimean court registries still contain many blank spots. This again points to the need for their early reading, translation into modern Turkish language and publication, which should be carried out in the Crimean Tatar and Russian languages.

In Moscow of the 16th—17th centuries there were two closely related centers of professional musical art. They were the choir at the Tsar's court and the choir at the court of the metropolitan (since 1589 — patriarch) of Moscow and all Russia, which united the best creative powers of the country. According to the author, the study of historical data on the life and activities of the Tsar's and patriarchal singers indicates that they belonged to the category of court service class people. Directions of their activities have often expanded. This was determined not only by the fact that the singers were literate, and sometimes had a high level of education, but also by the lack of a clear dif-ferentiation of services in the developing state apparatus, which made it possible to use the singers in various services — from file clerk to military. The findings are based on an analysis of a wide range of diverse archival documents and other sources. The obtained results allow us to clarify the social status of masters, who are often referred to the clergy class by researchers.

The article is focused on the philosophy and the practical actions of Booker T. Washington (1856-1915) — the most significant African-American leader of the late XIX — early XX centuries. Theauthor analyzes the formation of attitudes and life principles of this figure, his search of peacefulinteraction of white and black people, in conditions of the restriction of civil and political rights of theAfrican-Americans in the territory of the southern states after the end of the Reconstruction in 1879.The temporary renouncement by the black population of the struggle for political equality in returnfor socio-economic opportunities, that was the main idea of the Washington's "ideology of adaptation",became a compromise in the relationship between the two races. The author also focuses hisattention on the Washington's educational program, his economic development strategy of the blackpeople, and his attitude to the racial discrimination, as well as the reasons that led the "ideology ofadaptation" to the failure in attempt to stop the further offensive racist legislation. ; Статья посвящается философии и практической деятельности Букера Т. Вашингтона(1856—1915) — наиболее значительного афроамериканского лидера конца XIX — начала XX вв. Автор анализирует формирование взглядов и жизненных принципов данного деятеля, его поискмирного взаимодействия белого и чернокожего населения, в условиях ограничения гражданскихи политических прав афроамериканцев на территории южных штатов после окончания периодаРеконструкции в 1879 г. Временный отказ чернокожего населения от борьбы за политическоеравноправие взамен на социально-экономические возможности, являвшийся основной идеей«идеологии приспособления» Вашингтона, стала компромиссом во взаимоотношении двух рас.Особое внимание автор уделяет рассмотрению образовательной программы Вашингтона, егоэкономической и социальной стратегии развития чернокожего населения в условиях расовойдискриминации на Юге США, а также причинам, приведшим к неудаче «идеологии приспо-собления» в попытке сдержать дальнейшее наступление расистского законодательства.

The article is devoted to an urgent problem dealing with the cooperation of the Turkish Republic and Azerbaijan Republic in the military sphere at the end of 20th – the beginning of 21st century. For Azerbaijan' s leaders Turkey has always been a special partner. This statement has an explanation. Ankara was the first state, which recognized the independence of Azerbaijan Republic. Moreover, Turkish government made great efforts to strengthen new state in different spheres. Military ties were one of the most important for both sides.
The cooperation between two states in the military sphere can be subdivided into several periods. The article gives the detailed analysis of normative documents concluded by the Republics' governments. The first period of military contacts (1990s) was the time of Turkish educational support. Ankara provided training assistance to the military forces of Azerbaijan. Military staff was restrained by Turkish instructors. Special uniform, armament and other equipment to make transformation was given to Baku by Turkish partners. Step by step, Azerbaijan' s military sphere was moving to Western standards. The year 1999 has become an important period for the military relations of Ankara and Baku. Since this year the military cooperation has extended and intensified, it is possible to name it as a new period of states' military collaboration. Turkish government gave financial aid to Ministry of Defense of Republic of Azerbaijan, provided the material and technical support to Baku for improving long-term military cooperation. In 2010 the Turkey-Azerbaijan Strategic Partnership Agreement was signed. It should be noticed that Baku refused to sign the agreement of Azerbaijan's participation in Collective security treaty organization, leaving the block of CSTO states headed by the Russian Federation. It's possible to say about the strengthening of the Baku-Ankara alliance. This action may lead to complication of Baku-Moscow relations and destabilize mutual relations. Mutual military ties between two Turkish states are shown in the context of Russia's interests in the region.

The following article is written on the basis of published and archival sources. O. Igelstrom's reforms, and also the projects for government of the Kazakh Steppe prepared by some Russian officials, officers and ecclesiastics are considered by the author. Their singularities and differences are shown; the conclusion on their influence on the Russian policy in the region is drawn. The main attention is paid to reforms of O. Igelstrom who created the administrative institutions founded on local political tradition in the Small Horde. He intended to use them as instruments for the Russian influence in the Kazakh steppe. Local patrimonial leaders turned into government officials. But this experience was unsuccessful. Traditional Kazakh institutions didn't conform to requirements of the Russian administration. The failure of those reforms provoked search of new models for the organization of Kazakh steppe's administration. The Orenburg official D. Grankin suggested to refuse patrimonial division of the Small horde and to divide it according to the territorial principle. He suggested to include Russian officials and mullahs in all administrative bodies and to strengthen them by military detachments. The chief of the Siberian Lines Ya. Bouver suggested introducing the territorial division in the Middle Horde close to the imperial one. Expansion of the Russian sociocultural codes to the region was the main idea of his project. In the article considerable attention is paid to proposals of the Orenburg mufti M. Khusainov. He suggested to divide the Small Horde into two parts taking into account the patrimonial principle. The khan with sultans and advisers had to be at the head of each part. The deputies elected by notable Kazakhs had to become a sort of representative body in the part. The group of the armed Russian Muslims had to support safety in the Steppe. The Russian participation in internal administration of the Steppe was offered to minimize. Such approach couldn't satisfy the Russian administration. Search of the most optimum model for Kazakh's administration was continued in the 19th century. (author's abstract)

This article focuses on the participation Bashkirs took in the development of Transvolga Region. The lands in Samara Province were the most western ones in Russia where the Bashkir population lived compactly. Historical studies of the region and the population living there between the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries refer to documents of central and local archives, manuscripts of the Russian National Library, etc. Critical analysis of sources and historiography and the application of modern techniques of local and ethnic history allows the author not only to solve research problems, but also look at the past while constructing historical and cultural memory. In the "imperial period", the problem of correlating the ethnic and local history was complicated by the resettlement of peoples in different territories over considerable distances. The transformation of Volga Region into an internal Samara province of the empire, on the one hand, was due to the mobilisation of part of the estates of Bashkir lands, which occurred both forcibly and voluntarily. On the other hand, the loss by the Bashkirs of mostly remote and underutilised Transvolga estates was compensated for by receiving the status of a military service class, the presence of self-government, and the possibility of modernising the economy, culture, and life. As a result, the territories of the ethnos's settlement were preserved and expanded, its undoubted numerical growth took place, amounting to more than a tenfold increase over two centuries nationwide. In the middle of the nineteenth century, about 50 thousand Bashkirs lived in Transvolga Region. The author provides a definition of the "imperial people" on the basis of active participation in the genesis of the empire, especially in the process of including "peripheral lands". The Bashkirs are certainly an "imperial people" and Samara Transvolga Region is one of the "peripheral lands" included in the economic, political, and multicultural space of the Russian Empire, which was important for the further development of the entire multi-ethnic country. ; Статья посвящена участию башкир в освоении Заволжья. Земли в Самарской губернии были самыми западными в России, где компактно проживало башкирское население. Изучение вопросов истории этого края в XVIII — первой половине XIX в. и обитавших на них жителей обеспечено документами центральных и местных архивов, Отдела рукописей Российской национальной библиотеки, другими источниками. Критический анализ источников и историографии, использование современных приемов локальной и этнической истории позволяют обратиться к прошлому народов региона при конструировании их исторической и культурной памяти. В «имперский период» проблема соотношения этнической и локальной истории усложняется в силу расселения народов на значительные расстояния и по разным территориям. Установлено, что превращение Заволжья во внутреннюю губернию империи (Самарскую), с одной стороны, произошло за счет мобилизации части вотчинных башкирских земель, происходившей как принудительно, так и добровольно. С другой стороны, утрата башкирами в основном отдаленных и малоиспользуемых заволжских владений была компенсирована получением статуса военно-служилого сословия, наличием самоуправления, возможностью модернизации хозяйства, культуры и быта. Как результат, сохранились и даже расширились территории расселения этноса, произошел его несомненный численный рост. В Заволжье в середине XIX в. проживало около 50 тыс. башкир. За два столетия в масштабах всей России произошло более чем десятикратное увеличение их численности. При определении «имперских народов» по признаку активного участия в генезисе империи, особенно в процессе включения в нее окраинных земель, к их числу, безусловно, относятся башкиры. В свою очередь, Самарское Заволжье оказалось среди «имперских окраин», с участием в том числе башкир, включенных в хозяйственное, административное, поликультурное пространство России, что имело большое значение для дальнейшего развития всей многонациональной страны.

Submitted: 20.05.2020. Accepted: 28.09.2020. ; Поступила в редакцию: 20.05.2020. Принята к печати: 28.09.2020. ; Статья посвящена участию башкир в освоении Заволжья. Земли в Самарской губернии были самыми западными в России, где компактно проживало башкирское население. Изучение вопросов истории этого края в XVIII — первой половине XIX в. и обитавших на них жителей обеспечено документами центральных и местных архивов, Отдела рукописей Российской национальной библиотеки, другими источниками. Критический анализ источников и историографии, использование современных приемов локальной и этнической истории позволяют обратиться к прошлому народов региона при конструировании их исторической и культурной памяти. В «имперский период» проблема соотношения этнической и локальной истории усложняется в силу расселения народов на значительные расстояния и по разным территориям. Установлено, что превращение Заволжья во внутреннюю губернию империи (Самарскую), с одной стороны, произошло за счет мобилизации части вотчинных башкирских земель, происходившей как принудительно, так и добровольно. С другой стороны, утрата башкирами в основном отдаленных и малоиспользуемых заволжских владений была компенсирована получением статуса военно-служилого сословия, наличием самоуправления, возможностью модернизации хозяйства, культуры и быта. Как результат, сохранились и даже расширились территории расселения этноса, произошел его несомненный численный рост. В Заволжье в середине XIX в. проживало около 50 тыс. башкир. За два столетия в масштабах всей России произошло более чем десятикратное увеличение их численности. При определении «имперских народов» по признаку активного участия в генезисе империи, особенно в процессе включения в нее окраинных земель, к их числу, безусловно, относятся башкиры. В свою очередь, Самарское Заволжье оказалось среди «имперских окраин», с участием в том числе башкир, включенных в хозяйственное, административное, поликультурное пространство России, что имело большое значение для дальнейшего развития всей многонациональной страны. ; This article focuses on the participation Bashkirs took in the development of Transvolga Region. The lands in Samara Province were the most western ones in Russia where the Bashkir population lived compactly. Historical studies of the region and the population living there between the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries refer to documents of central and local archives, manuscripts of the Russian National Library, etc. Critical analysis of sources and historiography and the application of modern techniques of local and ethnic history allows the author not only to solve research problems, but also look at the past while constructing historical and cultural memory. In the "imperial period", the problem of correlating the ethnic and local history was complicated by the resettlement of peoples in different territories over considerable distances. The transformation of Volga Region into an internal Samara province of the empire, on the one hand, was due to the mobilisation of part of the estates of Bashkir lands, which occurred both forcibly and voluntarily. On the other hand, the loss by the Bashkirs of mostly remote and underutilised Transvolga estates was compensated for by receiving the status of a military service class, the presence of self-government, and the possibility of modernising the economy, culture, and life. As a result, the territories of the ethnos's settlement were preserved and expanded, its undoubted numerical growth took place, amounting to more than a tenfold increase over two centuries nationwide. In the middle of the nineteenth century, about 50 thousand Bashkirs lived in Transvolga Region. The author provides a definition of the "imperial people" on the basis of active participation in the genesis of the empire, especially in the process of including "peripheral lands". The Bashkirs are certainly an "imperial people" and Samara Transvolga Region is one of the "peripheral lands" included in the economic, political, and multicultural space of the Russian Empire, which was important for the further development of the entire multi-ethnic country.

The article deals with the main directions of cooperation in the sphere of education within the framework of the Union State. The novelty of the study lies in the fact that for the first time it formulates and introduces the authors' research position, clearly outlines the boundaries separating the processes which take place within the Union State, and traces the development of the Russian-Belarusian interaction. In the context of this concept the authors identify and formulate the main stages of development of these processes and systematize the main trends of formation of the normative-legal base of the common educational space and measures for its practical implementation. They examine the interaction between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus within the Union State framework in the general context of the Union State building. The following stages are outlined: the preliminary stage from 1995 through 1999 included the maintenance of equal rights of citizens at the level of interstate relations and in the beginning of the Union State building; the second stage from 1999 through 2012 provided the normative-legal base of the educational space of the Union State and implementation of the existing norms; the third stage from 2012 through 2018 was characterized by gradual growth of attention of the governing bodies of the Union State to the problems of humanitarian cooperation, adaptation of the normative-legal acts to the actual changes in the sphere of education of the two countries; the fourth stage from 2018 until now is regarded as a high time for formation of a single space of education of the Union State for further development of integration. The article categorizes and characterizes the actions taken by the bodies of the Union State, educational institutions and professional circles in order to develop cooperation in the field of education. The study identifies the role of diaspora public organizations in the processes under consideration. The authors conclude about the special role of educational and scientific organizations, professional associations and civil society institutions of the two countries in the development of a unified educational space.

The Devdorak Glacier located on the Eastern slope of Mt. Kazbek is known since the end of the 19th century for its catastrophic ice discharges into the river Terek canyon. The so-called «Kazbek blockages» stopped the river flow, thus leading to formation of a dammed lake. The lake was then broken through by the heavy floods. Evidences of such events are available for 1776, 1785, 1808, 1817, and 1832. Later on, the glacier surges did sometimes occur, but they never reached the river. The blockages interrupted the traffic on the Georgian Military Highway – the basic way across the main ridge of the Caucasus, for long time periods. Investigations of the Devdorak and other Mt. Kazbek glaciers were organized in 1862 and lasted until the end of 19th century. But the scientists could not reach a common consensus in resolving the main issues, i.e. the causes of the «blockages» and possibilities of their soon repetitions. Different hypotheses explaining the ice discharges by either morphology of the glacier and the river valley or by earthquakes were proposed. Some authors insisted on a probability of occurrence of new «blockages». But the mostly widespread opinion was that since all the Kazbek glaciers were in the state of degradation any risk of new «blockages» was absent while this tendency remained. Since the previous disasters, the Devdorak Glacier posed no threat for about two centuries. However in May 2014, a huge downfall of rock and ice suddenly came down on the glacier in its upper zone. As a result a large mass of rock, stones, and mud blocked the Terek river bed again. This event was not related to regime of the glacier itself. Most likely it was a new manifestation of the Mt. Kazbek volcanic activity. ; Первые систематические наблюдения за ледниками Кавказа связаны с изучением катастрофических выбросов льда в ущелье р. Терек в результате периодических подвижек Девдоракского ледника в конце XVIII – начале XIX вв. Анализ причин «казбекских завалов» не привёл учёных того времени к единому мнению. Тогда ещё не существовало понятия о классе пульсирующих ледников. Двумя столетиями позже – в мае 2014 г. – снова случился неожиданный обвал льда и горной породы в фирновой области Девдоракского ледника. Это событие имело другую природу и, вероятно, связано с новейшими проявлениями вулканической активности в недрах Казбека.

Altai has attracted attention of Russian and foreign travelers since XVIII century. They often visited Zmeinogorsk with its the local big silver mine and a smelting plant, leaving some descriptions for descendants. The analysis of the works of ten authors who visited Zmeinogorsk from 1771 to 1877 (eight Russians and two foreigners) made it possible to establish that their testimonies have a lot in common. This is the list of images which is found almost everywhere: "big settlement", "mountainous territory", "rich ore deposits", "important industrial complex". Much less common are such images as "a beautiful, cozy place", "the center of technical progress". So visitors did not consider Zmeinogorsk to be an important political and cultural or trade center. Differences between images had a private character and refer to the description of the appearance or lifestyle. The perception of Zmeinogorsk in XVIII–XIX centuries, based on the given records, is generally true.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2015)3.2-09 ; Начиная с XVIII в. Алтай привлекал внимание российских и зарубежных путешественников. Часто они посещали Змеиногорск, где находились крупный серебряный рудник и сереброплавильный завод, оставляя потомкам его описания. В результате анализа работ десяти авторов (восьми россиян и двух иностранцев), посетивших Змеиногорск с 1771 по 1877 г., удалось установить, что в их свидетельствах есть много общего. Вот набор образов, присутствующих почти везде: «крупное поселение», «гористая местность», «богатое месторождение руд», «значимый производственный комплекс». Несколько реже встречаются такие образы, как «красивое, уютное место», «место, где воплощаются в жизнь технические новинки». В то же время авторы не считали Змеиногорск важным административным или культурным центром. Различия носят в основном частный характер и касаются описания каких‑то деталей внешнего вида или образа жизни. Представления о Змеиногорске XVIII–XIX вв., основанные на таких сведениях, в целом соответствовали действительности.DOI 10.14258/izvasu(2015)3.2-09

The article addresses one of the burning issues of the current international political and economic processes – cooperation between the two regions of Europe and Latin America at different levels. At the turn of the XXI century certain changes happen both inside the regions and in their relations with each other, which stirs researchers' interest. The author describes collaboration mechanisms, Europe's economic programs and projects, identifies the cooperation's principal directions and difficulties emerging during this process ; Рассматривается один из актуальных вопросов современных международно-политических и экономических процессов – сотрудничество двух регионов Европы и Латинской Америки на разных уровнях. На рубеже веков происходят определенные изменения как внутри регионов, так и в отношениях между ними, что вызывает интерес исследователей. Описаны механизмы взаимодействия, Европейские экономические программы и проекты, выделяются основные направления сотрудничества и возникающие при этом трудности

The geographical location of Russia between Europe and Asia is unique. Russia possesses huge and low-populated territories, which are rich with natural resources. Throughout the centuries, Russia had natural advantages over other countries during the periods of peaceful development as well as during the war years. However, currently, in the conditions of the technological revolution, these advantages may be underestimated. Moreover, these benefits may get under control of Asia or Europe. The country as a geographical region is located between two superpower subcontinental and regional economic centres - the European Union in Europe and China in Asia. These conditions demand, first of all, much more successful development of Russia, or a powerful economic breakthrough. Secondly, the economy of many depressive regions of the country needs an accelerated development. Thirdly, Russia should strengthen its multilateral communications with near neighbours - allies on Eurasian Economic Union to transform this integration group into one of the most successful in the Eurasian region. ; Рассмотрено специфическое географическое положение России. Проанализирована китайская стратегическая инициатива "Один пояс - один путь", направленная на создание инфраструктуры и налаживание взаимосвязей между странами Евразии. Рассмотрена концепция опорных городов различного типа как пространственная основа реализации инициативы. Показаны перспективы взаимодействия стран-участниц Евразийского экономического союза.