Suchergebnisse

Issue 54.1 of the Review for Religious, January/February 1995. ; Review for Religious (ISSN 0034-639X) is published bi-monthly at Saint Louis University by the Jesuits of the Missouri Province. Editorial Office: 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, Missouri 63108-3393. Telephone: 314-977-7363 ¯ Fax: 314-977-7362 Manuscripts, books for review, and correspondence with the editor: Review for Religious ¯ 3601 Lindell Boulevard ¯ St. Louis, MO 63108-3393. Correspondence about the Canonical Counsel department: Elizabeth McDonough OP ¯ P.O. Box 29260 ° ~,~ashington, DC 20017. POSTMASTER Send address changes to Review for Religious ¯ P.O. Box 6070 ¯ Duluth, MN 55806. Second-class postage paid at St. Louis, Missouri, and additional mailing offices. See inside back cover for information on subscription rates. ©1995 Review for Religious Permission is herewith granted to copy any ,naterial (articles, poems, reviews) contained in this issue of Review for Religious for personal or internal use, or for the personal or internal use of specific library clients within the limits outlined in Sections 107 and/or 108 of the United States Copyright Law. All copies made under this permission must bear notice of the source, date, and copyright owner on the first page. This permission is NOT extended to copying for commercial distribu-tion, advertising, institutional promotion, or for the creation of new collective works or anthologies. Such permission will only be considered on written application to the Editor, Review for Religious. for religious Editor Associate Editors Canonical Counsel Editor Editorial Staff Advisory Board David L. Fleming SJ Philip C. Fischer SJ Regina Siegfried ASC Elizabeth McDonough OP Mary Ann Foppe Tracy Gramm Jean Read Joann Wolski Conn PhD Iris Ann Ledden SSND Joel Rippinger OSB Edmundo Rodriguez sJ David Werthmann CSSR Patricia Wittberg SC Christian Heritages and Contemporary Living JANUARY-FEBRUARYI995-* VOLUME54 * NUMBER 1 contents 22 faith and culture U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality William A. Barry SJ proposes that a spirituality, lived out vibrantly, is our way to God and our way to let God break through the encrustations of cultural conditioning. Back to the Future: Franciscan Literary Tradition, Virtual Reality, and Infomania Timothy J. Johnson OFM Cony draws attention to the twin challenges virtual reality and infomania pose to the appropriation of heritage texts for religious candidates. 41 48 pioneering the future Beyond Ecumenism: Religious as Pioneers Ruth Fox OSB gives examples of what it means to move from events to processes for our ecumenical effort. Dynamic Memory's Role in Reimaging the Future Shaun McCarty ST describes the role of dynamic memory in bonding community and discerning the future. 59 seeking formation directions Reflections on the Lay Spiritan Program in Canada Michael Doyle CSSp presents a picture of the successes and difficulties that are part of a contemporary development of the Lay Spiritan program. 73 Cross-Cultural Issues in Vocation and Formation Ministry Dennis Newton SVD and Ed PeHo SVD share the challenges and questions of cross-cultural formation. 81 The Ministry Spiral James H. Kroeger MM presents core el~ments of the contemporary call to Christian ministry. 2 Review for Religious 89 IOO learning the tradition The Desert and the Cell Kenneth C. Russell explores the significance of the desert and the cell for the men and women solitaries in the third and fourth centuries. Clare of Assisi: Her Leadership Role Marie Beha OSC explores the example and understanding of leadership which Clare of Assisi provides by her life and in her writings. 113 131 coping in crises Where Is God in Our Suffering? Richard J. Hauser SJ highlights the two religious contexts for coping with suffering: the meaning context and the support context. The Midlife Crisis: God's Second Call Robert S. Stoudt explores the meaning of religious call at two special moments in life--adolescence and midlife. departments 4 Prisms 143 Canonical Counsel: Directives on Religious Formation: Potissimum Institutioni 149 Book Reviews Janttary-Febrtutry 199Y 3 prisms No sooner had the relatively unevent-ful synod on consecrated life ended than Pope John Paul II published the most extraordinary apostolic letter of his pon-tificate. The letter, Tertio millennio adveniente (As the Third Millennium Draws Near), was officially released on 14 November 1994. It sets forth an agenda to be implemented from the time of its publication until the actual celebration of the Great Jubilee of the year 2000. The letter is addressed to bishops, priests and deacons, men and women religious, and all the loy faithful. Pope John Paul confesses that preparing for the year 2000 has become a hermeneutical key of his pontificate and that the time leading up to the jubilee year is to be lived as "a new Advent." He points out how this theme, found in his first encyclical Redemptorhominis (1979), is developed at length in Dominum et vivificantem (1986) and has continued to mark his addresses and other writings. Although the pope reviews significant 20th-century events of both world and church history, he centers on Vatican Council II as directing us towards this celebration. He now challenges all Catholics to a more immediate preparation. He identifies two phases: (1) an ante-preparatory time (1994-1996) dedicated to reviv-ing in Christian people an awareness of the joyful meaning of the Great Jubilee in human history, with its call to con-version and reconciliation as we commemorate the birth of Christ, and (2) a more focused preparatory time (1997- 1999)--with the year 1997 devoted to reflection on Christ, savior and proclaimer of the gospel, the year 1998 bringing attention to the Holy Spirit's sanctifying presence within the community of Christ's disciples, and the year 1999 given 4 R~viewfor Religious to believers helping one another to see things in the perspective of Christ as with him they journey to the Father. Although the prepa-rations are described with broad strokes in this letter, John Paul indicates certain concrete steps to be taken during each stage and promises to call for widespread consultation regarding plans for spe-cific events. The juxtaposition of the synod on religious life in October 1994 and the release of this apostolic letter in November 1994 is not hap-penstance. No one will deny that there is a certain obscure light around the phenomenon of consecrated life in the Vatican II church. The synod, with its ten thousand speeches coming from places where Christ actively continues to play, reflected the obscure light in which religious live and work. But on the very heels of the completion of this synod comes an agenda for the church of the third millennium. Religious congregations should take note. They mal(e a positive choice, I believe, for their own futures in proportion to their enter-ing into the church agenda outlined in this letter. John Paul challenges all church members. Religious, "at the ser-vice of the church," need to respond with all the prayer and zeal their proper charismatic identity supplies. There is no place for a wimpy or weaseling response that would look first at how the lim-ited particularity of "our congregational or province plan" fits some-how into the pope's challenges. Rather, religious need to give the church agenda a chance to inspire, shape, change, and give new direction to community life and apostolic endeavors. Religious life receives a vital challenge for the future millennium in Tertio millen-nio adveniente. As we enter into 1995, Review for Religious welcomes two new members to the advisory board. Father Joel Rippinger OSB, a writer and currently chair of the American Benedictine Academy, is a monk of Marmion Abbey in Aurora, Illinois. Sister Patricia Wittberg SC, associate professor in the Department of Sbciology at Indiana University (Indianapolis), just recently published The Rise and Decline of Catholic Religious Orders (Albany: SUNY; cloth $59.95, paper $19.95). At the same time we say a grateful farewell.to Sister Suzanne Zuercher OSB and wish her well with her new responsibilities as president of Saint Scholastica High School in Chicago, Illinois. As we noted in our last issue, Sister.Mary Margaret Johanning SSND died from cancer in October 1994; we miss her but also know her continuing support. David L. Fleming SJ aTanuary-February 1995 5 faith and culture WILLIAM A. BARRY U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality In recent years I have grown in the conviction that I do not best understand myself as a believer who tries to love and engage his culture. The wiser ques-tion asks: Since it is a given that I am shaped by my culture, what do I need to help me to become a believer? I never possess faith as some fully formed object that I then bring to my culture. In faith I live a lifelong conversion of the culture I carry within me. I am, in short, a late-twentieth-century capi-talist; along with most of the readers of this essay, I carry the inclinations, the burdens, the nobilities, and the violences of capitalist culture deeply etched in the core of my being. My situation is no worse, surely, than that of citizens of other cultures. But no better either. Culture lies too deeply embedded in human beings to ever become completely baptized, and the life of faith in every era takes the form of a holy tension between primordial cultural ten-dencies and God's endlessly affectionate challenge to learn to live faithfully.~ With this sharp commentary John Staudenmaier cuts to the heart of the issue of culture and spirituality. There is no spirituality that is not imbedded in a culture. If a William A. Barry SJ, well-known author and currently provin-cial of the Jesuits of New England province, gave this presenta-tion to the Augi~st 1994 national assembly of the Conference of Major Superiors of Men (CMSM) in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. His address is P.O. Box 799, Back Bay Annex; Boston, Massachusetts 02117-0799. 6 Review for Religious spirituality wants to be in contact with the living God, then those who espouse it must work hard and beg God's help to free them-selves from the cultural biases which make it almost impossible to find the real God. For Staudenmaier the issue is not so much how religion or spirituality influence culture, but rather how any of us encultured human beings can become free enough from our culture to be believers. That puts it starkly. The Meaning of Culture What do we mean by culture? Clifford Geertz defines cul-ture as "an historically transmitted pattern of meanings embod-ied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which men communicate, perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life."2 Culture in this sense, then, is the way a particular group of peo-ple makes sense of its world. Culture is imbibed with mother's milk and inculcated in every member of the group by formal and informal education and formation, and increasingly, by the mass media. One can see why Staudenmaier says of himself: "I am a late-twentieth-century capitalist." Of course, he could have added many more identities, such as "I am a late-twentieth-century American Roman Catholic," "American Jesuit priest," "academi-cian," and so forth. Given his age, he could also have said of him-self "Roman Catholic formed by pre-Vatican II culture and reformed, insofar as this is possible, by post-Vatican II culture." For the most part, the influence of culture on us escapes our consciousness. We have so imbibed our culture or cultures that we are unaware of how it conditions our behavior. Let me give an example. A few years ago I spent three weeks in Ireland where I did a lot of walking. Every time I had to cross a street I looked left first, and started across if I saw no traffic; only then would I look right to see if there were traffic coming the other way. In the United States this ingrained way of proceeding is not only second nature, but also self-protective. In Ireland it was downright dan-gerous because the pattern of traffic is just the opposite. So I learned that I was unconsciously conditioned to a traffic pattern by growing up in the United States. Moreover, when I drove a car in Ireland and in Jamaica, I periodically experienced anxiety when I instinctively felt that I was on the wrong side of the road. Attempts to change the unconscious way we do things lead to .~anuary-February 199~ 7 Barry * U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality anxiety. Years ago Bill Callahan argued that we are cultural addicts who find it uncomfortable to try to overcome our cultural addic-tion) Remember that culture influences our image of God. One way for us to discover some of the unconscious ways our culture works on us is to live for a time in another culture. I believe that this is one of the best reasons for having part of one's formation as a religious in another culture. When they give them-selves to the process, young religious who live and work in a for-eign culture, especially a Third World culture, find themselves facing in a new way their alleged trust in God. Another way is to ask for honest feedback from our brothers and sisters from another culture about their experience of living in one of our communi-ties. We would probably be surprised at what we might hear and thus learn how our culture unconsciously conditions how we live, how we pray, and how we worship. The Meaning of Spirituality What about "spirituality"? Philip Sheldrake trenchantly notes that spirituality "is one of those subjects whose meaning everyone claims to know until they have to define it.''4 He then gives one of the best definitions of the term that I have found: "I would suggest that what the word spirituality seeks to express is the con-scious human response to God that is both personal and ecclesial. In short, 'life in the Spirit'" (p. 37). He also says of Christian spirituality: Spirituality is understood to include not merely the tech-niques of prayer but, more broadly, a conscious relation-ship with God, in Jesus Christ, through the indwelling of the Spirit and in the context of the community of believers. Spirituality is, therefore, concerned with the conjunction of theology, prayer and practical Christianity (p. 52). A spirituality is, first of all, the enactment of one's religion by a group and only secondarily a reflected upon and system-atized set of characteristics of that particular enactment. Since spirituality in this sense develops in historical people and not in the abstract, there are multiple spiritualities. For exam-ple, we speak of Benedictine, Franciscan, or Dominican spiritu-ality; of nineteenth-century French or fifteenth-century Flemish spirituality. As soon as we speak in this fashion of different spir-itualities, we realize that a spirituality is enculturated. As Sheldrake 8 Review for Religious says, ". part of the contemporary problem with defining spiri-tuality is associated with the fact that it is not a single, transcul-rural phenomenon but is rooted within the lived experience of God's presence in history--and a history which is always specific" (p. 3 3). Indeed, just as culture is carried by a living tradition, so too is a particular spirituality. I would argue that a particular spirituality is part of a culture. As I noted earlier, not only is John Staudenmaier a late-twen-tieth- century capitalist, he is also a late-twentieth-century U.S. Jesuit priest. Part of his encultured personality is rooted in the spirituality founded by Ignatius of Loyola and formed and deformed by four hundred years of history, including two hundred years of history in the United States. Putting things in this way makes for at least one interesting paradox: One of the hindrances to belief in God could be the spirituality we have imbibed. Spirituality, even though culturally influenced, has a built-in safeguard against encrustation by a culture; any spirituality defined as I have suggested posits the active presence of God in human affairs. Stephen Carter, in The Culture of Disbelief, makes this point with regard to religion: "Although many thoughtful sociologists and historians have defined religion in other ways, the belief in supernatural intervention in human affairs is a useful divider for our present purposes, because that is where the culture seems to draw the line between that which is suspect and that which is not.''5 Whereas, as Carter makes plain, our political and legal culture considers belief in divine intervention "a kind of mystical irrationality" (p. 7), any spirituality worth its salt banks on such intervention. Such a spirituality expects that God is actively pur-suing the divine intention iia the one action which is the universe. God is, therefore, continually trying to break through the encrus-tation of any specific culture to reveal God's own reality and desire. The trick is to develop ways of noticing God's interven-tions, ways of letting the crust of culture be dented enough so that we pay attention. God is continually trying to break through the encrustation of any specific culture to reveal God's own reality and desire. January-February 199~ 9 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality Any specific spirituality derives from an experience or series of experiences of God that a group has. Any such experience is never, of course, a pure experience of God. Any human experience is multidimensional, the product of an encounter between some-thing and a person with a psychological, social, and cultural his-tory. Benedictine spirituality with its vow of stability was the product of an encounter between God and Benedict and his fol-lowers who grew up at the time of the breakup of the Roman Empire when stable institutions were few and far between. Recent work on Ignatian spirituality has shown how it is the product of the encounter with God of a late medieval wounded warrior whose mother died when he was an infant.6 The point is that any spiri-tuality is the product of an encounter with God of a group of human beings with a particular history that includes, among oth-ers, psychological, social, and cultural influences. An American Spirituality? Joseph Tetlow argues quite cogently that over the past two-hundred years Catholics in the United States have had a unique experience of God and have, therefore, developed a distinctive American spirituality.7 He believes that our contribution to the church may be the very spirituality that has developed on these shores; indeed, American Catholicism with its distinct spiritual-ity may be the bridge between a European church and a worldwide church. We have not yet fully delineated what that spirituality is, he notes, but it is important to do so since the discovery will help us to understand American Catholic identity and to clarify how the American church ends the European captivity of the Roman Catholic church. Tetlow himself has attempted to delineate some characteris-tics of an American Catholic spirituality. First, it is pluralistic, not only because different ethnic strains and religious traditions have gone into its makeup, but also because it developed in and adapted to a predominantly Protestant culture. Second, it is ahis-torical for the most part; like our fellow citizens we Catholics do not look to history for instruction. Third, it is democratized in the sense that American Catholics feel that everyone has equal access to God and to holiness. In our day, for instance, anyone, not just a priest or religious or an upper-class lady, can have a spiritual director. As Tetlow says, "American Catholics are not impressed 10 Review for Religious by the thought that spiritual gifts are spread around about as unevenly as IQ, health, and length of life" (p. 34). Another instance is the way American Catholics have decided issues of morality, especially birth control, on the basis of their own expe-rience and have not felt the less Catholic for it. Fourth, it is func-tional in the sense that it deals not so much with truth claims, but with meaning and meaningfulness; American Catholics tend to look for "theological wis-dom in the meaning of con-crete experience" (pp. 34-35). For American Catholics experience is a sound theo-logical source. Tetlow cites the way John Courtney Murray found Catholic truth in the meaning of American democracy. To show the dif-ference between a European spirituality and ours in this regard Tetlow notes that at about the same time that Hans Kung published his hugely successful Does God Exist? Donald Gelpi pub-lished Experiencing God. Fifth, it is experimental in the sense that we have imbibed the definition of belief of American philoso-phers, namely that "belief is the willingness to accept the practical consequences of what we claim is true. We tend to think that we either do the truth or the truth does not exist."8 Hence, for example, we are willing to try out all kinds of prayer forms to see which ones help us, and religious congregations try out var-ious forms of government to see which ones work. Sixth, Americans have developed a spirituality of plural loyalties; an example is the fact that we have grown up in a church where both the American flag and the papal flag stood in our sanctuaries. "I believe that we will find at the core of American Catholic spiri-tuality a complex but quite tenacious loyalty.''9 A vibrant, self-confident yet critically astute sense of how American Dominicans, for example, have lived out the spirituality inherited from St. Dominic and his European followers could have great benefits for the whole order, especially for the Dominicans in developing countries. ffanuary-February 1995 11 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality With this sketch of some characteristics of an American Catholic spirituality we already see how our culture has affected our spirituality, with both good and bad effects. Each religious congregation has to do its own reflection on how American cul-ture has affected it for good and for ill and how its distinctive spirituality is lived out in this country. I believe that it would be healthy for each of us to do so to gain some self-confidence in the distinctive cast the living out of a particular charism has taken on in the United States. A vibrant, self-confident yet critically astute sense of how American Dominicans, for example, have lived out the spirituality inherited from St. Dominic and his European followers could have great benefits for the whole order, especially for the Dominicans in developing countries. The task lies before each of our congregations. Individualism Some elements of our U.S. culture have impacted on our spir-ituality. One element has been apparent at least since the time of de Toqueville, namely an emphasis on the individual. Bellah and associates in both Habits of the Heart and The Good Society have documented quite well that our culture is dominated by this cult of the individual. We operate on the assumption that the indi-vidual is prior to and takes precedence over the community. The individual is considered to be rational and autonomous in his or her dealings with other individuals, and the individual's goal in life is to maximize self-interest; the acquisition of private property is, in principle, unlimited. But a group of self-interest maximiz-ers will inevitably come into conflict with one another over prop-erty and goods. To avoid conflict social contract is necessary to protect private property. This leads to market economy which eventually tends to take over all our institutions. In politics we now have no civic culture, but a claimant culture with the politi-cian as manager; we continually hear of "rights," but rarely of our "civic duties" to one another. We sue at the drop of a hat. Even marriage has come to be looked upon as a limited contract for the benefit of the two individuals leading to an adult-centered rather than a child-centered family. Education more and more has taken on a market character where the question is what the students want. A liberal education for its own sake is increasingly difficult to find and to sell to people who look on education as a 12 Review for Religious way to get ahead. Even religious institutions have taken on some of the aspects of the market culture; people ask, "What is in this church for me?" The authors of The Good Society note that a Lutheran church in California has a money-back guarantee: Donate for ninety days and if, in that time, you do not get what you have asked for, you get your money back (pp. 93-94). In an insightful talk to a convention of spiritual directors Robert J. Egan SJ noted that one of the roots of this rampant sec-ularized individualism may well be the religious individualism of our Catholic spiritual tradition with its emphasis on the renun-ciation of the world and of family life and the embrace of poverty, celibacy, solitude, silence, and so forth. The outcome of such a spirituality is a radical spiritual individualism.~° In this analysis the lonely ascetic fighting his battle with Satan is the spiritual precursor of the model American hero, the Lone Ranger. Many of us were brought up in the spiritual tradition of renunciation, something which puts us doubly at risk to be infected with indi-vidualism. Effects of Individualism on Religious What are some of the effects of our culture's cult of the indi-vidual on us? First, let us be grateful for the positive effects. Our culture teaches us to prize the individual and his or her gifts. In our religious lives such a prizing is a healthy corrective to the "long black line" mentality that prevailed among us and led to the use of individuals as mere cogs in the machine. Obedience without consultation of the individual's own desires and dreams has happily gone the way of the dodo. We Jesuits, for example, have recovered the tradition of Ignatius which expected that the dreams and desires of good Jesuits might well be a clue to dis-cerning God's will. I believe that our culture helped us to that recovery of the tradition. But we must not overlook the dangers in the kind of radical individualism rampant in American culture. For example, do we use the yardstick of salary to measure our own or another's worth? Do we also measure the quality of our life by the amenities available, the kind of car at our disposal, the vacations we can take? Is the difficulty we have in taking a serious look at what a simple lifestyle might mean at least partly the result of our cultural addiction? One of the results of the cult of the individual in the United ~Tan~,ary-Febr~tary 1995 13 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality States is the loss of a sense of community, a point made strongly in the two books by Bellah and his associates. The demands of community, especially an inclusive community, impinge on the freedom of the individual. Has this virus affected us? I have noticed a tendency for religious to criticize community life, but not to ask what they are contributing to it. "This community does not meet my needs" is a common enough complaint. But rarely do such complainers say, "What can I do to make this community a better place for all of us, or at least for those of us who want a more meaningful religious community?" The cultural climate which puts the individual before the community makes it difficult for us Americans to see ourselves as having embraced a community of brothers or sisters for the quality of whose religious life each one of us is responsible. Yet God, the perfect community of three Persons, creates this universe not for individual fulfillment alone but so that all people might be enticed into the community of the Trinity. In fact, I cannot achieve fulfillment without other people. One of the desperate needs of our country is the example of vibrant community life. All of us need to work hard against the virus of individual-ism which destroys community. The efforts many religious have made in recent years to share their faith journeys and their expe-riences of the apostolate with one another and with their lay col-leagues run counter to the culture of individualism. Such sharing of experience is one of the characteristics of American spiritual-ity. We find that ideology and abstract theologizing divide people, whereas the sharing of experience brings people together and thus helps to overcome the virus of individualism. Narcissistic Personality Type Robert Egan makes a trenchant comment about the type of personality that results from contemporary American individu-alism, namely the narcissistic type. It is noteworthy that recently psychiatrists and psychologists have written more and more about this personality type, different from the neurotic type seen in European culture earlier in this century by Freud and his associ-ates. Without even knowing it, narcissistic persons tend to think first of all: "What's in it for me?" The male version is dubbed the "Eternal Boy." One of the characteristics is a great difficulty in making lasting commitments. Another is suspicion of institutions 14 Review for Religious and authority because they can get in the way of my rights, my needs, my desires. Have we been infected by this narcissistic tendency? I think that I perceive some disturbing trends in myself, in some of my brother Jesuits and in other religious. VChen we are asked to con-sider an assignment, are these the first questions that pop into our minds, "But what will happen to me ifI take that job? . Will I be able to keep my car? . Will I be happy there, the way I'm happy here? . What's the TV reception like there?" Just recentl~ tears of gratitude and admiration came to my eyes when I said to a Jesuit who had been approached to take on a new assignment, "I want you to give that serious consideration." His immediate response was: "If you want me to go, I am on my way." Obviously my reaction indicates that I do not run into this attitude as often as I would like. One former provincial asked a man to take on a job for which he had the talent, but which he did not want. After a period of time to think it over, he again asked the man if he wanted to do the job. Again the man said no. The provincial then said: "I am sorry, but I need you to do it. I want you to do it." Our man said: "Fine!" The provincial then said: "There are only three men in the province who would be ready and willing to go anywhere and do anything if I should ask them to." Do we as religious tend to think first of "my rights," "my hopes," "my desires," "my comfort" when looking at apostolic opportunities? If we do, then we have been deeply infected by the individualism of our culture. Again, however, our spirituality gives us the means of coun-tering this culturally induced narcissism. Any spirituality, as we noted earlier, presupposes an encounter with God. There is noth-ing better as an antidote to narcissism than meeting the living God. Moreover, any Christian spirituality is not just about saving one's soul; eventually the saved sinner is called to discipleship with Jesus. One Protestant minister makes a wonderful statement in The Good Society: Ira person really has Jesus living in their life, and they are in a Christian fellowship growing in the Scriptures and learning what he is talking about; then eventually they are going to worry and be concerned about the homeless peo-ple, pregnant teenagers, people who are addicted, people in minorities being persecuted and denied - women, blacks, poor people in the rest of the world. If Jesus is really in their life, and they read in there that God is no respecter of January-February 199Y 15 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality Religious take a vow of obedience which should lead to thinking beyond personal discernment. What is the greater good? What does the church need? What do people need? persons that Jesus died for everybody, it's going to come out socially. Saving souls is not the whole gospel. That's just getting born (pp. 201-202). Any vibrant Christian spirituality will move in this direction. Each of our spiritual traditions is aimed precisely at helping us to overcome our inordinate attachments which Gerald May calls addictions.11 These attachments include our cultural addictions. By opening ourselves to hon-esty before the Lord and with our spiritual director we can allow ourselves to be freed from these attachments. The daily examen of consciousness is another element used by many religious (or, should I say, recommended to many religious) that can lead us to the life-long conversion from cultural addiction. Falling in love with Jesus and his mis-sion is a powerful antidote to narcissism. At the same time we need to ask ourselves whether our culture's cult of the individual with its concomitant tendency toward narcissism has some-what co-opted the recovery of our spiritual traditions. Statements such as "In my retreat I discerned that I should work and live in such an apostolate" or "My spiritual director agrees with my discernment that I should study for a doctorate in Zen" are often taken as the final word in the process of discernment. Such statements may betray the unconscious cultural narcissism that we have imbibed. Religious take a vow of obedience which should lead to thinking beyond personal discernment. What is the greater good? What does the church need? What do people need? What does the province or community need? These are questions that must also enter into any discernment of spirits that merits the name Catholic. We Jesuits in preparing for our 34th General Congregation.have a chance to rediscover the necessary 16 Rwview for Religious tension between personal discernment (inherited from the Spiritual Exercises) and spiritual obedience (inherited from our Constitutions). Any authentic Roman Catholic spirituality, I believe, has this built-in, and healthy, tension between individual dis-cernment and obedience to legitimate authority.~2 Of course, authority can be abused, just as can individual discernment. That is why the tension has to be there. The Culture of Disbelief Another element in our culture is slightly different from the tack we have been on, yet moves in the same direction. The stress on the individual as rational and autonomous in his or her pursuit of self-interest with its concomitant glorification of science and technology has tended to downplay the mysterious and nonra-tional as aspects of human life to be taken seriously. In academic and political life religion is relegated to the private sphere at best. Stephen Carter speaks of the culture of disbelief in his best-sell-ing book of that title. This culture, he maintains,-presses believ-ers "to be other than themselves, to act publicly, and sometimes privately as well, as though their faith does not matter to them" (p. 3). By the use of numerous examples he shows a trend in our culture to treat religious beliefs as: arbitrary and unimportant . More and more, our cul-ture seems to take the position that believing deeply in the tenets of one's faith represents a kind of mystical irra-tionality, something that thoughtful, public-spirited American citizens would do better to avoid (pp. 6-7). As a result, many Americans split their public and private selves. What they believe about God and God's intentions for this world does not enter into the way they speak and act in pub-lic. As people of faith we believe that God is active in human affairs and that God does have an intention for our world. Yet I have the impression that we have bought into the culture of dis-belief to such an extent that we unconsciously assume that unbe-lief does not have to be defended while belief does. We do not realize that unbelievers and believers are on a level playing field insofar as justifying their divergent stances; both of us plant our feet firmly in midair and march on. Unbelief is as much an irra-tional stance as is belief; neither can be justified on purely ratio-nal grounds. .~anuary-February 1995 17 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality Effects of the Culture of Disbelief on Us Insofar as we cannot speak of our experiences of God with one another, we cannot engage in any kind of communal discernment. Has this culture of disbelief infected our religious lives? Is this culture behind our seeming fear of speaking with one another about our experiences of God, for example? Are we afraid to be considered naively, pious, not with it? In my religious life I had not talked with another Jesuit about my own religious experience until we rediscovered the individu-ally directed Spiritual Exercises and a kind of spiritual direction that focused on the experience of peo-ple with God. Even with this recov-ery it is very difficult for us Jesuits to speak of our experience of God outside a retreat or session of spir-itual direction; some of us may find it easier to speak of our sexual and aggressive fantasies and feelings than about our experiences of God. Insofar as we are infected with the culture of disbelief religious cannot become a community of friends in the Lord, people who know through mutual communication the bedrock experiences that ground our life together. Moreover, insofar as we cannot speak of our experi-ences of God with one another, we cannot engage in any kind of communal discernment. Communal discernment requires that we be able to share with one another our experiences of God with the trust and hope that in that sharing we as a community will find the way that God is pointing out to us. Moreover, if we cannot share our experiences of God, can we really collaborate with one another and with our lay colleagues in a religiously convincing way? Our collaboration will be based on functional and utilitar-ian grounds, not on the ways of God. This culture of disbelief deeply affected my practice of clin-ical psychology. Even though I believed that God could be encountered in human experience, I did not expect that my clients would speak of such encounters, even when I was doing psy-chotherapy with Jesuit scholastics at Weston School of Theology. It was only when I began to give the Spiritual Exercises individ- 18 Review for Religiotts ually that I realized what I had been unconsciously doing. Even my Jesuit clientsdid not bring up religious experiences because they felt it inappropriate to do so, something I unconsciously approved. So the central reality of the lives of these young Jesuits did not fig-ure in our conversations which covered many other intimate details of their lives. Spirituality as an Antidote Our spirituality can counteract the deleterious effects of cul-ture. Any spirituality is culture bound, as we have said. Indeed, the American way of living out a particular religious spirituality has engendered suspicion in other parts of the world, especially in Europe and particularly in Rome. At the turn of the century the Spanish Jesuit General Martin removed the English provincial, believing that he and many of the English Jesuits were infected with "Americanism." 13 But any spirituality has a built-in correc-tive against the corrosive effects of culture, if the spirituality is vibrant. That built-in corrective is, of course, the fact that a spir-ituality is a way to God and a way to let God impinge on our lives. For each of us religious our spirituality, as it is lived out vibrantly in the United States, is our way to God and our way to let God break through the encrustation of cultural conditioning. To overcome the corrosive effects of American culture on our religious living and working we must recover the authentic way of our spirituality for our time and place. Each of us must engage deeply in our way to God, and then we must find ways to com-municate with other members of our congregation the experi-ence of meeting the living God in our way. But we must be clear that it will be a difficult and messy process. We are, as Callahan pointed out, culturally addicted, and attempts to overcome the addiction will produce anxiety. In addition, as Staudenmaier said, we are talking about a process of lifelong conversion to the living God. We can never completely shed the conditioning of our cul-ture. We can only try to engage the living God individually and collectively with humility and courage and, above all, with char-ity toward one another. A final note: According to Bellah and associates our culture desperately needs an antidote to its rampant individualism and narcissism. They speak of the need of communities of memory, of the replacement of the politics of f~ar with the politics of love January-February 1995 19 Barry ¯ U.S. Culture and Contemporary Spirituality (quoting Vficlev Havel), of developing the habit of paying atten-tion as an antidote to distraction. What they are speaking of could be construed as the need for a spirituality. They are not afraid to use religious language in a book devoted to a sociological analy-sis of our culture. With Reinhold Niebuhr they argue for the need of basic trust for the health of our democracy. Theologians such as Niebuhr.suggest that behind parental love, essential as that is, lies a deeper question: Is reality, is Being itself, trustworthy? To argue that trust or faith is justified, that God as the very principle of reality is good, is not obvious--not obvious to Christians and Jews, who through the centuries have been supposed to believe it, and not obvious to anyone who has to live in the world as it is. Trust or faith, like parental love, is a gift. It comes to individuals and groups in particular experiences at particular times and places. Niebuhr did not say that it comes only to Jews and Christians, or that it comes only to people who think of themselves as religious, but that to whomever it comes, it comes as a gift. And when it does come, it brings a great joy and enables us to live responsibly with our fellow beings.14 We who belong to communities of memory, which is what religious communities at their best are, have a pearl of great price to offer to our fellow citizens. We who belong to communities that foster contemplation, which is a way of paying attention to what God is doing in our world, have a pearl of great price to offer. We who have a special way to God which has been shaped by our being planted in this country, a way to let God assure us that he is trustworthy, have a pearl of great price to offer. Let us not be afraid to share it with our fellow citizens. Only God can save us all. Let us give God a chance to do it. Notes I John M. Staudenmaier SJ "To Fall in Love with the World: Individualism and Self-Transcendence in Mnerican Life," Studies in the Spirituality of Jesuits, 26/3: May, 1994, p. 2. z Tbe Interpretation of Czdtltres (New York: Basic Books, 1973), p. 89. In Habits of the Heart: lndividllalism and Commitment in American Life Bellah, et al. have a similar definition: "Those patterns of meaning that any group or society uses to interpret and evaluate itself and its situation. We take culture to be a constitutive dimension of all human action. It is not an epiphenomenon to be explained by economic or political factors," (New York: Perennial Library, Harper & Row, 1986), p. 333. 20 Review for Religious 3 William R. Callahan, "The Impact of Culture on Religious Values and Decision-Making," Soundings: A Task Force on Social Consciousness and Ignatian Spirituality (Washington: Center of Concern, 1974), pp. 8-12. q Philip Sheldrake, Sph'ituality and History: Questions ofl~Jterpretation andMetbod (London SPCK, 1991), p. 32. s Stephen L. Carter, The Culture of Disbelie3~ How American Law and Politics Trivialize Religious Devotion (New York: Basic Books, 1993), p. 25. ~' See William W. Meissner, Ignatius of Loyola: The Psychology of a Saint (New Haven: Yale, 1992) for the psychological dimension of Ignatius's experience and John W. O'Malley, The First Jesuits (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard, 1993) for the cultural and historical dimensions. 7 Joseph A. Tetlow, "The Emergence of an American Catholic Spirituality," Theology Digest, 40/1 (Spring, 1993), 27-36. 8Joseph A. Tetlow, "!Mnerican Catholic Spirituality," New Catholic World, 225/5 (July/August, 1982), 153. 9Tetlow, "The Emergence ." p. 35. ~0 Robert J. Egan SJ, "Contemplation in the Context of Contemporary Culture: Reflections on Spiritual Direction in Dialogue with Cultural Analysis and Criticism," talk delivered at a conference of spiritual direc-tors in February 1990 at Mercy Center, Burlingame, California. ~ Gerald G. May, Addiction and Grace (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988). ~z See William A. Barry SJ, "Discernment and Obedience: Finding God's Will and Staying Roman Catholic," an article first published in America (164/24, 1991) and reproduced in God's Passionate Desire and Our Response (Notre Dame: Ave Maria, 1993), pp. 129-133. ~3 See David G. Schultenover, A View from Rome: On the Eve of the Modernist Crisis (New York: Fordham University Press, 1993). ~q Robert N. Bellah et al, The Good Society, (New York: Knopf, 1991), p. 284. January-Febr~ary 199 ~ 21 TIMOTHY J. JOHNSON Back to the Future: Franciscan Literary Tradition, Virtual Reality, and Infomania Z~195a3 Ray Bradbury presented a chilling vision of the future Fahrenheit 4YI.~ In this novel, books have been banned by a totalitarian regime that lives in dread of the truth. Books are set aflame by a new breed of firemen bent on eliminating any still in existence. In such a climate of fear, society as a whole no longer cultivates any sense of literary appreciation. Only a few individ-uals still stubbornly believe in the significance of the great works of literature. Bradbury ends his numbing glimpse into the future on a hopeful note by describing a community of men and women who commit themselves to the preservation of their literary cul-ture by memorizing important books. Each person metaphori-cally becomes a living book. While we do not have to fear a future as grim as that of Fahrenheit 4Yl, we may witness the demise of our literary sensi-tivity, at least in some sectors of our culture, through the lack of education and widespread indifference. While society can take concrete steps to improve the quality of education, it cannot implement measures to force people to develop an interest in lit-erature. In the dawning age of what is termed virtual reality and infomania, books as we know them may become nothing more than boring, irrelevant relics of an earlier age. This article exam- Timothy J. Johnson OFM Conv is the director of formation at Saint Bonaventure Friary in Washington, D.C. An earlier version of this arti-cle appeared in Miscellanea Francescana 94 (1994): 3-19. His address is Saint Bonaventure Friary; 3514 Fifteenth Street N.E.; ~AZashington, D.C. 20017. 22 Review for Religious ines the question of literature, contemporary American culture, and the formation of members of religious communities such as the Franciscans in their respective literary traditions. It describes the nature of virtual reality technologies and infomania and delin-eates the challenges these cultural phenomena pose to those reli-gious communities relying on classical spiritual texts in the appropriation of their traditions. I offer some tentative strategies from a Franciscan perspective to face and interpret these chal-lenges. These strategies are based on the Franciscan vision of the world as book and on the sapiential focus of Franciscan theology. The articulation and implementation of a Franciscan response to virtual reality technologies and infomania are fundamental tasks not to be ignored. Otherwise the lasting wisdom of our spiritual heritage may become obscured or lost in the climate of literary insensitivity and insatiable information hunger increasingly char-acteristic of the United States cultural milieu. The Nature and Challenge of Virtual Reality What is meant by the term virtual reality? Michael Helm gives the following definition in The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality: Virtual reality pertains to convincing the participant that he or she is actually in another place, by substituting the normal sensory input received by the participant with the information produced by a computer. This is usually done through three-dimensional graphics and input-output devices that closely resembie the participant's normal inter-face with the physical world. The definition of VR includes several factors and emphases: artificial reality, as when the user's full-body actions combine with computer-generated images to forge a single presence; interactivity, as when the user enters a building by means of a mouse traveling on a screen; immer-sion, as when the user dons a head-mounted display enabling a view of a three-dimensional animated world; net-worked environments, in which several people can enter a virtual world at the same time; telepresence, in which the user feels present in a virtual world while robotic machines effect the user's agency at a remote location in the actual pri-mary world.: Although the arrival of the age of virtual reality is not read-ily recognized by everyone, it is apparent to those cognizant of United States cultural trends that we are moving from a culture ffobnso.n ¯ Back to the Future based on books to one based on computer-driven graphics and visual imagery. For those who have eyes to see and ears to hear, the challenge of the future is already found in the crowded amuse-ment arcades across the United States where thousands of young people gather to spend long hours staring at video screens. Following the example of many of their parents, who found great solace and entertainment in front of the television, many of these young people are not likely to develop a taste for serious reading. The shift from the written word to the visual image carries with it a tremendous challenge to those involved in the preser-vation and interpretation of religious traditions. The memory of a religious community such as the Franciscan Order, for example, is preserved in many literary documents. Not only do these texts serve as a historical disclosure of the particular tradition, they also carry the promise of the future development of that tradi-tion inasmuch as they are interpreted and appropriated anew by subsequent generations of community members. Those who work in formation and education have a particular responsibility in the future development of their religious traditions; therefore, they cannot avoid the question of the appreciation and use of those texts that are normative documents for the development and expo-sition of their charisms. Formators and educators introduce these classical texts to their members. Their role, however, will be equivalent to that of museum custodians if the spiritual classics are presented simply as part of a formation requirement and not inter-preted and integrated anew in the life of the community. Formation and education ministries provide a unique and privileged setting for this hermeneutical project; yet the cultural emphasis on visual images, as opposed to literary texts, complicates this task because many of our present and potential community members are already formed in an image-based culture long before they contemplate entering religious life. The trend towards a visual culture, manifest in many sectors of United States soci-ety for years, has been accentuated and accelerated by the appear-ance and ongoing refinement of what is spoken of as virtual reality. The emergence of a visual or image culture and the concomitant development of virtual reality technologies pose a challenge, in general, to a culture which has been largely transmitted by the written word, and, in particular, to cultural traditions such as reli-gious life which consider literary texts among the definitive, nor-mative expressions of community identity. 24 Review for Religious The challenge of a visual, image-centered culture, symbol-ized in the growing interest in virtual reality, can be faced by a cre-ative incorporation of technology and text. Our very idea of reading may change and lead to a new way of approaching clas-sical spiritual texts. Fortunately virtual reality itself may lead us back through the past to our future. The possible demise of lit-erary appreciation under the continuing onslaught of virtual real-ity technologies opens up an exciting, albeit undeveloped arena, for the cultivation of our literary tradition. Michael Heim writes that by the year 2000 the vast majority of written texts will be accessible in electronic form (p. 56). The availability of "elec-tronic literature" opens up attractive avenues for the develop-ment of an appreciation of traditions previously transmitted by the written word. One possible route for development is linked with the advent of what is termed hypertext. Hypertext technology is, according to Heim, an approach to navigating information. From the computer science point of view, hypertext is a database with nodes [screens] connected with links [mechanical connections] and link icons [to designate where the links exist in the texts]. The semantics of hypertext allows the user to link text freely with audio and video, which leads to hypermedia, a multimedia approach to information (p. 154). Hypertext allows every element of a text to be related to another element thereby creating an environment of electronic intertextuality, a "supertext" so to speak, where everything can be referred equally to something else. This is far different from the earlier literary experience where the secondary text or foot-notes were visually and conceptually subordinated to the primary text. Now, when a search is made of a particular word or phrase in hypertext, every context of the text containing that word or phrase will appear on the screen. Reminiscent 6f earlier forms of writing such as medieval illuminated manuscripts, hypertext unites the word and image into one text that is particularly appealing to those raised in a video or image culture. Hypertext allows these words or phrases in question to be cross referenced or linked simultaneously with photos, films and audio recordings. The reader, jumping back and forth at will through the electronic text, is free to enter into a world of con-tinuous textuality where the normal linear sequence of reading ~Tanuary-Febr~ary 1995 25 Johnson * Back to the Future The Scriptures are necessary because the debilitating effects of sin blind the eyes of the spirit and impede the effort to. understand the book of creation. is replaced by the intuitive, relational association of word, image, and sound. Since all the possible textual referents are but a click of the mouse away, the experience and the concept of a primary and a secondary text disappear on the screen right before our eyes (Heim, pp. 30-31). The introduction of hypertext capabilities into electronic lit-erature allows for an amplification and opening up of traditional spiritual texts to the inyriad levels of possible meaning embed-ded within the texts. Already there is the nascent realization among some contemporary observers of the literary scene that interactive soft-ware offers new possibilities for the appreciation and retrieval of classi-cal spiritual texts) From a Franciscan perspective, it is possible to envision an interactive version of Saint Bonaventure's Major Life of Saint Francis written in hypertext. This electronic classical text would incor-porate words, images, and sound. Among many of the advantages made possible by hypertext technology is that of allowing the introduction of other classics from the same tradition of the literary work into the dialogue of interpretation and appropriation. Not only would people be introduced to the written text of Bonaventure's work, but they would also encounter other classics of the Franciscan tradition represented in art, architecture, and music. Given the possibilities offered by hypertext, it is not difficult to imagine reading the Major Life of Saint Francis at a video terminal while simultaneously viewing the Giotto cycle of paintings in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi and listening to Gregorian chant of the same era. The utilization of interactive software in the manner just sug-gested leads us back, in a somewhat analogous sense, to the medieval experience of reading a text. For the medievals, like their classical predecessors, reading was an act of speaking and hearing words read aloud from a manuscript, since legere, "to read," and a'adire, "to hear," were virtual synonyxns in the Middle 26 Review for Religious Ages.4 This medieval practice of reading was often accompanied by looking at images on the manuscript which interpreted or illus-trated the words of the text. Our current custom of silent, pri-vate reading was rare in earlier times. Since it is largely culturally determined, our present mode of reading could be altered with-out losing the sense of what it means to read. Viewed against the horizon of cultural history, perhaps our current manner of read-ing is only an aberration that will gradually disappear as the use of virtual reality software with hypertext capabilities becomes a common reality in classroom education. A shift to the world of vir-tual reality, as unsettling as it might be to those who appreciate the solid feel of a book in their hands, may lead, paradoxically, to a greater appreciation of our literary tradition. Virtual Reality and the Franciscan Vision of the World The application of virtual reality technologies in the trans-mission and appreciation of the Franciscan literary tradition should not be reduced to simple, pragmatic response to an emerg-ing cultural challenge. Instead, this proposal is firmly grounded in the Franciscan approach to the world. The fundamental open-ness of the Franciscan tradition to the new possibilities offered by virtual reality technologies flows from a vision of the world as a divinely written text which can be heard as well as seen. Bonaventure, reflecting the medieval understanding of nature as the book of creation, considers all creatures as unique words uttered by God. He writes in the Commentary on Ecclesiastes, "Every creature is a divine word." All that exists comes into being through the word of the Father which is uttered eternally in the Son. Just as an audible word first exists as a mental concept in the mind of the speaker and takes on sensible form when spoken by a human voice, so also does the Son exist as the eternal Word of the Father which takes on sensible, temporal form in the Incarnation. From this perspective, creation can be considered a linguistic expression of the divine reality constituting a primary text or book in which men and women can read of the Creator. Scripture is a complementary text which fosters our attempt to read and appropriate the message found in the book of cre-ation. The Scriptures are necessary because the debilitating effects of sin blind the eyes of the spirit and impede the effort to under-stand the book of creation. Bonaventure notes in On the Trinity: January-February 1995 27 Johnson ¯ Back to tbe Future ¯. the book of creation was efficacious in the state of orig-inal innocence, when this book was not obscured nor the eye of humanity had been darkened. When the human eye, however, was darkened by sin, that mirror was rendered enigmatic and obscure and the interior ears of understand-ing were closed to hearing that testimony. Divine provi-dence decided to .provide, therefore, the testimony of another book, that is the book of the Scripture which was written, certainly, according to divine revelation . . . (q. 1, a. 2, concl. W. 55a]). The book of creation speaks of the Creator because, just as the wisdom of the artist is manifested in particular works of art, so too, all of created reality reveals the hand of the Master artisan. For Bonaventure, the same creatures, which are divine words, are also images of God which reveal the causative, creative wisdom of the Creator and share an analogical relationship with their original cause. As a result, any attempt on our part to come to know the Creator is determined by the exemplary nature of creatures and the physical and spiritual composition of human beings. The reality of the human condition dictates the necessity of learning about God through a careful reading of the book of cre-ation because the intellect is incapable of directly perceiving the light of God. Because of its material composition, it must depend on creatures who reveal, albeit in a darkened, imperfect manner, the divine light. Ultimately only contemplatives can read the book of creation because .only they, as opposed to natural philosophers, are able to perceive the divine image in the natural world which surrounds them. Creation serves as an appropriate matrix for contemplation because knowledge of God, like all knowledge of the intelligible, begins in contact with sense objects. Through the instrumental-ity of the five exterior senses, the contemplative can discern the power, wisdom, and benevolence of the Creator in the manifold works of.creation. While it would be a mistake to remain fixed on the level of sense objects by treating them as if they were more than images of the Creator, the intellect cannot ignore these images if it wishes to come to a profound knowledge of God. As Bonaventure points out, a painting can be known in two ways, either as a simple picture or as an image. To refuse to consider a painting as aft image is to remain fixated on the beauty of the perceived object wi.thout being drawn to the source of the beauty. To attribute the beauty to the source is an excellent way of know- 28 Review for Religious ing about God, because all noble properties observed in creatures speak of the Creator. Bonaventure's decision to ground the contemplative ascent into God amidst the beauty of creation was confirmed by Francis of Assisi's experience of creatures as witnesses to God. In the Major Life of Saint Francis, Bonaventure points out that the Poor Man of Assisi was neither deaf to the testimony of creatures nor blind to their beauty. Attentive to the divine glory resplendent throughout creation, he delighted in creatures and joined his voice with theirs in praise of the Creator. In the midst of nature, Francis perceived the divine harmony reflected in the various qualities of creatures and invited all humanity to praise God. With the keen gaze of the contemplative, Francis considered the world around him as a ladder allowing him to ascend to God. This lad-der, leading from creatures upward to the Creator, has three prin-cipal steps. The first step directly concerns the book of creation and consists in the proper reading of external, visible, sense objects. Bonaventure gives these images of the divine the techni-cal term vestige, meaning footstep. These vestiges are the discernible traces of the Creator in the world because they speak of God in a distinct, yet distant manner. Creatures as vestiges manifest the ternary properties of causality attributable to God as efficient, exemplary, and final cause. According to Bonaventure, all men and women are called, like Francis of Assisi, to read the book of creation. As the medieval understanding of reading indicates, the reading of a text entails the use of both our audio and visual faculties. Consequently, Bonaventure urges those who would pick up the book of creation in contemplation to open their eyes and ears to the presence of the Creator in the world. They will thereby come to a deeper knowl-edge of the divine which will be revealed in loving praise of God. A refusal, however, to seek the Creator in the splendors of creation through the use of the senses, is the height of stupidity: Therefore, whoever is not enlightened by such great splen-dors of created things is blind; whoever does not awaken from such great outcries is deaf; whoever on account of all these effects does not praise God is dumb; whoever does not perceive the First Principle from such great signs is a fool.--Open your eyes, therefore, direct the ears of your spirit, free your lips and apply your heart so that you may see, hear, praise, love and worship, magnify and honor your God in all creatures lest perhaps the whole world rise up ~anuary-February 199~ 29 ffobnson * Back to the Future against you. Fo? because of this the whole worm willfight against the senseless, but on the contrary it will be a matter of glory for the intelligent, who can say according to the Prophet: O Lord, you have delighted me in your work and in the works of your hands I will rejoice. How exalted are your works, 0 Lord: you have done all things in wisdom, the earth has been filled with your possessions.5 This text from Bonaventure's classic, The Journey of the Soul into God, along with other texts, is helpful in understanding the Franciscan approach to the world and serves as a point of depar-ture for a discussion of the relationship between virtual reality technologies and the Franciscan literary tradition. These texts indicate that Franciscans perceive and interpret the world as the book of creation, whose words are both visible and audible images of the Creator. Such an approach to the world, often spoken of as exemplarism, elicits a positive stance toward the senses, especially seeing and hearing, because they are essential in the reading of the divine truths revealed in the book of creation. The cultivation of the senses as doorways to the divine with the concomitant insight into created realities as images of God creates a favorable envi-ronment in which a response to and implementation of virtual reality technologies can be envisioned. In fact, the contemporary turn toward graphic imagery and multisensual reading of elec-tronic texts is a cultural shift which is harmonious with the tra-ditional Franciscan understanding and positive evaluation of imagery and senses. The various aspects proper to the Franciscan tradition which have been examined, the world as book and reading as a visual-aural experience, are reflected to some degree in current efforts to develop hypertext versions of literary documents. For example, if we regard the world as a book, we expand the concept of a leg-ible text beyond that of a written product such as a published book to include all created reality. Creation can be ~onceived as a hypertext replete with myriad referents to be read and inter-preted by the attentive reader. When the world itself is under-stood as text, a hypertext exposition of Bonaventure's Major Life of Saint Francis, which would include written words, images, and sounds, can be considered as a book and, therefore, as an inte-gral element of the Franciscan literary tradition. To admit with Bonaventure that hearing along with seeing is involved in the act of reading is to embrace the idea of reading as an audiovisual 30 Review for Religious experience. Consequently, those who listen to and look at a hyper-text version of the Major Life of Saint Francis on a monitor are as much involved in the task of reading as those who, book in hand, follow the written text. The Nature and Challenge of Infomania The challenge of virtual reality is not the only potential obsta-cle to the formation of members in a tradition exemplified by Franciscans. Infomania is another. The term infomania is used by Michael Heim to describe the ever growing hunger for informa-tion at the expense of wisdom. The roots of infomania are dis-cernible in the rapid and nearly universal acceptance of word processing as the standard form of writing technology within United States culture (pp. 41-42). The introduction of the com-puter and word processing capabilities has not only dramatically increased the flow of written material, but it has also altered the very experience of writing. The majority of writers in the United States, as recently as a decade ago, were compelled to formulate their thoughts carefully before typing them. The penalty for hasty composition was the inevitable task of retyping or, at the very least, the necessity of fumbling around with erasing tapes or bot-tles of correcting fluid. The logical sequence of thought, which demanded a beginning, middle, and end to every proposed sen-tence, paragraph, and chapter before it appeared in print, is no longer required with word processing. Words are now electronic data bits which are easily manipulated and transferred. Authors can create their texts free style, thinking, so to speak, on the screen in front of them. One consequence of writing with word processing technology is that language can become merely a surrogate for information transfer. Helm points out that when words are reduced to autonomous data bits they are easily removed from their original context and their significance obscured or lost: Information is a unit of knowledge that by itself has only a trace of significance. Information presupposes a significant context but does not deliver or guarantee one. Because con-text does not come built in, information can be handled and manipulated, stored and transmitted, at computer speeds. Word processing makes us information virtuosos, as the computer transforms all we write into information code. But human we remain. For us, significant language January-February 199 ~ 31 Johnson ¯ Back to the Future always depends on the felt context of our own limited expe-rience. We are biologically finite in what we can attend to meaningfully. When we pay attention to the significance of something, we cannot proceed at the computer's breakneck pace. We have to ponder, reflect, contemplate. Infolnania erodes our capacity for significance. With a mind-set fixed on information, our attention span short-ens. We collect fragments. We become mentally poorer in overall ~neaning. We get into the habit of clinging to knowl-edge bits and lose our feel for the wisdom behind the knowl-edge. In the information age, some people even believe that literacy or culture is a matter of having the right facts at our fingertips (p. 10). The challenge of infomania which Heim outlines is much more pressing for us as Franciscans than that of virtual reality, because infomania threatens to erode our capacity to appreciate the wisdom found within our own literary tradition. To encounter such wisdom requires contemplative reading antithetical to the rapid assimilation of information proper to the world of infoma-nia. While the reality of infomania does not appear to offer a res-olution of the problems it engenders, the seeds of a solution to the possible threat of virtual reality technology are contained within the technology itself. In fact, it could be argued that the growing emphasis on visual imagery in United States culture may lead to a deeper appreciation of the very literary texts we fear may be neglected. Electronic literature, augmented by hypertext soft-ware, holds out the promise of a richer understanding of classical spiritual texts like Bonaventure's Major Life of Saint Francis. It would be difficult to take the same optimistic position about info-mania. The widespread growth of infomania as a cultural phe-nomenon within the United States heralds a staggering shift in the relationship between reader and text. The implications for Franciscans and other religious communities are evident. When words are viewed as vehicles for bits of information to be trans-ferred and absorbed, as opposed to meaningful ideas to be com-municated and contemplated, the retrieval of traditions within a religious community by means of literary texts becomes prob-lematic. Both the initial appreciation and later appropriation of clas-sical spiritual literature presupposes a shared belief in the possi-ble significance or meaning of the texts; those who read the 32 Review for Religious definitive texts of a community do so with the notion that the lit-erature has meaning for the members of the community that pro-duced it, and by implication, significance for those who are considering entrance into the community. That literature in gen-eral, and religious texts in particular, has any lasting significance for individuals or communities is no longer a presupposition in the present era of infomania. Already, the appreciation of books and the sense of meaning proper to literature is disappearing in cer-tain sectors of our culture in the wake of an ever growing desire for information. Heim's observations here are trenchant: Today libraries are becoming information centers rather than places for musing. The Los Angeles County Public Library, the world's largest circulating library, receives more requests for information than requests for books. In 1989, one university in California opened the first library without books, a building for searching electronic texts. Books still remain a primary source, but they are rapidly becoming mere sources of information . Searching through books was always more romance than busyness, more rumination than information. Information is by nature time bound. Supported by tech-nological systems, information depends on revision and updating. When books become mere sources of informa-tion, they lose the atmosphere of contemplative leisure and timeless enjoyment. Old books then seem irrelevant, as they no longer pertain to current needs. One of the new breed of information publishers epitomizes this attitude in a pithy warning: 'Any book more than two years old is of ques-tionable value. Books more than four or five years are a menace. Out of date = dangerous (pp. 24-26). Infomania and the Franciscan Theological Tradition How are religious communities like the Franciscans to respond to the challenge posed by infomania? The answer may be found in our taking a hands-on, direct approach to the reading and interpreting of the spiritual classics of our tradition which accen-tuates their sapiential character. In a fashion somewhat reminis-cent of the futuristic literary community of Fahrenheit 4~I, Franciscans, especially those in formation and education ministry, bear the task of keeping their literary heritage alive. They can accomplish this by assisting potential candidates and present com-munity members in the art of textual interpretation. Their efforts would serve as a practical way in which the wisdom of definitive January-February 1995 33 Johnson ¯ Back to the Future texts can be preserved and handed on to subsequent generations. This hands-on approach necessitates the active involvement of the formation directors and educators in the reading and inter-pretation of these spiritual sources. The proper interpretation of spiritual texts in formation and educational spheres encourages a dynamic of contemplative appre-ciation; it also opens the door to the discussion of a wide range of issues relevant to the living out of the wisdom embedded in the texts. To simply throw supposedly "important books" at others, and especially at candidates for religious life without assisting them in the appropriation of their significance is a disturbing rep-etition of the same attitudes fostered by the culture of infoma-nia. Literary texts once again become nothing other than data bits to be processed and absorbed. The wisdom of our literary tradi-tion is acquired only when we, as Heim would urge us, go beyond the mere collection and assimilation of information to "ponder, reflect, contemplate" the meaning of what we read. Religious for-mators and educators can encourage such a contemplative stance toward 6ur literary tradition by entering into the process proper to the interpretation of spiritual classics, regardless of whether they are written in a mechanical or electronic format. When we speak of fostering a contemplative attitude toward the spiritual classics of the Franciscan tradi'tion, we do so in light of the invitation of the Second Vatican Council to religious to rediscover and interpret their charism in contemporary society. One dimension of renewal concerns the interpretation of defini-tive literary texts of the religious communities, since it is hard to imagine how they could rediscover their charism if daey.neglected the classics Of their traditions. There are any number of wisdom texts which religious communities consider as classic expressions of their community traditions. Many Franciscans, for example, would place works like Bonaventure's Major Life of Saint Francis into the category of spiritual classics alongside those of Francis and Clare. As the Directives on Formation in Religiolts lnstitute? recom-mend, texts like these are to be introduced early in the forma-tion process so they might foster in novices, "a relish for the great authors of the Church's spiritual tradition, without being limited to spiritual reading of a modern cast.''6 Unfortunately the practice of reading spiritual classics is often neglected in formation and educational programs. This situation is understandable, given that those responsible for the develop- 34 Review for Religious ment of these programs often lack the skills necessary to grapple with important, but obtuse wisdom texts from the past. Given the crucial role of spiritual classics for the renewal of religious life and the cultural obstacles to their appropriation occasioned by infomania, a major task facing formators and educators is that of acquiring a modicum of competence in this area so they can help those in their care to know and value their spiritual tradition. The discipline of spiritual reading will become a reality in the context of formation and education programs when, and only when, the forma-tors and educators themselves are willing to enter into an interpre-tative conversation with the clas-sical literature of their traditions. What does it mean to speak of textual interpretation as a conver-sation, and how is the conversa-tion conducted? When we use a term like conversation we are not referring to an idle debate, gossip, or nonnegotiable confrontation. The model of conversation here is that found in David Tracy's The Analogical Imagination: Christian Theology and the Cult~tre of Pluralism. Authentic conversation takes place when the participants are able to go beyond self-consciousness and self-seeking and enter into a joint reflection upon the subject matter of the conversation. The pattern of their conversation is back and forth; it includes the capacity and willingness to listen, reflect, correct, and to speak to the point. In the conversation, the questions raised in the exchange take over--not the individual agendas of those involved--as the sub-ject matter assumes primacy. The conversation model, as paradig-matic for the dynamic of interpretative understanding, is applicable in the reading of those literary texts that religious com-munities consider definitive or classic. This model can also be The discipline of spiritual reading will become a reality in the context of formation and education programs when, and only when, the formators and educators themselves are willing to enter into an interpretative conversation with the classical literature of their traditions. January-February 1995 35 Johnson ¯ Back to the Future employed in reflections on images and symbols of art, music, architecture, since all these areas are potential "texts" offering subject matter for religious conversation and interpretation. This proposed interpretative stance toward the wisdom texts of the Franciscan tradition, which reflects a contemplative approach to literary classics, is a direct challenge to infomania. It is grounded in the methodology of Franciscan theology. From the beginning, Franciscan theologians have been concerned with the pursuit of sapiential knowledge as opposed to the mere accumu-lation of information or growth in conceptual knowledge. According to Alexander of Hales, theology as a science has more to do with the experience of wisdom than the conceptual knowl-edge proper to science in the strict Aristotelian sense of the word. While Alexander distinguishes between the science of created real-ities and the science of original causes, he goes beyond Aristotle's definition of wisdom as the science of original causes to include affective knowledge of God. This manner of knowing is an expe-riential "tasting" of divine goodness because the term sapientia, according to medieval etymology, is related to the term sapor denoting "taste." For Alexander, such affective wisdom, which moves people to live better lives, is identified with theology: Furthermore, it must be noted that there is a science which perfects knowledge according to truth and a science which moves the affections toward the good. The first is knowl-edge according to sight and, therefore, must be spoken of as an absolute science.The second is knowledge according to taste and, therefore, wisdom must be spoken of as com-ing from affective taste according to what is said in Ecclesiastes 6:23: It is wisdom according to its name. Theology, therefore, which perfects the soul accord-ing to affection, moving [the soul] toward the good by the principles of fear and love, is properly and principally, wis-dom. The First Philosophy, which is the theology of philosophers, concerns first things and perfects under-standing by way of the arts and reasoning; however, it is not properly spoken of as wisdom. Indeed certain sciences, which treat consequent causes and those things which are caused, are said to concern science and not wisdom.7 Alexander of Hales's description of theology as sapiential knowledge is reflected in the writings of his most famous stu-dent, Bonaventure, who held that both Franciscan and Dominican theologians are called to the "tasting" of divine goodness. In their dedication to theological studies, the friars distinguish themselves 36 Review for Religious from other communities such as the Cistercians, Carthusians, and Canons Regular, whose attention was directed primarily towards prayer, devotion, and the celebration of the liturgy. For their part, the lives of the Preachers and Minors are called to theological reflection; there is a distinct difference in emphasis. The Preachers focus primarily on study itself and then on the affective enjoy-ment of God afforded by study, while the Minors emphasize the "tasting" of divine goodness followed by study. The view of the Franciscans was based on Francis of Assisi's conviction that it was pointless to acquire information about God without enjoying the experience of God. Bonaventure quotes Francis in this regard in the Collations on the Six Days, "What good is it to know many things and taste nothing." The savoring of "the goodness of the Lord" in the course of theological reflection was a significant, but certainly not the exclu-sive purpose of theology, according to the early Franciscan mas-ters. While they responded to the Aristotelian challenge by indicating that theology was indeed a speculative or contempla-tive science, the friars stressed that the discipline of theology was ultimately oriented toward praxis. Oddo of Rigauld writes "As to its end, theology does not rest in pure knowledge, but is moreover ordered to works; therefore, one must say that it is a practical science." Bonaventure notes that while theology does have a con-templative dimension to it, it is concerned most of all with the sapiential knowledge which moves the affections and leads to moral goodness. Following the teachings of Francis, the theolo-gians of the Franciscan community taught that accumulation of information or knowledge for the sake of knowledge was useless, if not dangerous. Knowledge of God was to be translated into daily life. Oddo makes this point when delineating the relation-ship between theological knowl.edge, pastoral skills, and action: And to that objection, 'that science has little or nothing to do with virtue' one can say that this statement concerns those sciences which are purely speculative; however, the-ology is not purely speculative, but practical. Or one can say that the Philosopher is referring to a certain knowledge provided that it does not lead to action. This is not the case with theology because even though someone may be a good theologian and preacher, if he does not wish to use what he knows, it is of little or no use to him.s The Franciscan understanding of knowledge as wisd6m, as sought in theological study and expressed in the context of daily .~anuao,-February 199Y 37 Johnson ¯ Back to tbe Future life, is diametrically opposed to the view of knowledge as insignif-icant, autonomous bits of information or data. Classical texts such as the Scriptures are of perennial value because they continually reveal the depths of divine wisdom and offer insights capable of molding the lives of those who read. The book of the Scriptures, together with all creatures who are divine words in the world, speak of the wisdom of God with words in need of interpretation and appropriation. The same point can be made about the literary classics of the Franciscan tradition. Franciscans, therefore, are to grow in knowl-edge by reading and appropriating the divine words uttered throughout creation. Listening and responding to their spiritual classics, Franciscans engage in a lectio divina marked by an expe-rience of divine wisdom which changes their lives for the better. In the present age of infomania, where growth in knowledge can be mistakenly equated with the accumulation of information, the Franciscan hermeneutic underlines the inseparable link between words, be they written or electronic, discursive or graphic, and meaning. Words are rooted in a context of ~neaning which is to be respected. In the transfer of information, there is the peril that the significance of the words used will be altered or disappear all together. Whatever their form, words cannot be reduced to incon-sequential data bits because they are ultimately an expression of the word of God.9 In a culture marked by infomania, a contem-plative stance toward the words found in the classical texts of the Franciscan tradition will go a long way in preserving these works as wisdom texts for generations to come. Conclusion The twin challenges of virtual reality and infomania call for the sober realization, first of all, that there is no going back to a supposed earlier, precomputer age of innocence. Those who used to do battle with typewriters and now play with word processors will testify to this. Would-be Cassandras warning of nightmare cybernetic futures will never succeed in turning away the crowds pushing through the doors of America's myriad video arcades. The fact is that the very people huddling around video terminals are future candidates for religious communities. The era of vi~tual .reality.and infomania has already arrived in the experience of these young people regardless Of what 6ur feelings about the.real 38 Review for Religious or perceived, negative or positive aspects of these cultural phe-nomena may be. In response to this challenge, a reasoned, pro-gressive approach is imperative that capitalizes on the potential of new technologies such as hypertext, while safeguarding the sig-nificance of our literary heritage. We need not fear the growing diffusion of a virtual reality mentality, if we are willing to utilize the new technologies in a manner suitable to the texts we wish to preserve and hand on to future generations. These efforts will be wasted, however, if there is not a concomitant attempt to appreciate and retrieve these spir-itual classics. The appropriation of these texts, be they written or electron]i:, is uli:imat~ly dependent on an interpretative dialogue within communities, such as the Franciscans, that produced and enfleshed them in the praxis of a shared life. In the future, candi-dates may read the classics of spir-ituality in hypertext with the assistance of images and sound. And just as Augustine was struck by Ambrose's .silent reading of the Scriptures in a Milanese garden, a formation director may marvel at a candidate reading the writ-ings of Francis on a glowing mon-itor in a Minneapolis home. Whatever our future real or vir-tual reality scenarios may look like, one thing is certain: We will always need men and women capable of interpreting and living out the perennial wisdom embedded in our spiritual classics. Their efforts in the formation and education spheres are essential if the abiding significance of our religious traditions is to be appreciated and appropriated anew in a culture formed in the matrix of info-mania. The Franciscan understanding of knowledge as wisdom, as sought in theological study and expressed in the context of daily life, is diametrically opposed to the view of knowledge as insignificant, autonomous bits of information or data. Notes ~Ray Bradbury, Fahrenheit 4Yl (New York: Ballantine Books, 1991). January-February 199Y 39 Johnson ¯ Back to the Future 2 Michael Heim, The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993) p. 160. 3 John Cumming, "The Frankfurt Bookshelf," The Tablet, 30 October 1993, 1434. 4 Giles Constable, Letters and Letter Collections: Typologie dedsources du moyen age, 17 (Turnhout: ]~ditions Brepols, 1976) 54. s Quote from Jos~ Antonio Merino, Visionefrancescana della vita quo-tidiana (Assisi: Cittadella Editrice, 1993) 92. 6 Potissimum lnstitutioni, Directives on Formation in Religious Institutes (Rome: Vatican Press, 1990) 38, n. 47. 7 Alexander of Hales, Summa tbeologica, trac, intro., q. 1, c. 1, Solutio, 2b (Quaracchi: Collegio San Bonaventura, 1924-1928). s Quote from Leonardo Sileo, Teoria della scienza teologica, 18. 9 Orlando Todisco, Le creature e le parole, p. 127. A Commuter's Winter Reflection Dawnlit silhouettes of leafless trees crisply etched against a glowing sky simple and spare: long lacy limbs, primly elegant, tangent tapered trunks, trimly debonair for all their rootedness. Wind-whipped or rain-soaked, ice-tipped or snow-cloaked, steadfast they stand as wif~ter witnesses: daily summoning not to vivacious hope (the grace of evergreens) but to a feisty faith in future blossoming. Mary Karen Kelly GNSH 40 Review for Religious RUTH FOX Beyond Ecumenism: Religious as Pioneers Everyone today is aware of the need for ecumenism, with the call for dialogue and mutual respect among the various religions of the world. Because of their grounding in theology and in a life of prayer, men and women reli-gious are in an especially advantageous position not only to be involved in ecumenical affairs, but to move beyond the ordinary boundaries of ecumenism. What does it mean to go beyond ecumenism? It means going beyond dialogue, coffee, exchange of homilists, prayer for unity, interfaith choirs, joint Thanksgiving Day services, and ecumenical conferences. Each of these typical ecumenical events is limited in scope and intention. The participants come together for an hour or so for a specific task, are nice to one another, learn about a new book to read, and then go home feeling good about their open-mindedness. But because these are only events, the results probably go little further than the boundaries of the event. Sister Ruth Fox OSB is the president of the Federation of St. Gertrude, a union of eighteen monasteries of women in the United States and Canada. She is the current representative of the Leadership Conference of Women Religious to the National Ecumenical Consultation. This article was originally presented at the annual meeting of the National Ecumenical Consultation 8-10 August 1994, at Narragansett, Rhode Island. The NEC is an organization for religious interested in ecumenism and inter-religious dialogue. Sister Ruth's address is Sacred Heart Monastery; Box 354; Richardson, North Dakota 58652. aTanuary-February 199 ~ 41 Fox ¯ Beyond Ecumenism How, then, can religious go deeper than these ecumenical exercises? To put it simply, there is a need to move beyond events to processes. Some valuable insights into this shift of focus can be gained from a recent book on business management: Leadership and the New Science: Learning about Organization from an Orderly Universe by Margaret Wheatley (San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 1992). The author has used the findings of new science to take a look at organizational management. She says that we have lived and worked from a Newtonian point of view--everything has its parts which function in a predictable, hierarchical order. All we need to do is figure out the structure of the universe, apply it to our human systems, and all will function in an orderly manner. Most organizations have tried to operate this way, even the church. If we just get this program, these people, the right plans, com-petent hierarchy find obedient subjects--especially obedient sub-jects-- then the church will be a perfect organization. If we get a good ecumenical program, get the right parts and right people, organize them carefully, direct from an efficient main office, unity will result. But that is not the way the universe works, and it is not the way ecumenism will work. Wheatley says that the new science has revealed a different kind of universe: "The quantum mechan-ical view of reality strikes against most of our notions of reality. Even to scientists, it is admittedly bizarre. But it is a world where relationship is the key determiner of what is observed and of how particles manifest themselves. Particles come into being and are observed only in relationship to something else" (p. 10). The world is made up of events that are held together in rela-tionship by unseen connections. "These unseen connections between What were previously thought to be separate entities are the fun-damental elements of all creation" (p. 10). Relationships define structure, not the other way around. Living structures are con-stantly changing as the inner relationships change. They are a "continuous dance of energy" (Fritjof Capra quoted in Wheatley, p. 32). Particles come and go, in time too brief to imagine, into a state of being through relationships with energy sources. Matter is manifested now as particles, now as waves of energy, always in relationship. "Nothing exists independent of its relationship with something else" (p. 34). Even our observation of matter brings us into the relationship, into the dance, by which we are changed 42 Review for Religious and matter is changed. Everything in nature is a web of connec-tions, of potential relationships. For organizations in this age of quantum mechanics, the rel-evant question is not what structure will give control, but what structure will enhance the current channels of relationships? What structure will encourage more channels of relationships? Channels of nourishment are needed also. Wheatley says that healthy structures are nourished by information because infor-mation gives energy. "We need to have information coursing through our systems, disturbing the peace, imbuing everything it touches with new life" (p. 105). Energy, new life, relationships extend far beyond their point of origin. It is now believed that space is filled with so-called "fields" of connections. We have long been familiar with the all-pervasive fields of gravity and magnetism. "The invisible world is filled with mediums of connec-tions" (p. 49) that exert influence on mat-ter far and wide. In human relationships also, there are comparable fields of energy. One can actu-ally feel different kinds of fields when walk-ing into a home or church or community. Because of attitudes and behaviors of individuals in the community, a person can almost tangibly touch an invisible field of energy: hospitality, openness, peace, friendliness, or tension, suspicion, coldness, rigidity. Wheatley says, "We need all of us out there, stating, clar-ifying, discussing, modeling, filling all of space with the messages we care about. If we do that, fields develop--and with them, their wondrous capacity to bring energy into form" (p. 56). I am reminded of the Buddhist prayer flags that I saw waving in the wind around the Tibetan Buddhist temples in India. Words from the Buddhist scriptures are printed on these flags, with the idea of sending the message of peace and love throughout the universe. Without knowing about scientific "fields" the Buddhists have been, in a sense, attempting to create invisible fields of tran-quillity for ages. How does this new science speak to religious who are chal-lenged to move beyond ecumenism, to be pioneers for interreli- The world is made up of events that are held together in relationship by unseen connections. January-February 199Y 43 Fox ¯ Beyond Ecumenism gious activities? The insights from science imply that we do not need to focus our main energies on constructing programs or structures that will create unity. The unity we desire is already a reality in the existing web of connections. Faulty information and attitudes have divided us in the past. Now we need more infor-mation to overwhelm us with the realization that God created us one, that we are already bonded together by existing relation-ships that come from the creative hand of God. We have allowed patterns of self-interest to blind us to this web of connectedness. Where the web has been broken or cam-ouflaged by centuries of debris, religious have the vision and ded-ication to reveal the truth of our connections once again. Where fields of suspicion, self-righteousness, arrogance, and misunder-standings abound, religious can replace these invisible energies with new fields of trust, openness, charity, humility--first in our own houses, then in our local church, then our civic communities. Each single word we speak, each simple act of unity we perform, goes forth from us on an endless journey of connections. An image came to my attention as I was reflecting on this topic. My daily meditation location is in my bedroom where I can look out over the North Dakota prairie from my window. My attention fell on a barbed wire fence that separates our property from a cattle pasture. Fences. Humans build them to mark bound-aries, to keep something out and something in--to protect, define, possess, claim, imprison, differentiate. Yet this past winter, a herd of deer who could find no food in the snow-covered pasture dis-regarded the fence and leaped right over it to enjoy the needles of the evergreen trees on our property. The fence did not mark any boundary for them. At best, it was just a minor barrier. Then I thought of birds who fly over all human fences, and of crawling creatures who would barely notice the wires stretched above them. For these creatures, all the earth is one. For us also, in God's eyes, there are no fences between us; we are already one. We are united in our humanity, in our crea-tureliness, in our being images of God. But we have created fences to mark boundaries between us. With the ecumenical movement, we have decided sometimes to hold hands through the fence, or, while staying on our own side, to walk together along the fence line for a short distance. Religious authorities have decided at times to build gates at certain specified points in the fence and to allow their subjects to go in and out with supervision. More and 44 Review for Religious more of these gates are being built for interchange. Decrees are occasionally issued which declare some portions of certain fences outdated. Recently I read that Catholic and Lutheran leaders around the world are moving their respective churches toward lifting the 16th-century mutual condemnations on the doctrine of justification. The target date is set for 1997. Why does it take so long? These breakthroughs, it seems, are slow and labori-ous, and meanwhile the fences are still there to divide us. Using a rural prairie image, I see religious called to be the fence-crossers, like the deer, the birds, the squirrels, the crawlers, who know the oneness of the ground beneath them and the heavens above them. They qui-etly fly over, jump over, crawl through, or slide under the fence, perhaps even without noticing it, building networks and relationships with one another, the earth, and all crea-tures. I myself have crawled through the barbed wire fence many times. Sometimes I have lost my balance and fallen on the ground, gotten little tears in my clothing and scratches on my legs. Fence crossing can leave us with scars, but scars are at least signs of something tried. Only a few of us may be called to the level of making ecu-menical documents and decrees, or founding interfaith commu-nities. But I think our pioneering as religious can be just as valuable in discovering and developing ways for us and for the friends of our communities to build local networks, one-on-one relationships beneath and over the fences. In my own limited experience, I am aware of four such con-temporary ongoing processes involving religious that have been moving the participants beyond ecumenism. 1. Monastic Interreligious Dialogue: After Vatican Council II, the Vatican asked the Benedictine Order to initiate dialogue with Our pioneering as religious can be valuable in discovering and developing ways for us and for the friends of our communities to build local networks, one-on-one relationships beneath and over the fences. January-February 199Y 45 Fox ¯ Beyond Ecumenism the non-Christian Eastern religions. Because of the commonality of monasticism, there was already a basis or groundwork for the beginning of dialogue. The American Benedictines began their dialogue with the Dalai Lama and the Tibetan Buddhist monks and nuns in exile in India. Since 1978, several exchanges have occurred, with Buddhists monks and nuns visiting Benedictine monasteries of men and women in the U.S., and American monks and nuns spending time in India. I was one of the fortunate ones to spend ten weeks in India in the fall of 1986. Because of my monastic formation, I felt quite at home in a Buddhist monastery, where the daily horarium, the chanting of scriptures in the tem-ple, and the lifestyle of simplicity, poverty, celibacy, and obedience was similar to my own. We joined the Buddhists in their temples for their hours of prayer and talked about our common concerns for world peace, justice, a recognition of dignity for all persons, self-support, and care of our elderly. Although dialogue took place, there was much more than dialogue--there was a connec-tion of the heart, an ongoing process of communion that is con-tinuing to change the hearts and attitudes of all the participants and their respective communities. As I reflected on this exchange, I began wondering if such an exchange has been happening among Christian religious. I suspect that most Catholic religious are only vaguely knowledgeable of other Christian religious in the United States. I am not aware that there has been any exchange of Catholic women religious with Anglican, Lutheran, or Orthodox communities of women. (I would not know about the men, but I have not heard of any exchanges.) Are we even on each other's mailing lists for our newsletters? Do we have any members interested in such exchange? 2. Great Plains Institute of Theology: Several years ago the west-ern North Dakota Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America initiated an ongoing education program in theology for pastors and lay people. Clergy with theological expertise were invited to share their studies with others in small group classes. One of the first faculty members was a Benedictine monk, and one of the ongoing board members has been a Benedictine abbot, with many of the sessions being held at the Benedictine abbey. I was invited to be a member of the board seven years ago, even serving a term as president. Although several Benedictine monks and nuns often participated in the classes and seminars, very few 46 Review for Religious Catholic priests or lay persons did. There was somehow a con-nection between Benedictines and the Lutheran clergy and laity. Perhaps studying theology together is not beyond ecumenism-- but the resulting ongoing relationships, trust, and openness are. 3. Monastery of St. Benedict Center: We have within the Federation of St. Gertrude eighteen monasteries of Benedictine women in the U.S. and Canada. Most of our communities are facing diminishment of members, energy, and sponsored institu-tions. As Jude Weisenbeck SDS wrote in an article in Review for Religious (November-December, 1993), most religious commu-nities are struggling for survival and renewal, perhaps even refounding. One small monastery of seven members in our Federation, in Madison, Wisconsin, has in a particular way met this challenge head-on. They initiated several consultations with their ecumenical friends, and, as a result, have made a commit-ment to refocus their identity as an ecumenical Benedictine monastery. There are several canonical as well as lifestyle ques-tions yet to be answered. But I believe we do not even know what the questions will be until it is tried. I am pleased that this monastery is willing to begin this journey beyond ecumenism. 4. United Methodist Church: Some years ago (1984) the United Methodist Church approved a resolution to explore the possibil-ity of establishing an ecumenical monastic community. Since then some attempts have been made to establish various types of com-munities with the mentoring of Benedictine monasteries of men and women. Will these small efforts make any difference in promoting unity? The herd of twenty deer criss-crossing our lawn almost daily for a couple months this past winter will affect our lawn this summer. Their consumption of the lower branches of our ever-greens will affect the birds who nest there, which, if it does not affect the insect population, will affect the beauty of our grounds. I am reminded of Wheatley's quotation of Edward Lorenz regard-ing the butterfly effect. "Does the flap of a butterfly wing in Tokyo, Lorenz queried, affect a tornado in Texas (or a thunder-storm in New York)? Though unfortunate for the future of accu-rate weather prediction, his answer was yes" (p. 126). As men and women of the Scriptures and imbued with the Holy Spirit, we know that we stand on common Holy Ground and that we worship the same God. We are one; let us do what we can to move beyond ecumenism and live as one. .~anuary-Febr~ary 1995 47 SHAUN MCCARTY Dynamic Memory's Role in Reimaging the Future d s we approach the third millennium, there has been much talk concerning the quest for new visions and the need for new paradigms that will express old values in ways suited for the future. We face complex and confusing social contexts affected by such influences as scientific and technological advances, the movement towards a global economy, the realignment of national boundaries, and the growth of multicultural societies. These pose formidable challenges for people of faith. In religious cirFles, too, many perceive what they consider to be major paradigm shifts in progress. There has been considerable interest in developing new models of church, of consecrated life, of various ministries, of spiritualities that will incarnate peren-nial values in ways more suited to the accelerating changes the future will bring. As We attempt to accept coresponsibility for fashioning the future in these transitional times, there is obvi-ously a need for the exercise of creative imagination as well as for careful, prayerful, and corporate discernment of the signs of the times. My purpose here is not to offer predictions or prophecies for the next millennium. Rather, it is to provide some framework and stimulus for pursuing new visions and new paradigms in these transitional times. My focus will be on the role of dynamic mem-ory as it relates to the process of reimaging the future. To move Shaun McCarty ST has taught in the Washington Theological Union and in the Shalem Institute. Currently he is director at the Trinity Ministries Center. His address is 1292 Long Hill Road; Sterling, New Jersey 07980. 48 Review for Religious forward responsibly, we need to go back faithfully. My basic premises are these: (1) Shaping new paradigms calls for the exer-cise of creative imagination. (2) Key to the development of creative imagination for the future are dyna~nic memories of the past. (3) Personal and corporate memories will be more dynamic to the extent that we bring them to prayerful reflection and discern-ment of the signs of the times. Creative Imagination As understood here, creative imagination is the power to cre-ate new images or ideas by combining past experiences. As I use the term, I mean the graced capacity that allows us to project ourselves into the future; it involvds the creative ability to con-struct a dream and the human imperative to conceive an individ-ual and corporate vision. Without a vision for the future, both groups and individuals become moribund. Every lasting society, culture, tradition needs its utopia, its dream. No civilization has survived without its cor-porate dream. For example, the American Dream is articulated, though far from realized, in documents such as the Bill of Rights which stress equality for all . . . life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. Nowhere was it more prominently symbolized to our immigrant forebears than in the Statue of Liberty nor more lyricized than in the verses of Emma Lazarus inscribed at its base: Keep ancient lands, your storied pomp! cries she With silent lips. 'Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free, The wretched refuse of your teeming shore. Send these, the homeless, the tempest-tost, to me I lift my lamp beside the golden door.' Every faith tradition has its vision for the future. As Christians, our corporate dream for the future is for the reign of God; our individual piece of that dream is for resurrection. Faith communities within the church have visions that are, as it were, refractions of the larger Christian vision of the reign of God. These dreams need ongoing reinterpretation suited to given times and culture. For example, the corporate dream of my own faith tradition as expressed by our founder (Thomas Augustine Judge, CM) was that "every Catholic be an apostle." January-February 199Y 49 McCarty ¯ Dynamic Memory's Role This might be better fornmlated today in terms of the universal baptismal call to mission as well as to holiness of life. Visions like this, I would suggest, are capable of containing the commitment of a person's entire life. Hence, relevance of a dream for the present summons us back to the past so we can move ahead to the future. Our collective and individual memories of God's actions in the past are touch-stones for discernment in fashioning new paradigms for the future. Indeed, as discerning communities of faith, we are bonded by shared memories of the past and shared hopes for the future. Each of us needs a dream to lure us forward unless, of course, we are content to live by convention. We are energized by our dreams, enervated without them. It involves the choice, either to dream or to die. Individuals need a sense of vision in discerning their call and their gifts in bringing those dreams to fruition. When people will not dare to dream or when they lose the dream, a sense of meaning in life can fade or si~nply vanish. Dynamic Memory In exploring the notion of dynamic memory, I ask the reader's indulgence as I begin by paraphrasing a favorite story of mine written for children of all ages entitled Wilf!'id Gordon McDonald Partridge.t Wilfrid Gordon was a small boy whom, we are told, "was not very old either." He lived next door to an old folks' home, and he got to know them all. He liked, listened to, played with, ran errands for and admired different residents. But his favorite per-son of all was Miss Nancy Mison Delacourt Cooper because she had four names just as he. He called her Miss Nancy and told her all his secrets. One day he overhears his mother and father calling Miss Nancy a "poor old thing." "Why is she a poor old thing?" asks Wilfrid Gordon. His father replies, "Because she's lost her memory." "What's a memory?" Wilfrid Gordon asks. He was always asking questions. "It's something you remember," said his father. But Wilfrid Gordon wanted to know more, so he visits his favorite old folks asking each in the turn, "What's a memory?" They respond variously that memory is something warm . . . 50 Review for Religqous something from long ago., something that makes you cry. something that makes you laugh . . . something as precious as gold . So Wilfrid Gordon goes home to look for memories for Miss Nancy because she had lost her own. Into a basket go his shoe box of shells . . . a puppet . . . a medal his grandfather had given him., his football . . . and, last of all, a fresh warm egg from under a hen. Then he calls on Miss Nancy and gives her each thing one by one. Then she starts to remember. The warm egg reminds her of tiny bird eggs she had once found in her aunt's garden. When she puts a shell to her ear, she remembers going to the beach long ago by tram in her button-up shoes. The touch of the medal leads her to talk sadly of her big brother who had gone to war and never returned. The puppet brings a smile to her face as she remembers a puppet that used to make her sister laugh. She bounces the football to Wilfrid Gordon and remembers the day she had met him and the secrets they had told. The story ends, "And the two of them smiled and smiled because Miss Nancy's memory had been found again by a small boy, who wasn't very old either." Using this story as a point of departure, permit me to make a few preliminary observations about dynamic memory. In his quest for the meaning of memory, Wilfrid Gordon finds it has various facets. He hears respectively that it is something you remember, that it is warm, that it is from long ago, that it carries feeling as well as thought (it can make you cry or laugh!) and that it is as precious as gold. As with Miss Nancy, there is in all of us a human tendency to forget. Most are prone especially to spiritual amnesia. Dynamic memo~Ty is the opposite of amnesia. It is the kind of memory that has life and power in the present. Wilfrid Gordon understood that Miss Nancy needed to find her lost memories. We all need to find lost or half-forgotten mem-ories and to be reminded of old ones, lest they fade from con-sciousness. Indeed, it is the function of the Holy Spirit, as Jesus said, to "instruct you in everything, and to remind you of all that I told you On 14:26). It is the work of the Spirit to unfold an ever new understanding, interpretation, and application of the once-and- for-all dream of Jesus. January-February 199Y 51 McCarty * Dynamic Memory's Role There is much locked-up power in the past to affect the pres-ent and the future. Wilfrid Gordon was able to unlock some of that power in Miss Nancy with his little treasures. Each became a reminder for her--the egg, the shells, the medal, the puppet, the football. Often help is needed to reawaken memories so as to activate their power. Little people like Wilfrid Gordon sometimes make better helpers. Sharing faith experiences can trigger forgotten ones in others. There need not be words. Silences can speak. Symbols and rituals reach a deeper level of remembrance. Memory is a gift or grace that enables both personal inte-gration and community. As with Miss Nancy, its loss tends to dis-connect one from previous life experiences and to dismember one from effective community and communication with others. The act of remembering has the power to "remember" what has been dismembered, scattered, disconnected. Wilfrid Gordon enabled Miss Nancy to connect with her past and, in the process, to deepen a bond with him in the present. Obviously, dynamic memory is more than mere mental recall. As with both Wilfrid and Miss Nancy, some memories are happy and some sad. This .kind of rmnembrance affects the whole per-son-- mind, body, and spirit. It is recall that summons feelings as well as facts. As with Miss Nancy, some are happy and need cel-ebration; some are sad and perhaps need healing and integration. Dynamic Memory within a Faith Context By dyna~nic me~nory I mean remembrance that has life and power now. It is the opposite of static memory, that is, memory without life, unable to influence the present or future. It is not rote 2nemory, that is, the ability to commit mere facts to the store-house of memory with or without accompanying meaning. Dynamic memory is more than nostalgia, that is, a fond recollection of and longing for ari idealized something or someone in the past. Often this kind of r~membering can be an escape from the pres-ent. Similar to nostalgia is reminiscence that can range from mere sentimental longing to dwelling in the past to the neglect of the present. Reminiscence is often a recall of something no longer present, a past that is over and done with. Rather, dynamic memory is an active, grace-empowered, lib-erating remembrance that brings the past into the present so as to 52 Review for Religious influence and empower it and to provide hope for the future. For Jews and Christians alike, it is sinful to have a "bad mem-ory," that is to say, to forget God's saving actions in the past. Thus the Passover story is told over and over again. Our Eucharist is celebrated unceasingly. In the Old Testament, remembering is one of the chief vehi-cles of God's dream. Memories are handed down largely through stories. We need to know and to own our own personal and cor-porate stories. Our personal sto-ries take on new and deeper meaning as part of the larger and longer stories of our faith tradi-tion which are really memories of God's graciousness. In the Book of Deuteronomy particularly, the Israelites are summoned to remember God's past mercies as the basis for their present fidelity to the covenant. The role of memory and tradi-tion is often stressed in Deuteronomy with reference to Yahweh's appearance at Mount Horeb where God says: ". Take care and be earnestly on your guard not to forget the things which your eyes have seen, nor let thegn slip from your memory as long as you live, but teach them to your children and to your children's chil-dren" (Dr 4:9). The Hebrew verb to remember means to act on behalf of. It implies bringing what one remembers to life in the present. In so doing, the continuing efficacy of saving events is tapped. If remembering calls for action in the present, memories can be dangerous, something to which martyrs are witness. The Greek word for remembrance is anamnesis. It is used in reference to memories of God's saving intervention in history. In the Eucharistic assembly we hear Jesus' words, "Do this in remem-brance of me." They are an invitation for the worshipping com-munity to appropriate the salvation Christ accomplished once and for all. Story-telling can enrich memory and stimulate imagination. Each little reminder Wilfrid Gordon brought to Miss Nancy evoked its own story. In addition to our corporate stories of God's The act of remembering has the power to "remember" what has been dismembered, scattered, disconnected. January-February 199Y 53 McCarty ¯ Dynamic Memory's Role past mercies, each of us has personal remembrances of God's felt presence and power in our lives and ministries. Importance of Dynamic Memory for Corporate Identity Dynamic memory bonds believers in faith community. Together in faith we are communities of memory and hope. Our worship is grounded in memory. Remembering is an essential dimension of worship. Symbolic action or ritual is a fundamental way of remembering. Through rituals, memories are recalled and connections are made. As a matter of fact, rituals can touch into deeper levels of the psyche than can mere words. This became evident to me on visits with my dad in the clos-ing years of his life when he was afflicted with Alzheimer's disease. For me, it was watching a loved one die in slow motion as the human faculties only gradually shut down. Long after we were able to carry on a coherent conversation, indeed, until the very end, before leaving him I would ask if he wanted me to bless him. Immediately, he'd bow his head and make the sign of the cross as I raised my hand in blessing. It confirmed my belief that religious symbols and rituals, better than words, can evoke response from deeply imbedded values. For Christians, in liturgical acts of remembrance (for exam-ple, sacraments), Christ is truly present. This is especially true for Eucharist in which our memories are taken up into the paschal mystery. It is in memory of Jesus that the church assembles. Importance of Dynamic Memory for Individual Identity Memory is fundamental to personal as well as to corporate identity. It not only enables each of us to hold fast to an identity, but it can also help us to shape it in new ways. As we grow older, we try to piece together a unified self from the fragments of our lives. It is a process that can result in greater openness, inner peace, and wisdom. Dynamic memory is certainly central to personal religious iden-tity. Faith adds an essential dimension to remembrance. Our per-sonal stories take on new meaning as part of a longer and larger story which embraces our stories, deepening and broadening them, giving them context and continuity. It has been said that Jesus came to know himself Out of the religious memory of Israel. 54 Review for Religious In retrospect, dynamic memory reveals God's presence and power in our lives as a kind of personal anamnesis. Retrieving memories of our God experiences helps us find the design of God's particular providence for each of us. It enables us to string the beads of past epiphanies. This heightened sense of previous religious experiences (or better, religious dimensions of human experiences) provides us with a touchstone for testing the authen-ticity of movements within in the process of discernment. Such memories of the past are the basis for confidence in the present and hope for the future. Memories, Imagination, and the Future What of the relationship of memory and imagination in dis-cerning the future and for being coresponsible for shaping it? Concisely put, memories are the stuff of which dreams are made. Creative imagination does not involve creatio ex nihilo (cre-ation from nothing). Only God can do that. Creative imagi.na-tion produces new configurations from the stuff of dynamic memories. We see this, for example, in the ways in which New Testament writers draw from the images, stories, and rituals of the Old Testament. We note it particularly in the way Jesus defines his own identity and mission in the language and personages of the Old Testament, especially of Isaiah. For example, at the begin-ning of his preaching in the synagogue at Nazareth, he read from the Book of Isaiah to claim his own mission: The Spirit of the Lord is upon me; therefore he has anointed me. He has sent me to bring glad tidings to the poor, to proclaim liberty to captives, recovery of sight to the blind and release to prisoners, to announce a year of favor from the Lord . Then he began by saying to them, "Today this Scripture is fulfilled in your hearing" (Lk 4:18, 20. As discerning communities of faith we are bonded by mem-ories and hopes. Our collective and individual memories of God's actions in the past are touchstones in discerning for the future. Processes or Prayerful Reflection/Discernment The need for ongoing prayerful reflection/discernment of past and present becomes all the more important for seeking new January-February 199Y 55 McCarty ¯ Dynamic Memory's Role We are called by virtue of baptism not just to holiness of life, but also to proclaim the Good News in word and deed, to be "walking beatitudes." visions and paradigms. I am referring to intentional efforts to dis-cern the signs of the times. In pursuing the tasks of renewal, much progress has been made by religious groups in discerning and applying two of the criteria for genuine renewal, namely, Gospel values and fo.unding charisms. I am not sure we have become as adept at discerning corporately on the basis of a third criterion frequently men-tioned in renewal documents, namely, the signs of the times. We would do well to collaborate in developing and implementing models of group reflection and discernment so we can responsibly and in ongoing fashion continue to read the signs of the times. By processes of prayerful reflection and discernment, I mean that intentionally and consistently we come together as groups of Christian people to be led by the Spirit in prayerful silence and dia-logue con.cerning our experiences of life and ministry so as to allow these experi-ences to become dynamic memories and occasions of disclosure of God's inten-tions/ desires for us and the people we serve in carrying forward Jesus' redemptive mission. This com-pressed definition bears some unpacking. I am speaking of processes that are dynamic, ongoing, varied, and done together. They are communal ventures, collaborative action in the present, stemming from and productive of genuine spiritual community. This calls for a coming together as Christian people. I see this as an ecumenical project with people bonded by a common bap-tism into Christ's Body to continue his mission of proclaiming the reig

Against the backdrop of repeated political violence between Israel and different belligerents in the first and second decades of the 21st century (2003-2017) and by employing a social-psychological theoretical framework, this dissertation explores the effects of political violence on Israelis ' social and national identities. The findings support the discussion of the social consequences of political violence in Israel, be them increased cohesiveness among different social groups (ethnic minority and majority) or social fragmentation and increased polarization between other groups (rich vs. poor or political right vs. left). Whereas Social Identity Theory constitutes the theoretical base for the explored hypotheses, Israeli social place-making practices are also discussed. Topic Whereas a vast amount of literature has been dedicated to the effects of exposure to violence on individuals and groups for over a century, it mainly focuses on type, duration or location of such violence. Since the relevant literature seems to consider the occurrence of political violence a unitary phenomenon, it consistently fails to attend to a most important factor- the aftermath of such violence. By overlooking the discrepancy in violence' aftermath and by neglecting any analysis derived from it, I argue that the comprehensive literature examining the social effects of political violence and post-conflict societies is missing a vital piece of the puzzle. Accordingly, the contribution of this dissertation to the conflict literature is twofold: first, it disaggregates the aftermaths of two common forms of political violence, wars and military operations and explores their effects on individuals, groups and the Israeli society as a whole. Second, it closely examines some of the central assumptions of Social Identity Theory, one of the most comprehensive theories of group relations in the context of concrete political violence. It does so while paying special attention to highly fascinating identity components and basic social building blocks: national identification, social trust and social rifts in Israel. Methods The dissertation employs various methodologies: First, a macro-level, statistical examination of the relationship between different war outcomes and socio-national identities was conducted using two web-based experiments. Second, a qualitative analysis of Zionism in Europe and in Israel's early years complemented a discussion of Israeli narratives of belonging, memory politics, ingredients of national pride and contemporary social challenges. Third, a quantitative micro-level analysis of the effect of successful and unsuccessful military operation on the Israeli society was conducted. The latter utilized a unique, self-compiled database, following an extensive manual content analysis , alongside data originating in annual social surveys conducted in Israel by the Guttmann institute. Knowledge gained The first empirical chapter (chapter four) was set to establish the underlying assumption upon which the dissertation is based; Namely, that different outcomes of political violence have distinctive effects on individual identities. In this chapter, predictions derived from Social Identity Theory were put into an initial macro-level analysis through two original web experiments. The latter explored the effect of different war outcomes (distinguishing between victory, defeat, stalemate and a negotiated agreement) on social and national identities . Whereas the research supported the underlying hypothesis according to which distinctive war outcomes are associated with distinctive effects when national identification is concerned, no significant differences between war outcomes were found in relation to individuals' social identities. These results are consistent with Social Identity Theory and the self-esteem protection/enhancement strategies derived from it (BIRGing and CORFing ); the significant differences between war outcomes (mainly between victories and defeats) are explained by individuals' tendencies to share in the glory of a successful other (to BIRG) following a positively evaluated war outcome, and to distance themselves from an unsuccessful group (to CORF), following a negatively valued war outcome. The non-significant results concerning social identities are consistent with Simmel's conflict hypothesis suggesting that conflicting interactions strengthen the internal cohesion of pre-existing groups. In this regard, it appears as though individuals react to the conflict itself whereas its aftermath did not play any significant role. The overall outcomes obtained thus laid the foundations for an extensive micro-level analysis of the effect of outcomes of political violence on socio-national identities among Israelis. Chapter five refocused the attention on the state of Israel and the Israeli society. It provided a historical analysis of Jewish-Israeli nationalism, rooted in the Zionistic movement in Europe in the late 19th century, which preceded the establishment of the state of Israel. The analysis centered on nation-building processes which took place in Israel's first years, namely, the constructing of a new Jewish-Israeli identity by means of institutionalizing the Hebrew language as an official language, integration of new immigrants and the role of the Israeli defense force as a melting pot. The study of the origins of Israeli national pride, both in the country's first years and in contemporary times, complemented the discussion as it is entwined with both Jewish and Israeli identities. The analysis suggests that while Israel was established as a democracy, it was never a space of ethnic diversity. As the national home for world jury based on a Zionist narrative and highly influenced by the Holocaust, no plurality of ethnic discourses existed in Israel in over 50 years. The research describes the way state-sponsored dominant Jewish and Zionist narratives morphed into a uni-dimensional Israeli identity. This, in turn, prevented Arab-Israelis, the largest ethnic minority in Israel, from being incorporated into the Israeli society. Recurrent political violence as part of the on-going Israeli Palestinian conflict further contributed both to the exclusion of Arab-Israelis from the original Israeli narrative and to the bonding of Jewish Israelis. It was only in the last decades and against the backdrop of significant changes endured by the Israeli society that place-making processes were put on the political and social agenda. Whereas nation and community-building processes are still prominent in contemporary Israel, they now exist side by side a vibrant and vocal discourse of post-Zionism, Jewish secularism and "Israelism" which is not based on Judaism but on an Israeli cultural narrative. Persistent political violence that contributed to social fragmentation in Israel's first decades alongside cultural commonalities between Jewish and Arab Israelis now begin to serve as a common denominator in contemporary Israeli society. If those continue to resonate among Israelis, it is thus not implausible that they would eventually substitute Judaism and Zionism as social unifiers in the process of creating a "same boat" society. Under such circumstances and with diminishing boundaries between Arab and Jewish Israelis, the former will no longer be construed as an "out-group" by the Jewish majority in Israel. Nonetheless, drifting away from the original Jewish integrator and common factor of more than 75% of the country's population may threaten the Jewish communities of Israel with social fragmentation. Consequently, the study of the effect of political violence on both Jewish and non-Jewish communities in Israel set forth in the upcoming chapters is of great importance for the future of Israel. Chapter six set out to examine the relationship between Israelis and their nation-state following different outcomes of Israeli military operations. Special attention was paid to changes in levels of national pride among Jewish Israelis, Arab Israelis and new immigrants across a tempestuous ten-year period (2003-2013) and in conjunction with successful and unsuccessful conclusions of Israeli warfare, as perceived by the Israeli public. Using a regressing analysis of data originating in social surveys, the research tested the validity of predictions derived from Social Identity Theory in both the individual and the social levels. Results indicate that the effect of recurrent warfare on national identification among Israelis is highly mitigated by the perceived outcome of such warfare as well as by sub-group membership (ethnic/social majority vs. minority). Consistent with Social Identity Theory, an Israeli military success was highly associated with increased national identification for the general Israeli population. However, contrary to conventional wisdom and to the "minority hypothesis ", the same effect was also registered among Israeli Arabs. While Israeli Arabs, the largest ethnic minority in Israel, might share neither the country's collective Jewish narrative nor its Zionist ethos they are Israeli citizens who nonetheless feel a sense of belonging to the state of Israel . As such, they are a part of a larger in-group which shares personal and economic interests. Those are equally and existentially threatened when Israel is experiencing unsuccessful military operations. This positivistic evidence suggests that Israeli Arabs' identification with the state of Israel lies in the area of "Israeliness that is beyond Jewishness". The analysis also affirmed the existence of an "embedded identity effect" concerning national identification among Jewish Israelis; Israeli Jews, the majority ethnic group in Israel, maintained high national-identification levels regardless of the way the warfare was concluded. This finding is unsurprising considering Israel's Jewish character and the circumstances of its creation. Whilst societies subjected to external threat may unite in the face of a common enemy, chapter seven sought to examine whether this is true in the Israeli context and if so, whether the outcomes of political violence mitigate the effect. Whereas a large scholarship examined the effect of violence on social cohesion and political tolerance in Israel, it mostly focused on Arab-Israelis and immigrant. The research presented in chapter seven studied the effect of discrepant outcomes of Israeli warfare on social cohesion, social tensions and trust between the various communities of Israel (both Jewish and non-Jewish). The research focused on the general level of social trust in society alongside six specific social rifts, prevalent in present-day Israel: the intercommunal rift (between the Israeli Jewish community and the Israeli-Arab community), the Jewish intercommunal rift (between Jews of Ashkenazi and Sephardic/Mizrachi origins), the religious rift (between orthodox and non-orthodox Jewish communities), the ideological/political rift , the socio-economic rift and the nativist tension (between native Israelis and new immigrants). Results revealed a highly significant effect of Israeli military success concerning all six social rifts and a very mild effect concerning social trust. For all but one rift (the Jewish inter-communal rift), successful termination of Israeli warfare was associated with an increased social tension between the different communities in Israel (though in different levels of significance). This unfortunate finding which points to increased fractionalization among the different communities in Israel following Israeli military successes is in line with several other studies examining the effects of political violence on political exclusionism in Israel. Whereas the literature supports the notion that in time of crisis social cohesion increases, it is not surprising to find increased tensions following military successes rather than failures. An exception to the observed rise in social tensions in Israel is the increased cohesion between Ashkenzi and Sephardic/Mizrachi Jews (the Jewish intercommunal rift). The results support the conclusion that the Jewish population, the majority ethnic group in Israel, is united behind the idea that Israel is a homeland for the Jewish people (and possibly a necessary refuge from rising anti-Semitism around the globe). A decrease in Jewish intercommunal tension following Israeli victories supports the cohesive potential of in-group pride and is consistent with the Jewish foundation and Zionistic narrative of Jewish Israelis and with the existence of an embedded Jewish-Israeli identity . As for the national level, a "rally around the flag" effect is a term used to describe the uniting power of common threats. An underlying motive for this surge in national unity is linked to patriotism, as individuals respond to threats by identifying with their in-group . However, when the crisis is over, politics and society quickly revert to normal and existing social rifts resurface. Whereas an unsuccessful termination of an Israeli military operation is likely to induce a "rally around the flag" effect, a military success demonstrates the opposite effect. Consequently, the seemingly rising tensions between various communities in Israel observed following an Israeli military success is consistent with a reverse "rally around the flag" effect and reflects the fractionalized nature of the Israeli society. Another explanation to the observed trend of increased social tensions following a successful warfare may be directly linked to the experience of in-group guilt or shame despite a successful outcome. Such gilt might lead to rising tension between those who are more/less supportive of the outcome, or perhaps feel that more should have been done to achieve a more solid outcome. Finally, the increased tensions may speak to the theorized dynamic at the heart of the present and similar works that reflects the more destructive side of pride and in-group glorification. According to that scholarship, out-group hate can even extend to people perceived to be "hostile minorities ". Whilst the increase in intercommunal tension is expected and in line with the results of similar studies examining the effect of violence or stress on the relationships between Jewish and Arab Israelis, the increase in religious tensions, socio-economic tension and ideological tensions could be reflective of a second circle of out-group hate; Supporters of the political left alongside less observant and wealthier elements of the Israeli society , may experience in-group guilt and possibly shame despite the perceived successful outcome, thus distancing themselves from those experiencing pride at the outcome. The effect of education, in particular higher education, in reducing social tensions and increasing social trust emerges as another important finding of this research. Whether education provides a sense of optimism and control over one's life that allows people to trust, or whether it provides opportunities for contact and networks' creation with others, the study confirms the potential role of education in reducing social tension even in a highly diverse and conflict-torn Israeli society. Moreover, since social divisions may be exploited by political entrepreneurs, and since increasing social tensions might result in the erosion of social capital, raising the alarm would be the first step in directly addressing such important issues (for example, by policy making). Lastly, any serious peace negotiation with a Palestinian leadership would require difficult concessions to be made by both parties. As such, the way towards a peaceful conclusion of the Israeli Palestinian conflict would inevitably depend, among others, on the social strength and cohesion of the Israeli civil society.:Table of Contents 1. Introduction 1.1 Background and Motivation . 7 1.1.1 National Identification . 10 1.1.2 Social Trust . 14 1.1.3 Focusing on Israel . 16 1.2 Prologue . 17 1.3 Contribution Scope . 18 1.4 Overview of Aims and Chapters . 20 2. Theoretical Framework: Conflict Research, National Identification and Social Trust Part I: Conflict Research 2.1 Conflict Research . 24 2.1.1 General Theory and Practices . 25 2.1.2 Contemporary Trends and Challenges . 26 2.1.3 Looking Forward . 27 Part II: Belonging, Identity and the Nation 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 Identity Formation . 28 Social Belonging and Group Identification . 29 The Sense of Belonging, Nationhood and Statehood . 30 2.4.1 What is a Nation? . 30 2.4.2 National Identification . 32 2.4.3 Hierarchies of National Belonging . 33 2.4.4 The Nation State . 34 2.4.5 Nationhood and Statehood . 35 Conflict Patriotic Affinity: Conceptual Outlines . 38 2.6.1 Between Patriotism and Nationalism . 41 Coping With Threatened Social Identity . 42 and Group Identification . 36 2 3 2.7.1 Social Identity Theory . 42 2.7.2 Basking In Reflected Glory . 45 2.7.3 Cutting Off Reflected Failure . 46 2.7.4 Self-Embedded Social Identity . 48 2.7.5 National Identity of Ethnic Minorities . 50 Part III: Social Trust and Cohesiveness 2.8 Social Capital and Cohesion . 52 2.9 Unraveling the Riddle of Social Trust . 54 2.9.1 Threats to Social Trust and Social Cohesion . 56 3. Methodology 3.1 Macro-level Analysis . 60 3.1.1 Appropriateness . 60 3.1.2 A Short History of Web Experiments . 61 3.1.3 Web Experiments: Advantages and Challenges . 63 3.2. Micro-level analysis . 69 3.2.1 Focusing on The state of Israel and Israeli Society . 69 Contemporary Israeli Media . 72 Military Censorship . 75 3.2.2 Episodes of High Intensity Political Violence . 75 3.2.3 Perceived Outcomes of Political Violence . 77 3.2.4 Relevant Issues Concerning the Use of Survey Data . 78 Vague Concepts . 78 Categorizing Identities . 80 3.2.5 The Israeli Democracy Index . 82 3.2.6 Control Variables . 83 3.3 Framing in Communication and Their Effect on Public Opinion . 84 3.3.1 The Use of Emphasis and Equivalence Framing in Shaping Public Opinion . 85 3.3.2 The Effect of Frames in Shaping Individual Perceptions . 87 3.3.3 Assessing a Frame's Strength in Political Settings . 88 4. The Ending matters: National and Social Identification Following Discrepant War Outcomes 4.1 Introduction . 90 4.2 Experimental Study I . 93 4.2.1 Procedure and Experimental Design . 93 4.2.2 Measures . 95 4.3.3 Results . 95 4.2.4 Discussion . 99 Seriousness Check . 99 National Identity . 100 Social Identity . 102 4.3 Experimental Study II . 103 4.3.1 Using video Vs. Text in Experimental Research . 103 4.3.2 Procedure and Experimental Design . 104 4.3.3 Measures . 105 4.3.4 Results . 106 4.3.5 Discussion . 109 Seriousness Check . 109 National Identity . 109 4.4 Limitations . 110 4.5 Conclusion . 111 5. Focusing on the State of Israel and Israeli Society 5.1 Introduction . 114 5.2 Jewish Nationalism and the Zionist Movement in Europe . 114 5.3 Zionism, National Identity and Hebrew Culture Following the Establishment of The State of Israel . 118 5.3.1 The Israeli Defense Forces . 119 Serving in the Israeli Defense Forces . 120 Education, Socialization and Nation Building . 121 The Effect of the IDF on the Israeli Society . 123 5.3.2 Sport as an Integrative Tool for Shaping Israeli Collective Identity . 129 5.4 The Jewish and Democratic Nature of the State of Israel . 132 4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5 Current Challenges to Contemporary "Israeliness" . 134 5.5.1 Ethnic-religious Classification of Israelis- Between Citizenship and Nationality . 136 5.5.2 Israeli Nationalist Particularism . 137 Israeli Patriotism and Ingredients of Israeli National Pride . 140 5.6.1 Tzedakah, Gemilut Hasadim and Tikun Olam . 141 5.6.2 Mashav . 142 5.6.3 Operation "Good Neighbor" . 144 Conclusion . 148 6. Together We Stand? Perceived Outcomes of Political Violence and National Pride 7. 6.1 Introduction . 150 6.2 Hypotheses . 151 6.3 Data, Measures and Method . 153 6.3.1 Focusing on Israel . 153 6.3.2 Military Operations . 154 6.3.3 Survey Measures: National Identification . 155 6.3.4 Perceived Outcome of Military Operation . 157 6.3.5 Control Variables . 158 6.4 Findings and Discussion . 159 6.4.1 Preliminary Findings . 159 6.4.2 Disaggregating the Israeli Society . 163 6.4.3 Interaction Analysis . 164 6.5 Robustness Checks . 169 6.5.1 Israel's General Situation . 170 6.5.2 Proximity to the Center of Violence . 171 6.6 Conclusion . 172 In Us We Trust? The Effect of Military Operations on Social Cleavages and Social Cohesion in Israel 7.1 Introduction . 174 7.2 Hypothesis . 175 7.3 7.4 6 Data, Measures and Method . 179 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 The Israeli Society in Context . 179 Military Operations . 181 Perceived Levels of Tension and Trust in the Israeli Society . 183 Perceived Outcomes of Israeli Military Operations . 185 Control Variables . 185 7.3.5 Findings and Discussion . 186 7.4.1 7.4.2 7.4.3 Preliminary Findings . 187 The Effect of Individual Level and Country Level Variables on Social Tensions and Social Trust . 189 Examining the Effect of Israeli Military Operation on Inter-group Tensions . 193 Exploring the Rise and Fall of Social Trust . 197 7.4.4 Conclusion . 200 7.5 8. Conclusion . 203 8.1 Limitations . 210 8.2 Going forward: Ideas for Future Research . 213 8.3 Final remarks/Epilogue . 215 9. References . 218 10. List of Figures . 254 Appendices A. The Evolution of Conflict Research in the 20th Century . 255 B. Supplementary Material Chapter Four . 268 B.1 Experiment I . 268 B.2 Experiment II . 274 B.3 Witnessing a Real Conflict as a Potential Covariate . 287 C. Supplementary Material and Robustness Checks, Chapter Six . 288 D. Supplementary Material and Robustness Checks, Chapter Seven . 308

Stephen Stanford ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 12p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Dr. Stephen Stanford Interviewed By Steven F. Crane 11 March 2013 i ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Dr. Stephen Stanford Interviewed by Steven F. Crane 11 March 2013 Copyright © 2013 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in the University Archives, which also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Stanford, Stephen, an oral history by Steven F. Crane, 11 March 2013, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Dr. Stephen Stanford ca. 1964 Dr. Stephen Stanford April 19, 2013 1 Abstract: Stephen Stanford participated in an oral history interview with Steve Crane of the Ogden Rotary Club on March 11, 2013 to talk about his experiences in the Army Air Force as a C-46 aircraft pilot. Stephen enlisted in the Air Force in July of 1941 and served in World War II where he was responsible for flying gasoline and ammunition to the front lines until his separation in 1946. He then went on to become a professor at Weber State University and retired in 1986. SC: This is the second session of the 2013 Ogden Rotary Club and Weber State University Veteran's Project held March 11, 2013 at the George E. Whalen Ogden Veteran's Home. My name is Steve Crane, a member of the Ogden Rotary Club, I will be conducting this interview. Also present are Stacie Gallagher from Weber State University, Robert Harris of the Ogden Rotary Club and my wife, Donna Crane. Our guest at this session is Stephen Stanford. This session is going to be about Mr. Stanford's military service. What is your date of birth? SS: The 16th of May 1920. SC: What branch of the military did you serve in? SS: The Air Force. SC: What years did you serve in the Air Force? SS: I went in July 1941, just before Pearl Harbor, and I came out on the 29th of December 1946 after Hiroshima. SC: What rank were you when you left the service? SS: I was a 2nd Lieutenant. SC: What was your job in the Air Force? 2 SS: My purpose was to fly the C-46, which is a very big airplane. We would haul trucks in the back of our plane. Our main job was to haul in the Pacific Theater and we would go from the Philippines to the front lines of combat to deliver gasoline and ammo. Then, we'd go back and pick up the wounded just off the front lines and fly them back to the hospitals. SC: How did you come to be in the Air Force? SS: I got my private pilot's license in 1940 and decided to enlist. I enlisted on July 16th, 1941. It was a voluntary enlistment. SC: Where were you trained? SS: I got my private pilot's license in Logan, Utah. I went into the Army Air Force in 1941 and when I got into the Army Air Force, they were calling for volunteers to train as glider pilots. I entered that program and got my silver wings as a glider pilot. SC: Did you ever fly gliders? SS: Yes, you bet. SC: Where did you fly gliders? SS: Just in training in Dalhart, Texas. SC: What aircraft did you say you flew? SS: The C-46, it's called the Curtiss Commando. It was a very big beautiful airplane. It would carry not only a truck, but it would haul 52 infantrymen with all their equipment. So, it was pretty big. 3 SC: Where were you trained to fly that aircraft? Did you have to go somewhere to learn how to fly that aircraft or were you already trained? SS: We were already trained. SC: Where did you serve? What campaigns were you involved in as you flew? SS: I was sent to New Guinea, the Dutch East Indies just two miles off the equator. We set up a base on Biak Island. I went to Leyte Island in the Philippines which was where I was for three years. In fact, I was there when they dropped the atom bomb in the war. I was in the Philippines. I was stationed for a long time in Okinawa. SC: What were your feelings when the atom bomb was dropped? SS: Some things you can explain. You feel awe. A-W-E—awe. SC: You said you were in the Philippines when the atom bomb was dropped. SS: I was actually on the island of Okinawa. SC: What were your feelings about the dropping of that bomb? SS: I was glad that it was over. SC: Did you feel like that was going to bring Japan to peace? SS: My squadron went right on to the island of Japan as part of the Army of Occupation to take over the island. I lived in Japan for three months as part of that occupation group. 4 SC: Were you concerned about the problems of trying to invade Japan? Were you going to have to fly if the invasion of Japan had to happen? Were you worried about the death toll that would result? SS: No. We accepted it as reality and that was it. SC: You said you were flying soldiers to various locations. Did you see combat yourself? SS: That's a very interesting question because on several occasions, I just missed some major battles by sometimes 20 or 30 minutes. The battle of Leyte Gulf was regarded as the most significant naval battle of the entire world and I was there. We were coming in with a load of gasoline and we saw all this activity on the gulf, so they said, "You can't land because the airstrip is being used for the fighters." So, here's Leyte Gulf and we went round and round and literally had a ringside seat of the Battle of Leyte Gulf. SC: That was the Japanese Navy with the U.S. Navy? SS: Yes. That was regarded as the outstanding, most severe battle of World War II in terms of loss of both Japanese and American shipmen. SC: Was it a turning point in the war? SS: Oh, very much. Very much. SC: Until then, the Japanese had been the aggressors and from then on they were on defensive. Is that true? 5 SS: Right. The loss of Japanese vessels and battleship aircraft carriers in the area and that was a focal point for the climax of the war. It wasn't too long after that they dropped the atom bomb. SC: You were flying around watching that battle from above? What did you see? What were your experiences there? SS: The Japanese had some giant guns. The guns shells were probably 16 inches in diameter. We sunk two of their carriers, three of their battleships, and many destroyers. I think historians agree that it was the turning point of the war with the Japanese. SC: Did you actually see aircraft carriers sinking? SS: No. It was really quite cloudy. We would fly through the midst of the fighting. We could see all the ships, but I didn't see them sink. SC: What other major experiences did you have during your time in the Air Force that you could share with us? SS: The most important thing we hauled in our planes was gasoline to refuel the fighters. We would pick up 50 of those big oil drums and fly them up to the front lines of combat where there were fighter planes had an airstrip and they'd empty them out. That was the point at which we would go back and get more ammo. It was very rare to haul personnel. It was mostly ammunition and fuel. SC: Were you ever shot at? 6 SS: Oh yes. What was interesting is we expected to be shot down anytime because there were Zeros flying in the area too. We'd come back and find bullet holes in our plane. We were pretty close, probably within a half mile. SC: As you're flying with all of this gasoline, did you worry about getting hit? You were basically in a flying bomb, weren't you? If you had gotten hit, you had all that gasoline on board. SS: Pilots don't worry. We do what we do and it's like you're part of the machine itself. It's very automatic. I can't remember spending five minutes worrying about what was going to happen or whether I was going to come out alive or not. It just never crossed my mind. We just did what we had to do. When you're flying a plane, especially in cloudy conditions, you take things as they come and be glad you're still alive. I have to tell you about one episode that was very interesting. We took off at midnight for a base down in the East Indies. We took off at midnight hauling gasoline and planned to land at the break of dawn to deliver our gasoline. Here we were, hauling these 50 gallon drums and as we came in we saw all the planes on the strip were burning. They just finished strafing and were raiding that particular airstrip. We were about 20 seconds, maybe a minute and a half away and we could still see off in the distance the Zeros just raided the field and they were just leaving. They didn't see us, or they would have come back and got us too. They had just strafed and bombed the airstrip. I think everything on the ground was on fire. We landed about 20 seconds after the last one. SC: They just didn't see you or else they would have come back? SS: They didn't see us and didn't come back. I think that was our closest call. 7 SC: Any other experiences like that you can share with us? SS: On one trip, we came in to land and a plane was taking off in front of us and while it turned it stirred up a cloud of dust, so we lost sight and our plane was out of control. We approached the ship and crashed into two parked C-46's off the side of the strip because we couldn't see. SC: Were you loaded with gasoline at that time? SS: I don't think so. I believe we happened to be empty on that trip. That was a close call. We discovered later on that the plane that was taking off on the strip was loaded with ammo. SC: So they were a flying bomb. SS: If that cloud of dust hadn't kept us from landing, we would probably have run head-on into the other bomber loaded with ammo. SC: Your life was saved by a cloud of dust. SS: Yes. SC: Were you ever wounded yourself? SS: No. SC: Do you have any other experiences? These are marvelous experiences you're sharing with us. Can you think of any other close calls or experiences that you can share with us? SS: I guess it was mostly just a routine delivering and hauling back and forth. 8 SC: Did you feel like your planes were reliable? Did you feel confident in the aircraft you were flying? SS: There was never any question about that. The C-46's are very remarkable and a very beautiful airplane and very big. Can you imagine putting a truck in the back of an airplane? A full size army truck would just fit into a C-46. SC: How many props did it have? SS: It had two engines, four props, and 2000 horsepower, a really powerful engine. SC: They would drive a truck into the belly of your airplane and you would deliver it somewhere. SS: Oh yes. We put up a ramp on the side of the plane and opened the doors and made sure the truck was anchored. SC: Did you have some really close friends that you made during your time in the air force? SS: That's kind of hard to answer because, like I said before, you felt like you were part of a big machine or an operation that was very impersonal. I don't remember any personal friendships except the people with whom we flew in the routine over and over again. SC: Were you the pilot? SS: We took turns and would switch between pilot and co-pilot. If the pilot flew in, then I would fly back. Actually, the other pilot would be the captain in charge, but we both had the opportunity to fly. 9 SC: How many crewmembers were in this aircraft? SS: The pilot, co-pilot, navigator, crew chief, and sometimes a second crew chief. SC: So, four of five would be the crew. Were they from all over the country? SS: Yes. SC: Did you have the same crew flight after flight? SS: We were pretty well assigned to one particular plane. There were others in our squadron, but basically we were a number of little units that were pretty well coherent within themselves. SC: Do you feel like your experience in the Air Force changed your life? Was it a turning point in your life? SS: After the war was over and the dropping of the bomb, shortly after we were sent to japan to occupy it, I was released and came home. Being a Mormon, I left the Air Force so I could go on a mission with the LDS church. That's why I left my squadron, so I could serve the mission. SC: Where did you serve your mission? SS: In Canada. SC: You came back and where did you attend University? SS: I came back and enrolled at BYU and met my wife in 1965. SC: Has your wife passed away? SS: Yes. Last week. Just a few days ago. 10 SC: I'm so sorry to hear that. Do you have children? SS: Eight children, seven boys and one girl. SC: That's a great family. Do they live nearby? SS: They're in and out all the time. They're really close. SC: Where else did you attend school? SS: I went to BYU and graduated with a bachelor's degree and stayed for another year and got my master's degree. I went to the University of Colorado and got my doctoral degree. SC: Did you come back and teach at Weber your entire career? SS: Most of the time. I took some sabbatical leaves in Tennessee and Wisconsin. Most of the time was at Weber. Twenty-two years at Weber. SC: When did you retire from Weber State? SS: In 1986. SC: Mr. Harris is wondering what your experience was like during the time you were in Japan in the occupation forces. SS: Before I went into the Army, I had majored in college in landscape architecture. When we took over the country, our squadron was assigned to a place called Fussa, Japan. Because of my training in landscape architecture and because I had a lot of flying I requested a chance to help beautify the airbase. They put me in charge of the landscaping crew and gave me a whole bunch of Japanese workers to work on the environment and clean up the trees and shrubbery. I did 11 that for almost three months. I was at the top of the list for those that had enough points to go home, so I was the second one in my squadron to be sent back to the states. SC: During that period of time you were in charge of beautifying the Japanese airbase? SS: Yes. SC: How were you treated by the Japanese? SS: It was like little puppets. I couldn't feel any personality at all. It was very automatic. They were just doing what they were doing. I can't remember ever developing a personal feeling toward them. Of course, I had an interpreter all the time. SC: But you were treated with respect, of course, you were their boss. SS: That doesn't seem to be the word. It's kind of like a feeling of automation or something. It was like we were puppets. It was very impersonal. SC: They were just doing what they were told. There weren't any interactions with them much. SS: After they gave you a work crew of about 10 Japanese, I would tell the interpreter, "I want that done and this done." He'd go talk to the Japanese and he'd spend almost a full minute talking to them. I don't know if they understood. I'd say five and you'd see 20 or 30 back and forth, but we got along fine. SC: Is there anything else about your military service that you think we ought to know about? Any other experiences you would like to share with us? 12 SS: I think those are the basic points. The two really close calls that I mentioned were probably outstanding. SC: On behalf of all of us, I want to thank you and all who served with you for what you did during that time. You've been called the greatest generation and I think that certainly is an appropriate title for you. We really do appreciate it. I also appreciate you sharing your time and experiences with us. It has meant a lot to us. SS: I thank you for the opportunity. I've enjoyed every minute of it.

Jack D. Lampros ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 10p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; i Oral History Program Jack D. Lampros Interviewed by Rebecca Ory-Hernandez 9 July 2012 ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Jack D. Lampros Interviewed by Rebecca Ory-Hernandez 9 July 2012 Copyright © 2012 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection includes interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories date back to the early settlement of North Ogden, and cover various topics including the History of Fort Buenaventura, city government affairs, controversial issues, Latinos in Ogden, personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Jack Lampros, an oral history by Rebecca Ory-Hernandez, 9 July 2012, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Jack Lampros July 9, 2012 1 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Jack Lampros. The interview was conducted on July 7, 2012, by Rebecca Ory Hernandez. In this interview Mr. Lampros, current Chairman of the Stewart Education Foundation, discusses his memories of Elizabeth Stewart and provides a brief history of her foundation. ROH: Today is July 7, 2012. I'm in the home of Jack Lampros. Present is Rebecca Ory Hernandez and Jack Lampros, in Ogden Utah. We're here today to talk about the Stewart Education Foundation, the history of the Foundation, and memories of Elizabeth Stewart as Jack remembers them. So I'll just start with you. Jack, why don't you tell me your name and your date of birth? JL: My name is Jack Lampros and I was born in Florida, September 15, 1926. ROH: Very good. When did it come that you moved to Ogden, Utah? JL: I moved to Ogden, Utah right after I graduated from the University of Florida in 1949. ROH: Okay. What did you graduate in? JL: Business Administration. ROH: Very good. Okay. What brought you here to Ogden? JL: I married a girl from Utah. ROH: What's her name? JL: Her name was Betty Hess. ROH: Betty Hess. What part of Utah is she from? JL: Ogden. 2 ROH: Ogden. Okay. So why don't we fast forward a little bit to a time when you recall meeting Elizabeth Stewart and just tell me a little bit about how the Foundation came about and if you need to back up and go forward in time as you speak, that's just fine. JL: Okay. I think to give you a little preamble to Elizabeth Stewart's Foundation, we need to talk about her mother. Her mother, Mary Elizabeth Dee Shaw, was a Dee, of the very prominent Dee family here in the Ogden area. Her mother established the first foundation that I had any familiarity with. There was an attorney here in Ogden at that time by the name of Jerry [Jerome] Horowitz. Jerry came here from New York as a convert to the LDS church and he knew about foundations and charitable giving and so forth, which was at that time almost new to us. But he talked with Elizabeth's mother, Mrs. Shaw, and suggested that she establish a charitable foundation. She actually established her foundation December 12, 1959—so quite a while ago. I was present at the time because I was a trust officer at the First Security Bank and I would be handling her account. The primary purpose of that foundation was to make charitable donations to the Thomas D. Dee Memorial Hospital. I don't think that McKay Dee had been founded as yet but when it was founded then that foundation began to give primarily to that hospital, but to other charitable organizations as well. That instilled in Elizabeth Stewart—and Elizabeth's full name is Elizabeth Dee Shaw Stewart; she was proud of all of her names—the idea of charitable giving. So Elizabeth established a foundation. She established what we call the Stewart Education Foundation and she established it, as I recall it was right at 3 the very end of 1977. I think December 29, 1977. The primary goal of that foundation was to help educational organizations as well as other organizations. Elizabeth was a graduate of Weber State University. She had worked there in her younger years and loved Weber State immensely. We know one of her desires was that most of the money from that foundation be given to Weber State University. She named a board of managers to help her manage the foundation, although she called most of the shots. We were there to give direction and advice. But she named Dean Hurst and myself as members of her original board, with the provision that once she and her husband, Donnell, passed away, that Dean and I would annually select board members from that time on. Well, she knew Dean very well and loved him immensely because he had been her bishop and he was also connected with Weber State University and he certainly had the best interest of the University in mind. He would talk to her about different things that she might do for and on behalf of the University. She always took his advice. Later, another former bishop of hers by the name of Bill Stromberg—C. William Stromberg, but everybody called him Bill. He was added to the board and became a very influential member of the board. She loved and respected Bill a great deal. After she passed away, I was elected Chairman of the Foundation, with Dean Hurst as the Vice Chairman and Bill Stromberg as Vice Chairman. After Bill died, his son Richard Stromberg took his place on the board. We have tried in all our pursuits, all of our endeavors—we have tried to keep Elizabeth and her wishes in mind. We often ask ourselves, "What would Elizabeth want?" If we 4 think that's what she wanted, then that's what we do. So I would say that at least one half of all our charitable givings from the Stewart Education Foundation has been directed towards Weber State University, because we felt that was what Elizabeth would like us to do. ROH: Okay. When did Bill pass away? When did he die? JL: I can't remember the exact date. It's been maybe five years ago now. ROH: Okay. I can't remember the date either. I can look it up. I was just curious if you knew off the top of your head. So at this point who is on the board of the Stewart Education Foundation? JL: At this point we have myself as Chairman, Dean Hurst as Vice Chairman, Richard Stromberg as Treasurer, and the three of us comprise what we call the Executive Committee. We meet often as a trio and discuss policy and pursuits that we want to do. Also, as a member of the Foundation Board, is Mary Barker who is affiliated with Wells Fargo Bank. She administers the trust on behalf of the bank. As associate members we have Bernice Stromberg, who is Bill's widow; we have my daughter, Jamie Lampros Shenefelt; Dean's daughter, Kristen Hurst Hyde; and I think that's it. ROH: Okay. Going back, can you—I don't know if you can remember this far back, but can you remember the very first gift from the Stewart Education Foundation and what was surrounding Elizabeth's thoughts at the time? JL: You know, I cannot remember the first but I can make a good guess. I would suspect it was the Stewart Bell Tower. 5 ROH: Okay. Yeah, the Bell Tower. And um, tell me a little bit about what her intent was for—I mean, if she was such a big supporter of Weber State, why do you think that was her intent, to create a Foundation that would give so much back to Weber State? JL: Well, I think for one thing, she greatly admired Dean Hurst. Dean Hurst was like a son to her. She took his advice and counsel and I'm sure Dean influenced her that way a great deal. Although, she had an innate love for Weber State without him and would no doubt have supported Weber State anyway. But I'm sure that Dean Hurst had a great influence on her charitable giving to the school. Elizabeth was a very charitable person. She loved everyone. She wanted to help everyone. As a trust officer at the bank who administered her estate, I know how much she gave of her own personal funds and not just out of the Foundation. If she saw anyone in need, she would write them a check. If a repair man came to her home and repaired her air conditioner and she began to talk to him and found out that he was struggling a little bit, it wasn't long before she would call me and tell me to pay off the mortgage on his home. That way she thought it would make it easier for him. She did that for quite a few people. There were many people, I always felt, who took advantage of Elizabeth's good nature and generosity and I would tell her so. But she didn't care. She would rather err on the side of generosity than not to give to somebody who might need help. She was a wonderful person. She named Dean and I to her board because—she called us 'her boys' and she had no children of her own, so she kind of lavished her interest in us and Bill. ROH: I see. Where do you think that came from—her great interest in philanthropy? 6 JL: You know, you study evolution and I've always been taught that acquired characteristics cannot be inherited, but I think she inherited that generosity. You go right back to Thomas D. Dee's widow, who established the Dee Memorial Hospital—she was very charitable. I'm sure that before her even, there were very charitable people in her family. Everybody in her family that I know of, are and were very charitable people. The Dees—her mother was a Dee—they were very charitable people and I think Elizabeth inherited that love of being charitable and helping people. ROH: Now where did the wealth come from originally? Are you aware— JL: Yes, I know where that wealth came from. It's an amazing story. It came from what was originally called Utah Construction Company. Most people today would not know about Utah Construction Company but it was a fabulous organization. It started here in Ogden as a construction company and then it grew. It had some very far sighted people running it—the Dee's, the Brownings, the Harrises, the Eccles—they were the ones who established the Utah Construction Company. They built such things as the Hoover Dam and the Oakland Bay Bridge. They were a big organization and they kept expanding and expanding and expanding. Finally, I believe it was 1977, they merged with the General Electric Company. The Utah Construction Company made a lot of millionaires here in Ogden. You'd be surprised how many multi millionaires Utah Construction Company made here in Ogden. One time the President of Utah International was speaking up at Weber State—his offices were in San Francisco, but he came here to give a talk. I went to listen to him and afterwards I went up to him and said, "You don't know 7 me but your company has provided me with a very good living for many years." He said, "You may think you're the only one who's ever told me that story, but you're not. I've heard that many times." So Utah Construction really was the source of their wealth. ROH: Okay. So she was a descendant on the Dee side of Utah Construction. Are there any stories that you could share about Elizabeth that might be connected to one of the gifts that the Foundation has made, just kind of looking back? JL: I can't think of a lot of stories. I do know this, you can go up to Weber State and stand in one spot and look North, South, East, and West, and would not find a spot that you wouldn't see Elizabeth's influence, starting with the Bell Tower, then the Library, now we have Elizabeth Hall, then a wing of the Art Center for her mother, the Dee Events Center—she was a large sponsor of the Dee Events Center. I'm sure I'm missing some but—Lampros Hall, Hurst Center, Stromberg Center, all resulted from her influence. ROH: Tell me about currently what's happening with the Stewart Education Foundation. I know that it's been really wonderful to have the Stewart Education Foundation in Ogden because you give not only to Weber State, but to lots of other organizations in town and it helps the city. So tell me a little bit about some of the other projects that the Foundation helps with. JL: Well, we built the Amphitheater in downtown Ogden by the City and County Building. We've helped almost every organization—the Nature Center, the Eccles Community Arts Center, the Weber County Libraries. I'm hard pressed to think of it all. We've worked with United Way in helping them. We've established 8 scholarship programs through the Ogden Rotary Club, let them make scholarship presentations. We are currently suffering from the economic recession that our start portfolio is down considerably in value. We're trying to economize some of the gifts that we are making until we can get back on a level playing field again. The stock market collapse of 2008 hit our Foundation extremely hard. As a result, we are over committed in our gifts and we're trying to not accept, request, or make time, making any more pledges for the foreseeable future. We are paying now on the new student dormitories at Weber State University, but we still have a few years yet to make those payments. I think three more years before we have that pledge completed. After that we don't have any pledges and we are committed to kind of holding back a little bit and being very careful and selective in anything that we commit to in the future until the economy turns around. There for awhile, we were so overwhelmed with funds that if an organization came and asked us for ten thousand dollars we'd give them a hundred thousand, but then things changed. ROH: That's a nice position to be in. JL: We hope we'll be back in that position again one of these days. ROH: I'm sure you will. You are all very savvy. Is there anything that I might not have asked you that you would like to say about the Stewart Education Foundation as far as historical information or something that I might not have touched upon? JL: Well, I'm sure there is but I can't think of anything at this exact moment. I probably will as soon as you leave. 9 ROH: Okay. I wanted to try to capture a snapshot of the history and of your involvement and how all of this came about because I don't think we have an oral history version of the beginnings of the Stewart Education Foundation. I'd like to thank you very much for your time. JL: My pleasure. [Jack Lampros's personal thoughts of Dr. Ann Millner] JL: I've known Dr. Millner for nearly all the twenty years she has been here with Weber State University. I first met her when she became associated with the Development area. During the time that I've known Dr. Millner I have found her to be a woman of exceptional capabilities and integrity. Her sparkling personality and her great intellect has won her the hearts of all of Utah. She will be greatly missed as she steps down from the helm as President of Weber State University. I know I will miss her, my family will miss her, everyone I've talked to will miss her. It will be hard to replace her. In fact, I don't think she can be replaced. I think she will be succeeded but never replaced. We have a winter home down in Florida and during the ten years that Dr. Millner has been President of the University, each year she has found some time to come down and spend a few days with Betty and me at our winter home in Fort Myers, Florida. Those were visits that Betty and I eagerly looked forward to and they were fun times. We did some great things. We took a ferry boat ride over to Key West. We rode a sea plane to the Dry Tortugus [National Park.] We went alligator sighting in the 10 Everglades. We did nature tours and even attended a bonsai tree workshop. Last year I took her on a tour of cemeteries where my ancestors had been buried. I'm sure that was boring to her but she acted like she enjoyed it. That was another great trait of Dr. Millner. Every time I would talk to her she would give me her undivided attention and act like what I was saying was the most important thing she had ever heard. Of course, that endeared her to me a great deal. When she was in Florida, if there was an important athletic event coming up here at Weber State or some other important occasion, she would end her trip, head to the airport, and make it back to Utah so that she could be on hand to encourage the students. You talk about bleeding purple. She really supported the University. I was always amazed at her stamina—the way she was able to go—her administrative skills, her fundraising talents, her teaching abilities, they are all just superb. Betty and I are going to miss our monthly lunches with you, Ann. We've enjoyed those little visits and we'll certainly miss them. Our wish is that a kind providence will smile down on you in your future endeavors.

NOTICIAS / NEWS ("transfer", 2018) 1) LIBROS – CAPÍTULOS DE LIBRO / BOOKS – BOOK CHAPTERS 1. Bandia, Paul F. (ed.). (2017). Orality and Translation. London: Routledge. <<www.routledge.com/Orality-and-Translation/Bandia/p/book/9781138232884>> 2. Trends in Translation and Interpretin, Institute of Translation & Interpreting<<www.iti.org.uk/news-media-industry-jobs/news/819-iti-publishes-trends-e-book>> 3. Schippel, Larisa & Cornelia Zwischenberger. (eds). (2017). Going East: Discovering New and Alternative Traditions in Translation Studies. Berlin: Frank & Timme.<<www.frank-timme.de/verlag/verlagsprogramm/buch/verlagsprogramm/bd-28-larisa-schippelcornelia-zwischenberger-eds-going-east-discovering-new-and-alternative/backPID/transkulturalitaet-translation-transfer.html>> 4. Godayol, Pilar. (2017). Tres escritoras censuradas: Simone de Beauvoir, Betty Friedan y Mary McCarthy. Granada: Comares.<<www.editorialcomares.com/TV/articulo/3149-Tres_escritoras_censuradas.html>> 5. Vanacker, Beatrijs & Tom Toremans. (eds). (2016). Pseudotranslation and Metafictionality/Pseudo-traduction: enjeux métafictionnels. Special issue of Interférences Littéraires.<<www.interferenceslitteraires.be/nr19>> 6. Jiménez-Crespo, Miguel A. (2017). Crowdsourcing and Online Collaborative Translations: Expanding the Limits of Translation Studies. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. <<https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/btl.131>> 7. Quality Assurance and Assessment Practices in Translation and Interpreting<<www.igi-global.com/publish/call-for-papers/call-details/2640>> 8. Hurtado Albir, Amparo. (ed.). (2017). Researching Translation Competence by PACTE Group. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.<<www.benjamins.com/#catalog/books/btl.127/main>> 9. Taivalkoski-Shilov, Kristiina, Liisa Tittula and Maarit Koponen. (eds). (2017). Communities in Translation and Interpreting. Toronto: Vita Traductiva, York University<<http://vitatraductiva.blog.yorku.ca/publication/communities-in-translation-and-interpreting>> 10. Giczela-Pastwa, Justyna and Uchenna Oyali (eds). (2017). Norm-Focused and Culture-Related Inquiries in Translation Research. Selected Papers of the CETRA Research Summer School 2014. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.<<www.peterlang.com/view/product/25509>> 11. Castro, Olga & Emek Ergun (eds). (2017). Feminist Translation Studies: Local and Transnational Perspectives. London: Routledge.<<www.routledge.com/Feminist-Translation-Studies-Local-and-Transnational-Perspectives/Castro-Ergun/p/book/9781138931657>> 12. Call for papers: New Trends in Translation Studies. Series Editor: Prof. Jorge Díaz-Cintas, Centre for Translation Studies (CenTraS), University College London.<<(www.ucl.ac.uk/centras)>>, <<www.peterlang.com/view/serial/NEWTRANS>> 13. Valero-Garcés, Carmen & Rebecca Tipton. (eds). (2017). Ideology, Ethics and Policy Development in Public Service Interpreting and Translation. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.<<www.multilingual-matters.com/display.asp?isb=9781783097517>> 14. Mahyub Rayaa, Bachir & Mourad Zarrouk. 2017. A Handbook for Simultaneous Interpreting Training from English, French and Spanish to Arabic / منهج تطبيقي في تعلّم الترجمة الفورية من الانجليزية والفرنسية والإسبانية إلى العربية. Toledo: Escuela de Traductores.<<https://issuu.com/escueladetraductorestoledo/docs/cuaderno_16_aertefinal_version_web>> 15. Lapeña, Alejandro L. (2017). A pie de escenario. Guía de traducción teatral. Valencia: JPM ediciones.<<http://jpm-ediciones.es/catalogo/details/56/11/humanidades/a-pie-de-escenario>> 16. Mével, Alex. (2017). Subtitling African American English into French: Can We Do the Right Thing? Oxford: Peter Lang.<<www.peterlang.com/view/product/47023>> 17. Díaz Cintas, Jorge & Kristijan Nikolić. (eds). (2017). Fast-Forwarding with Audiovisual Translation. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.<<www.multilingual-matters.com/display.asp?K=9781783099368>> 18. Taibi, Mustapha. (ed.). (2017). Translating for the Community. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.<<www.multilingual-matters.com/display.asp?isb= 9781783099122>> 19. Borodo, Michał. (2017). Translation, Globalization and Younger Audiences. The Situation in Poland. Oxford: Peter Lang.<<www.peterlang.com/view/product/81485>> 20. Reframing Realities through Translation Cambridge Scholars Publishing<<https://cambridgescholarsblog.wordpress.com/2017/07/28/call-for-papers-reframing-realities-through-translation>> 21. Gansel, Mireille. 2017. Translation as Transhumance. London: Les Fugitives<<www.lesfugitives.com/books/#/translation-as-transhumance>> 22. Goźdź-Roszkowski, S. and G. Pontrandolfo. (eds). (2018). Phraseology in Legal and Institutional Settings. A Corpus-based Interdisciplinary Perspective. London: Routledge<<www.routledge.com/Phraseology-in-Legal-and-Institutional-Settings-A-Corpus-based-Interdisciplinary/Roszkowski-Pontrandolfo/p/book/9781138214361>> 23. Deckert, Mikołaj. (ed.). (2017). Audiovisual Translation – Research and Use. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.<<www.peterlang.com/view/product/80659>> 24. Castro, Olga; Sergi Mainer & Svetlana Page. (eds). (2017). Self-Translation and Power: Negotiating Identities in European Multilingual Contexts. London: Palgrave Macmillan.www.palgrave.com/gb/book/9781137507808 25. Gonzalo Claros, M. (2017). Cómo traducir y redactar textos científicos en español. Barcelona: Fundación Dr. Antonio Esteve.<<www.esteve.org/cuaderno-traducir-textos-cientificos>> 26. Tian, Chuanmao & Feng Wang. (2017).Translation and Culture. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press.<<http://product.dangdang.com/25164476.html>> 27. Malamatidou, Sofia. (2018). Corpus Triangulation: Combining Data and Methods in Corpus-Based Translation Studies. London: Routledge.<<www.routledge.com/Corpus-Triangulation-Combining-Data-and-=Methods-in-Corpus-Based-Translation/Malamatidou/p/book/9781138948501>> 28. Jakobsen, Arnt L. and Bartolomé Mesa-Lao. (eds). (2017). Translation in Transition: Between Translation, Cognition and Technology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.<<https://benjamins.com/#catalog/books/btl.133>> 29. Santaemilia, José. (ed.). (2017). Traducir para la igualdad sexual / Translating for Sexual Equality. Granada: Comares.<<www.editorialcomares.com/TV/articulo/3198-Traducir_para_la_igualdad_sexual.html>> 30. Levine, Suzanne Jill & Katie Lateef-Jan. (eds). (2018). Untranslatability Goes Global. London: Routledge.<<www.routledge.com/Untranslatability-Goes-Global/Levine-Lateef-Jan/p/book/9781138744301>> 31. Baer, Brian J. & Klaus Kindle. (eds). (2017). Queering Translation, Translating the Queer. Theory, Practice, Activism. New York: Routledge.<<www.routledge.com/Queering-Translation-Translating-the-Queer-Theory-Practice-Activism/Baer-Kaindl/p/book/9781138201699>> 32. Survey: The translation of political terminology<<https://goo.gl/forms/w2SQ2nnl3AkpcRNq2>> 33. Estudio de encuesta sobre la traducción y la interpretación en México 2017<<http://italiamorayta.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/ENCUESTAS.pdf>> 34. Beseghi, Micòl. (2017). Multilingual Films in Translation: A Sociolinguistic and Intercultural Study of Diasporic Films. Oxford: Peter Lang.<<www.peterlang.com/view/product/78842>> 35. Vidal Claramonte, María Carmen África. (2017). Dile que le he escrito un blues: del texto como partitura a la partitura como traducción en la literatura latinoamericana. Madrid: Iberoamericana.<<www.iberoamericana-vervuert.es/FichaLibro.aspx?P1=104515>> 36. Figueira, Dorothy M. & Mohan, Chandra. (eds.). (2017). Literary Culture and Translation. New Aspects of Comparative Literature. Delhi: Primus Books. ISBN: 978-93-84082-51-2.<<www.primusbooks.com>> 37. Tomiche, Anne. (ed.). (2017). Le Comparatisme comme aproche critique / Comparative Literature as a Critical Approach. Tome IV: Traduction et transfers / Translation and Transferts. París: Classiques Garnier. ISBN: 978-2-406-06533-3. 2) REVISTAS / JOURNALS 1. Call for papers: The Translator, special issue on Translation and Development, 2019. Contact: jmarais@ufs.ac.za 2. Call for papers: Applied Language LearningContact: jiaying.howard@dliflc.edu<<www.dliflc.edu/resources/publications/applied-language-learning>> 3. Panace@: Revista de Medicina, Lenguaje y Traducción; special issue on "La comunicación escrita para pacientes", vol. 44<<www.tremedica.org/panacea/PanaceaActual.htm>> 4. mTm, issue 9<<www.mtmjournal.gr/default.asp?catid=435>> 5. Asia Pacific Translation and Intercultural Studies, Volume 4 Issue 3 (November 2017)<<http://explore.tandfonline.com/cfp/ah/aptis>>, <<www.tandfonline.com/rtis>> 6. Call for papers: The Journal of Translation Studies, special issue on Translation and Social Engagement in the Digital AgeContact: Sang-Bin Lee, sblee0110@naver.com 7. Current Trends in Translation Teaching and Learning E<<www.cttl.org>> 8. Translation and Interpreting Studies, 15 (1), Special issue on The Ethics of Non-Professional Translation and Interpreting in Public Services and Legal Settings<<www.atisa.org/call-for-papers>> 9. Call for papers: Translation & Interpreting – The International Journal of Translation and Interpreting Research, Special issue on Translation of Questionnaires in Cross-national and Cross-cultural Research<<www.trans-int.org/index.php/transint/announcement/view/19>> 10. Revista Digital de Investigación en Docencia Universitaria (RIDU), Special issue on Pedagogía y didáctica de la traducción y la interpretación<<http://revistas.upc.edu.pe/index.php/docencia/pages/view/announcement>> 11. Translation, Cognition & Behavior<<https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/tcb/main>> 12. FITISPos International Journal, vol. 4 (2017)Shedding Light on the Grey Zone: A Comprehensive View on Public Services Interpreting and Translation<<www3.uah.es/fitispos_ij>> 13. Post-Editing in Practice: Process, Product and NetworksSpecial issue of JoSTrans, The Journal of Specialised Translation, 31<<www.jostrans.org/Post-Editing_in_Practice_Jostrans31.pdf>> 14. Call for papers: MonTI 10 (2018), Special issue on Retos actuales y tendencias emergentes en traducción médica<<https://dti.ua.es/es/monti/convocatorias.htm>> 15. Call for papers: trans‐kom Special Issue on Industry 4.0 meets Language and Knowledge Resources.Contact: Georg Löckinger (georg.loeckinger@fh‐wels.at)<<http://trans-kom.eu/index-en.html>> 16. Translaboration: Exploring Collaboration in Translation and Translation in CollaborationSpecial Issue, Target, vol 32(2), 2020.<<www.benjamins.com/series/target/cfp_target_32.pdf>> 17. redit, Revista Electrónica de Didáctica de la Traducción e Interpretación, nº11.<<www.revistas.uma.es/index.php/redit>> 18. Call for papers: InVerbis, special issue on Translating the Margin: Lost Voices in the Aesthetic Discourse, June 2018.Contact: alessandra.rizzo@unipa.it & karen.Seago1@city.ac.uk<<www.unipa.it/dipartimenti/dipartimentoscienzeumanistiche/CFP-Translating-the-margin-Lost-voices-in-the-aesthetic-discourse>> 19. trans-kom, Vol. 10 (1), 2017. <<www.trans-kom.eu>> 20. JoSTrans, The Journal of Specialised Translation, issue 28 (July 2017).<<www.jostrans.org/issue28/issue28_toc.php>> 21. Call for papers: InVerbis, special issue on Translating the Margin: Lost Voices in the Aesthetic Discourse, June 2018.<<www.unipa.it/dipartimenti/scienzeumanistiche/.content/documenti/CFPInverbis.pdf>> 22. Call for papers: TTR, special Issue on Lost and Found in Transcultural and Interlinguistic Translation/La traduction transculturelle et interlinguistique : s'y perdre et s'y retrouver<<http://professeure.umoncton.ca/umcm-merkle_denise/node/30>> 23. Call for proposals for thematic issues:Linguistica Antverpiensia, New Series – Themes in Translation Studies (LANS – TTS)<<https://lans-tts.uantwerpen.be>> 24. Call for papers: trans‑kom, special issue on Didactics for Technology in Translation and InterpretingVol. 11(2), December 2018.Contact: aietimonografia@gmail.com / carmen.valero@uah.es 25. Journal of Languages for Special PurposesVol 22/2, New Perspectives on the Translation of Advertising<<https://ojsspdc.ulpgc.es/ojs/index.php/LFE/issue/view/53>>Vol 23/1, Linguistics, Translation and Teaching in LSP<<https://ojsspdc.ulpgc.es/ojs/index.php/LFE/issue/view/72>> 26. Call for papers: Parallèles, special issue on La littérature belge francophone en traduction (in French), Volume 32(1), 2020.Contact: katrien.lievois@uantwerpen.be & catherine.gravet@umons.ac.be 27. Call for papers: Asia Pacific Translation and Intercultural Studies, Volume 5(1), 2018.<<www.tandfonline.com/rtis>> 28. Target, special issue on Translaboration: Exploring Collaboration in Translation and Translation in Collaboration<<www.benjamins.com/series/target/cfp_target_32.pdf>> 29. Research in Language, special issue on Translation and Cognition: Cases of Asymmetry, Volume 15(2).<<www.degruyter.com/view/j/rela.2017.15.issue-2/issue-files/rela.2017.15.issue-2.xml>> 30. Call for papers: Translation Spaces, special issue on Translation in Non-governmental Organisations, 7(1), 2018.<<www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/modern-languages-and-european-studies/CfP_SI_Translation_Spaces-translation_in_NGOs.pdf>> 31. Call for papers: Translating the Margin: Lost Voices in the Aesthetic Discourse, special issue of InVerbis (2018).<<www.unipa.it/dipartimenti/scienzeumanistiche/CFP-Translating-the-margin-Lost-voices-in-the-aesthetic-discourse>> 32. Call for papers: Translation and Disruption: Global and Local Perspectives, special issue of Revista Tradumàtica (2018).Contact: akiko.sakamoto@port.ac.uk; jonathan.evans@port.ac.uk and olga.torres.hostench@uab.cat 33. Call for papers: JoSTrans. The Journal of Specialised Translation 33 (January 2020), Special Issue on 'Experimental Research and Cognition in Audiovisual Translation'. Guest editors: Jorge Díaz Cintas & Agnieszka Szarkowska. Deadline for proposals: 19 February 2018<<http://www.jostrans.org/>> 34. Dragoman – Journal of Translation Studies<<www.dragoman-journal.org/books>> 35. Call for papers: Translation Spaces 7(1) 2018, special issue on Translation in Non-governmental Organisations<<www.reading.ac.uk/web/files/modern-languages-and-european-studies/CfP_SI_Translation_Spaces-translation_in_NGOs-public-extended_deadline.pdf>> 36. Call for papers: Public Service Interpreting and Translation and New Technologies Participation through Communication with Technology, special issue of FITISPos International Journal, Vol 5 (2018).Contact: Michaela Albl-Mikasa (albm@zhaw.ch) & Stefanos Vlachopoulos (stefanos@teiep.gr) 37. Sendebar, Vol. 28 (2017)<<http://revistaseug.ugr.es/index.php/sendebar>> 38. Ranzato, Irene. (2016). North and South: British Dialects in Fictional Dialogue, special issue of Status Quaestionis – Language, Text, Culture, 11.<<http://statusquaestionis.uniroma1.it/index.php/statusquaestionis>> 39. Translation Studies 10 (2), special issue on Indirect Translation.<<www.tandfonline.com/toc/rtrs20/current>> 40. Translation & Interpreting – Special issue on Research Methods in Interpreting Studies, Vol 9 (1), 2017. 41. Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts, special issue on Between Specialised Texts and Institutional Contexts – Competence and Choice in Legal Translation, edited by V. Dullion, 3 (1), 2017.<<https://benjamins.com/#catalog/journals/ttmc.3.1/toc>> 42. Translation and Performance, 9 (1), 2017<<https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/tc/index.php/TC/issue/view/1879>> 3) CONGRESOS / CONFERENCES 1. ATISA IX: Contexts of Translation and InterpretingUniversity of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, USA, 29 March – 1 April 2018<<www.atisa.org/sites/default/files/CFP_ATISA_2018_FINAL.pdf> 2. V International Translating Voices Translating Regions – Minority Languages, Risks, Disasters and Regional CrisesCentre for Translation Studies (CenTraS) at UCL and Europe House, London, UK, 13-15 December 2017.<<www.ucl.ac.uk/centras/translation-news-and-events/v-translating-voices>> 3. Translation and Health Humanities: The Role of Translated Personal Narratives in the Co-creation of Medical KnowledgeGenealogies of Knowledge I Translating Political and Scientific Thought across Time and Space, University of Manchester, UK7-9 December 2017.<<http://genealogiesofknowledge.net/2017/02/20/call-panel-papers-translation-health-humanities-role-translated-personal-narratives-co-creation-medical-knowledge>> 4. Fourth International Conference on Non-Professional Interpreting and Translation (NPIT4), Stellenbosch University, South Africa, 22-24 May 2018.<<http://conferences.sun.ac.za/index.php/NPIT4/npit4>> 5. I International Conference on Interdisciplinary Approaches for Total Communication: Education, Healthcare and Interpreting within Disability Settings, University of Málaga, Spain, 12-14 December 2017.<<https://ecplusproject.uma.es/cfp-iciatc>> 6. Translation & Minority 2: Freedom and DifferenceUniversity of Ottawa, Canada, 10-11 November 2017.<<https://translationandminority.wordpress.com>> 7. Staging the Literary Translator: Roles, Identities, PersonalitiesUniversity of Vienna, Austria, 17-19 May 2018.<<http://translit2018.univie.ac.at/home>> 8. IATIS 2018 – Translation and Cultural MobilityPanel 9: Translating Development: The Importance of Language(s) in Processes of Social Transformation in Developing CountriesHong Kong, 3-6 July 2018.<<www.iatis.org/index.php/6th-conference-hong-kong-2018/item/1459-panels#Panel09>> 9. Fun for All 5: Translation and Accessibility in Video Games Conference, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, 7-8 June 2018.<<http://jornades.uab.cat/videogamesaccess>> 10. ACT/Unlimited! 2 Symposium, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, 6 June 2018.<<http://pagines.uab.cat/act/content/actunlimited-2-symposium>> 11. IATIS 2018 – Translation and Cultural MobilityPANEL 06: Museum Translation: Encounters across Space and TimeHong Kong Baptist University, 3-6 July 2018.<<www.iatis.org/index.php/6th-conference-hong-kong-2018/item/1459-panels#Panel06>> 12. IATIS 2018 – Translation and Cultural Mobility
PANEL 12: Advances in Discourse Analysis in Translation Studies: Theoretical Models and Applications
Hong Kong Baptist University3-6 July 2018.<<www.iatis.org/index.php/6th-conference-hong-kong-2018/item/1459-panels#Panel12>> 13. Understanding Quality in Media Accessibility, Universidad Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, 5 June 2018. <<http://pagines.uab.cat/umaq/content/umaq-conference>> 14. Managing Anaphora in Discourse: Towards an Interdisciplinary Approach, University of Grenoble Alpes, France, 5-6 April 2018.<<http://saesfrance.org/4071-2>> 15. Traduire les voix de la nature / Translating the Voices of Nature, Paris, France, 25-26 May 2018.<<www.utu.fi/en/units/hum/units/languages/mts/Documents/CFP.pdf>> 16. IATIS 2018 – Translation and Cultural MobilityPANEL 10: Audiovisual Translation as Cross-cultural Mediation – New Trajectories for Translation and Cultural Mobility?Hong Kong Baptist University, 3-6 July 2018.
<<www.iatis.org/index.php/6th-conference-hong-kong-2018/item/1459-panels#Panel10>> 17. The Fourth International Conference on Research into the Didactics of Translation, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain20-22 June 2018.<<http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/pacte/en/firstcircular>> 18.
I Coloquio Internacional Hispanoafricano de Lingüística, Literatura y Traducción. España en contacto con África, su(s) pueblo(s) y su(s= cultura(s)
Universidad FHB de Cocody-Abidjan, Costa de Marfil
7-9 March 2018.<<www.afriqana.org/encuentros.php>> 19. Transius Conference 2018, Geneva, Switzerland, 18-20 June 2018.<<http://transius.unige.ch/en/conferences-and-seminars/conferences/18/>> 20. 39th International GERAS Conference - Diachronic Dimensions in Specialised Varieties of English: Implications in Communications, Didactics and Translation Studies, University of Mons, Belgium15-17 March 2018.<<www.geras.fr/index.php/presentation/breves/2-uncategorised/245-cfp-39th-international-geras-conference>> 21. 31st Annual Conference of the Canadian Association for Translation Studies - Translation and Adaptation, University of Regina, Canada, 28-30 May 2018.<<https://linguistlist.org/issues/28/28-3413.html>> 22. 2nd Valencia/Napoli Colloquium on Gender and Translation: Translating/Interpreting LSP through a Gender PerspectiveUniversità di Napoli 'L'Orientale', Italy, 8-9 February 2018.Contact: eleonorafederici@hotmail.com 23. Ninth Annual International Translation Conference: Translation in the Digital Age: From Translation Tools to Shifting Paradigms, Hamad Bin Khalifa's Translation & Interpreting Institute (TII), Doha, Qatar, 27-28 March 2018.<<www.tii.qa/9th-annual-translation-conference-translation-digital-age-translation-tools-shifting-paradigms>> 24. ACT/Unlimited! 2 Symposium – Quality Training, Quality Service in Accessible Live Events, Barcelona, Spain, 6 June 2018.<<http://pagines.uab.cat/act/content/actunlimited-2-symposium>> 25. Fourth International Conference on Research into the Didactics of Translation, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain, 20-22 June 2018.<<http://grupsderecerca.uab.cat/pacte/en/secondcircular2018>> 26. Talking to the World 3. International Conference in T&I Studies – Cognition, Emotion, and Creativity, Newcastle University, UK, 17-18 September 2018.<<www.ncl.ac.uk/sml/news-events/news/item/talkingtotheworld3ticonference.html>> 27. Translation & Interpreting in the Digital Era, Hankuk University of Foreign Studies, Seoul, South Korea, 29-30 January 2018.Contact: itri@hufs.ac.kr 28. 7th META-NET Annual Conference: Towards a Human Language Project, Hotel Le Plaza, Brussels, Belgium, 13-14 November 2017.<<www.meta-net.eu/events/meta-forum-2017>> 4) CURSOS – SEMINARIOS – POSGRADOS / COURSES – SEMINARS – MA PROGRAMMES 1. Certificate / Diploma / Master of Advanced Studies in Interpreter Training (online), FTI, University of Geneva, Switzerland,4 September 2017 - 10 September 2019.<<www.unige.ch/formcont/masit>> 2. Master's Degree in Legal Translation, Institute of Advanced Legal Studies, London, UK.<<http://ials.sas.ac.uk/study/courses/llm-legal-translation>> 3. Certificat d'Université en Interprétation en contexte juridique : milieu judiciaire et secteur des demandes d'asile, University of Mons, Belgium.<<http://hosting.umons.ac.be/php/centrerusse/agenda/certificat-duniversite-en-interpretation-en-contexte-juridique-milieu-judiciaire-et-secteur-des-demandes-dasile.html>> 4. Online MA in Translation and Interpreting ResearchUniversitat Jaume I, Castellón, Spain.Contact: monzo@uji.es<<www.mastertraduccion.uji.es>> 5. MA in Intercultural Communication, Public Service Interpreting and Translation 2017-2018, University of Alcalá, Madrid, Spain.<<www3.uah.es/master-tisp-uah/introduction-2/introduction>> 6. Research Methods in Translation and Interpreting StudiesUniversity of Geneva, Switzerland.<<www.unige.ch/formcont/researchmethods-distance1>><<www.unige.ch/formcont/researchmethods-distance2>> 7. La Traducción audiovisual y el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED), Spain, 4 December 2017.<<https://goo.gl/3zpMgY>> 8. Fifth summer school in Chinese-English Translation and Interpretation (CETIP), University of Ottawa, Canada, 23 July – 17 August 2018.<<http://arts.uottawa.ca/translation/summer-programs>> 9. First summer school in Arabic – English Translation and Interpretation (AETP), University of Ottawa, Canada, 23 July – 17 August 2018.<<http://arts.uottawa.ca/translation/summer-programs>> 10. Third summer school in translation pedagogy (TTPP)University of Ottawa, Canada, 23 July – 17 August 2018.<<http://arts.uottawa.ca/translation/summer-programs>> 4) PREMIOS/AWARDS 1. The Warwick Prize for Women in Translation<<http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/cross_fac/womenintranslation>

A continuación presentamos en resumen los contenidos del libro en sus 15 capítulos divididos en tres partes temáticas. Estas deben entenderse como círculos concéntricos con sus solapamientos. Son como tres grandes hilos conductores de los capítulos desarrollados en esta publicación que abarca diferentes perspectivas: 1. Educación y cooperación como reto de Desarrollo comunitario en contextos indígenas; 2. Identidad cultural y Derechos de los Pueblos indígenas y 3. Interculturalidad, Evangelización y Desarrollo. En cada parte se encuentran exposiciones desde diferentes experiencias y países. Cada capítulo se puede leer de manera independiente, y para facilitar esta lectura selectiva, el lector encuentra siempre un pequeño resumen tanto en español como en inglés. Como Introducción hemos considerado que una reflexión etimológica e histórica sobre "indígena" y conceptos y términos vinculados debe abrir la obra y facilitar un aterrizaje en la complejidad del asunto. Por su larga experiencia como investigador y docente en Perú, y actualmente en la UCAM, además de su vivencia personal, el historiador José María Sesé aporta con una explicación fluida e histórica bajo el título "Los indígenas: orígenes tribales y realidad social actual" una pieza angular, que posteriormente se inserta en las edificaciones de los otros autores. El autor expone desde teorías del significado de indígena y su historiografía, la complejidad de las identidades culturales en América Latina, así como la relación existente entre símbolos y significados. Consideramos este capítulo de vital importancia para comprender muchos conocimientos socioculturales en relación a los pueblos del Mundo, en este caso protagonizado sobre todo en América Latina. A continuación se presenta la primera parte de Educación y cooperación como reto de Desarrollo comunitario en contextos indígenas. Con las temáticas y experiencias de Ecuador, Guatemala, Perú, Colombia y México, se muestra una forma colaborativa de aprender de los pueblos, indígenas y no indígenas en el encuentro con sus realidades únicas y diversas, partiendo de un compromiso democrático pluricultural. Observamos y visibilizamos procesos experimentales de una educación bilingüe e intercultural, que se fortalece desde estrategias de aprendizaje sobre estas experiencias, y sobre todo de la inquietud de maestros y maestras que creen en una educación democrática intercultural. La sección muestra las capacidades comunitarias logradas por diversas realidades en América Latina que en base a proyectos comunitarios, enfatizan en la educación, apoyan un desarrollo comunitario y están transformando situaciones de subdesarrollo y abandono estatal, convirtiéndose en pequeños y grandes ejemplos de desarrollo. Educación comunitaria, ¿cómo la entendemos? Como la palabra indica es abrirse a conocimientos de la propia comunidad, tanto con factores endógenos como exógenos. Nuestro interés ha sido enfatizar en la política, política entendida como cambio, como práctica hacia mejoras, desarrollo también entendido desde cada uno y cada una, y es la educación una vía muy importante para que esto se produzca. Comenzando por Ecuador, el autor, sociólogo Philipp Altmann de la Universidad Libre de Berlín, con el capítulo "El movimiento indígena ecuatoriano - educación como estrategia, interculturalidad como fin", expone la realidad que subyace en la educación bilingüe intercultural y los procesos gubernamentales, a la vez que se politiza la creación de movimientos sociales. Aplicando el concepto de "espacios libres" (Fantasia & Hirsch, 1995), realiza un paseo histórico por el origen de la educación intercultural, íntimamente relacionados con el movimiento político indígena, como puede verse también en otros escenarios como en Guatemala y en Méjico. El autor expone los procesos que han llevado a los movimientos indígenas en Ecuador a crear iniciativas singulares así como una autonomía indígena. Desde Guatemala, la autora María Jesús Vitón, como investigadora pedagoga comprometida con la investigación acción desde hace más de 20 años expone en "Equidad educativa y calidad del ejercicio democrático intercultural. Actuación formativa y reflexión pedagógica en un contexto de complejidad y crecientes asimetrías", toda una línea de acción que se mueve desde la experiencia y la teoría junto a la docencia, entre escenarios educativos diferentes como Guatemala y España. Su perspectiva es sociocrítica y plantea retos en la educación bilingüe intercultural a partir de estrategias de acción para incidir en el marco del derecho al desarrollo (1986) y del convenio 169 para pueblos indígenas (1989) de la OIT. En el avance de este modelo formativo se busca contribuir a la construcción pluricultural y la equidad educativa. La autora considera que solo desde el empoderamiento en las comunidades se podrá forjar un cambio hacia el desarrollo comunitario desde el ámbito educativo. Son los docentes quienes son dueños de sus saberes y pueden tener estas estrategias de cambio. En cuanto a la realidad educativa indígena bilingüe en Perú, la historiadora Patricia Gutiérrez, de la UCAM, junto a María Yulianna Córdoba, profesora de literatura y lengua de Secundaria en Piura, aportan en "Educación intercultural bilingüe en el Perú. Situación social y educativa de las comunidades indígenas del Perú", un recorrido histórico de una situación a la que se enfrenta la población indígena peruana. A partir de un proyecto educativo y de salud se marcan las características de un proyecto de educación intercultural bilingüe, enlazando lo que se aprende por y para la vida y la dificultad que existe en la formación de maestros en el Perú. Las autoras nos señalan las necesidades para fomentar la elaboración de didácticas y estrategias socioeducativa que incluye a la población amazónica. A partir de la etnografía, la antropóloga Práxedes Muñoz Sánchez en "Movimientos sociales surgidos por una educación indígena intercultural: casos en Guatemala y México", expone dos realidades que convergen en procesos de resistencia y desarrollo de proyectos de educación interculturales – dos realidades que están vinculados al análisis de la misma, así como a la construcción de la toma de conciencia e historia desde sus propios procesos. La apuesta por una investigación acción de tipo colaborativo es el camino para reconocer y visibilizar los saberes de los propios pueblos, y por eso la autora defiende un apoyo desde la antropología comprometida, responsabilizando a la academia. Desde México, los autores Jaime Mondragón, María Isabel Miranda y Jacinta Toribio plantean en "Interculturalismo, vinculación y comunicación: experiencias de la Universidad Veracruzana Intercultural, sede regional Huasteca", una educación intercultural con miras a consolidar una sociedad democrática. Buscan desarrollar competencias interculturales a través de la docencia y la didáctica por medio del currículum del plan de estudios de su oferta educativa: la Licenciatura en Gestión Intercultural para el Desarrollo (LGID). Es de interés destacar su vinculación con el diálogo en torno al desarrollo local, regional y nacional, así como el intercambio de saberes con las comunidades e individuos donde se fortalecen relaciones, reconociendo como herramientas clave la tradición cultural y las prácticas que resguardan la identidad nahua, ñuhú, tepehua, totonaca, tenek, y mestiza, buscando trascender al aula con las redes sociales. La segundo sección "Identidad cultural y Derechos de los Pueblos indígenas", reúne autores y experiencias de Colombia, Guatemala, Brasil y Méjico y el trabajo de investigadores en España. El fuerte impulso que ha tenido el desarrollo de unos marcos jurídicos para proteger y garantizar los derechos de los Pueblos indígenas culminó con la declaración de la Asamblea General de la ONU en 2007(A/RES/61/295). Para alcanzar este punto había que recorrer un camino muy largo, todavía sin concluir del todo, porque aunque el marco jurídico está ya establecido, las cortes internacionales configuradas, las prácticas y políticas quedan atrapadas en las lógicas y hábitos anteriores. El acceso a estos sistemas judiciales también debe mejorar. Es verdad que sin un marco jurídico adecuado, la lucha por los derechos y las garantías de los pueblos indígenas se encuentra sin el amparo internacional necesario, pero también es importante acompañar el progreso jurídico con modelos de desarrollo participativo, respetando las necesidades de las comunidades, y reconstruyendo su identidad cultural. De ahí la exigencia de no solo incluir en esta parte el análisis de los marcos jurídicos internacionales, sino también una serie de reflexiones desde la historia de los pueblos indígenas y sus modelos de resistencias. Son aportaciones de alumnos indígenas con sus propios proyectos que son apoyados desde su institución pública, la Universidad Veracruzana Intercultural en Méjico, donde estudiantes indígenas trabajan con sus comunidades y junto con los docentes del Centro, desde la perspectiva de la interculturalidad y del desarrollo sostenible, con el objetivo de fomentar el desarrollo comunitario y social de la zona. El perfil de la "Licenciatura en Gestión Intercultural para el Desarrollo (LGID)", es el resultado de un trabajo importante de responder más adecuadamente a las necesidades comunitarias de los pueblos indígenas de la zona. También hemos visto oportuno incluir aquí la problemática de los desplazamientos forzados,que privan las comunidades de sus derechos y crean presiones añadidas de pérdida de identidad cultural. Para la profesora e investigadora de la UCAM, María Méndez Rocasolano, este Segundo Decenio con las actividades en nuestra Universidad ha sido un momento de reencontrarse con sus experiencias de convivencia en una comunidad Guaraní en Brasil y el trabajo por sus derechos. Su capítulo "El derecho a la tierra de los pueblos y poblaciones indígenas, una exigencia de los derechos humanos", responde a una línea de investigación que desde el ámbito jurídico internacional con las regulaciones del derecho a la Tierra de los pueblos y poblaciones indígenas promueve e introduce mejoras sustanciales a través de procedimientos que representan un avance lento pero progresivo en el respeto por los Derechos Humanos. Imprescindibles en estos procesos son los medios de comunicación que puedan informar y crear la necesaria concienciación y solidaridad de todos los pueblos. Susana Ardanaz Iriarte del Instituto de Derechos Humanos (Universidad de Deusto), revisa en su contribución "Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas, Derechos Humanos y Desarrollo" los modelos de desarrollo subrayando las aportaciones de los pueblos indígenas. Muchas veces obligados a ceder sus tierras ofrecían los recursos naturales necesarios para el desarrollo de las naciones, pero sin embargo sin tener en cuenta las necesidades de estos pueblos. Contra los modelos económicos de desarrollo con sus efectos de etnocidios, la autora propone como alternativa la aplicación de modelos etnodesarrollistas (autodesarrollo, desarrollo con identidad o buen vivir) en un marco del derecho al desarrollo como parte de los derechos humanos. Respecto a la realidad de Colombia, el historiador Daniel Ricardo Martínez Bernal presenta un diálogo sobre la "no-violencia", con el capítulo de: Más allá de la resistencia civil: Juan Tama y la Cacica Gaitana en los antecedentes de la resistencia noviolenta de los pueblos Nasa. Realiza todo un recorrido desde el método histórico comparativo, desde el S. XVI al S. XVIII, sobre estrategias de resistencia y aportaciones teórico-doctrinales de la resistencia civil noviolenta a partir de dos personajes históricos y su memoria, la Cacica Gaitana y el Cacique Juan Tama de la Estrella comoprototipos de la actual resistencia noviolenta comunitaria de los indígenas Nasa. Cecilia de la Cruz Sánchez de la Universidad de Veracruz (Méjico) subraya con su trabajo de investigación "la importancia de la tradición oral en la animación de la lengua náhuatl en el ámbito educativo de la localidad de Ixhuatlán de madero, Veracruz". El idioma, como parte esencial de cualquier identidad cultural y de sus tradiciones, requiere una práctica y presencia en los ámbitos educativos para no sentirse excluido y reducido a marginado. Diferentes estrategias y herramientas educativas como los cuentacuentos y la interacción entre jóvenes, niños y maestros de la comunidad de Tzocohuite facilitan la apropiación y utilización cotidiana en los espacios escolares del idioma materno náhuatl. La intervención en las comunidades para garantizar sus derechos al desarrollo está conectada a las estructuras y procesos políticos. A veces una dificultad menor para una administración del estado impide un avance importante de las comunidades. La autora Lucina Martínez Sánchez de la Universidad Veracruzana Intercultural en Méjico analiza en su contribución "El puente como una necesidad principal para hacer efectivo el derecho al desarrollo, en la comunidad de Alahualtitla, Chicontepec (Veracruz)", los procesos y problemas relacionadas con actores políticos y privados, y su mayor significado para la comunidad. Los conflictos armados, luchas por tierras, expropiaciones, crisis agrarias y económicas junto a desastres naturales obligan a muchas comunidades indígenas abandonar sus zonas de origen y moverse a nuevos territorios. Este proceso, especialmente traumático para los pueblos indígenas por su estrecha vinculación de sus tradiciones, su historia, la forma de subsistir y su identidad con sus tierras, tienen un impacto fuerte en la identidad cultural. Ruperto Hernández Meza busca como herramienta de recuperar esta identidad "factores que favorecen la identidad cultural en una población migrante náhuatl en la comunidad de Alfredo V. Bonfil del municipio de Álamo Temapache (Veracruz, Méjico)."Hablante de la lengua náhuatl y perteneciente a una comunidad indígena, su investigación lleva a descubrir factores que impiden el uso de la lengua originaria y, en un esfuerzo entre padres, maestros y elementos educativos de la tradición náhuatl, se puede luchar contra la pérdida de identidad y conocimiento. Para miles de guatemaltecos, sobre todo de la población indígena, el desplazamiento y refugio en Méjico ha sido una realidad desde 1981. El proceso de Paz en Guatemala y un proceso de naturalización para esta población en Méjico, crearon nuevas oportunidades, pero también enseñan nuevas dificultades para los grupos que ni se sienten de aquí ni de allá. La investigadora Verónica Ruiz Lagier del Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH, Méjico), explora con un video documental, las narraciones y su capítulo "El refugio guatemalteco en Méjico, ¿proceso inconcluso?" situaciones y biografías dramáticas para miles de personas que viven en la clandestinidad, sin derechos ni recursos. La tercera parte "Interculturalidad, Evangelización y Desarrollo"cierra el libro agrupando tres capítulos que desde el enfoque intercultural analizan prácticas profesionales terapéuticas, y en el ámbito religioso reflexiones institucionales que figuran como referentes para la práctica, como los programas de promoción y de acogida del ejemplo de Bolivia. La convivencia y el trabajo de construir un Centro de Terapia Ocupacional en una comunidad en Houndé (Burkina Faso) han sido para Inmaculada Zango Martín, profesora de Terapia Ocupacional y del Máster en Desarrollo Social (UCAM) el punto de enriquecer este libro con unas perspectivas desde África y la diversidad cultural. Su capítulo "Diversidad cultural y terapia ocupacional: reflexiones sobre la práctica en Burkina Faso" analiza la cultura profesional de la terapia ocupacional aplicando una etnografía "doblemente reflexiva" e intercultural. En todos los procesos relacionados con los pueblos indígenas, no debe faltar el espacio religioso, que tanto como parte de su propia identidad cultural pero también como puente con otras civilizaciones y modelos del buen vivir está presente en los actores personales e institucionales. Por su inmensa presencia en América Latina, su vínculo histórico con los pueblos y su capacidad de promover un desarrollo integral, la Iglesia Católica ocupa un lugar privilegiado en el escenario. Rainer Gehrig (UCAM) analiza en el plano documental de las cinco conferencias del episcopado latinoamericano desde 1955 a 2007 en su capítulo "Los pueblos indígenas y la Doctrina Social de la iglesia" para extraer los roles que asume la Iglesia en estos documentos en relación con las reivindicaciones de los pueblos indígenas. Conceptos claves son el tema de la "Evangelización" y la "Inculturación" en relación con lo que denomina la "religiosidad popular". Desde Bolivia, Daniel de la Traba, codirector de la Casa Oikía, presentó: Una casa de acogida para niños y niñas en situación de calle. En su aportación explica detalladamente el origen y desarrollo del proyecto que conlleva la Casa Oikía. Se vincula totalmente con un proyecto educativo de voluntariado. Las lecturas desde los espacios profesionales y religiosos concluyen este libro, que dentro de nuestra Universidad Católica con un Máster en Desarrollo Social y para los lectores interesados quería reunir unos trabajos en relación con la clausura del Segundo Decenio de los Pueblos Indígenas. Más que una publicación muy especializada, los capítulos son una muestra de la amplitud de enfoques, muchos muy prácticos, algunos muy recorridos como es la educación y los derechos, otros más bien como sendas pocas conocidas. Trabajamos en nuestra Universidad para que este espacio de diálogo abierto siga continuando con los proyectos de investigación, los grupos de investigadores, los programas educativos y futuras jornadas, extendiendo la Universidad al Campo práctico de desarrollo, a la formación de futuros agentes con un conocimiento, compromiso y sensibilidad para los pueblos indígenas y una competencia intercultural adquirida, una profesionalidad reflexiva que es capaz de crear los espacios participativos y comunitarios necesarios para un desarrollo integral y sostenible. Para la etapa posterior de los objetivos del milenio (post-2015) va a ser crucial, que los logros alcanzados hasta ahora en esta materia no se queden relegados a un segundo plano, adelantados por unos enfoques pragmáticos y funcionales de apagar los fuegos extremos como el hambre, la pobreza extrema, los catástrofes naturales y los desplazamientos forzados por las guerras actuales. La Conferencia Mundial sobre los Pueblos Indígenas (Nueva York, 23 y 24 de septiembre del 2014) brindó otra oportunidad. La resolución (A/RES/69/2) de la Asamblea General resume en sus 40 puntos los compromisos adquiridos con los pueblos indígenas, entre ellos precisamente en el punto n.37 "el derecho a determinar y establecer las prioridades y estrategias para el ejercicio de su derecho al desarrollo" – un aspecto sumamente importante ahora en el momento de elaborar las agendas de desarrollo post 2015. Con esta publicación queremos mantener vivo en nuestra Universidad y en la sociedad la importancia de la temática y animar a nuestros alumnos e investigadores a interesarse y comprometerse con la riqueza que significan los pueblos indígenas para el mundo. Terminamos esta presentación expresando nuestro agradecimiento al maestro Carlos Jacanamijoy que permitió compartir la riqueza artística con una de sus obras para la portada de nuestra publicación. ; Este libro es un compendio de reflexiones, acciones, posturas de cambio e investigaciones desde la perspectiva de los saberes de los pueblos del Mundo, indígenas y no, de espacios rurales y urbanos. Fueron expuestos en las XIII. Jornadas Internacionales de Voluntariado de la Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia, conmemorando la clausura del II Decenio Internacional de los Pueblos Indígenas (2005-2014), a través del Vicerrectorado de Extensión Universitaria de la UCAM. Índice Presentación pp.11-23 Introducción Los Indígenas: Orígenes tribales y realidad social actual José María Sesé Alegre pp.27-53 1. Educación y cooperación como reto de desarrollo comunitario en contextos indígenas I. El movimiento indígena ecuatoriano - educación como estrategia, interculturalidad como fin Philipp Altmann pp.57-79 II. Equidad educativa y calidad del ejercicio democrático intercultural. Actuación formativa y reflexión pedagógica en un contexto de complejidad y crecientes asimetrías María Jesús Vitón de Antonio pp.80-100 III. Educación intercultural bilingüe en el Perú. Situación social y educativa de las comunidades indígenas del Perú Patricia Gutiérrez Rivas y María Yulianna Córdoba Gutiérrez pp.101-113 IV. Movimientos sociales surgidos por una Educación Indígena Intercultural: casos en Guatemala y México Práxedes Muñoz Sánchez pp.114-132 V. Interculturalismo, vinculación y comunicación: Experiencias de la Universidad Veracruzana Intercultural, Sede Regional Huasteca. Jaime Mondragón Melo, María Isabel Miranda Landa, Jacinta Toribio Torres pp.133-147 2. Identidad cultural y derechos de los pueblos indígenas VI. El derecho a la tierra de los pueblos y poblaciones indígenas, una exigencia de los derechos humanos María Méndez Rocasolano pp.151-162 VII. Derechos de los pueblos indígenas, Derechos Humanos y desarrollo Susana Ardanaz pp.163-176 VIII. Más allá de la resistencia civil: Juan Tama y la cacica Gaitana en los antecedentes de la resistencia noviolenta de los pueblos Nasa Daniel Ricardo Martínez Bernal pp.177-201 IX. La tradición oral en la animación de la lengua náhuatl en el ámbito educativo de la localidad de Ixhuatlán de Madero, Veracruz (Méjico) Cecilia de la Cruz Sánchez pp.202-207 X. El puente como una necesidad principal para hacer efectivo el derecho al desarrollo, en la comunidad de Alahualtitla, Chicontepec, Veracruz (Méjico) Lucina Martínez Sánchez pp.208-224 XI. Factores que favorecen la identidad cultural en una población migrante náhuatl en la comunidad de Alfredo V. Bonfil del municipio de Álamo Temapache, Veracruz (Méjico). Ruperto Hernández Meza pp.225-233 XII. El refugio guatemalteco en Méjico, ¿proceso inconcluso? Verónica Ruiz Lagier pp.234-242 3. Interculturalidad, Evangelización y Desarrollo XIII. Diversidad cultural y terapia ocupacional: reflexiones sobre la práctica en Burkina Faso Inmaculada Zango Martín pp.245-256 XIV. Los pueblos indígenas y la Doctrina Social de la iglesia. Rainer Gehrig pp.257-291 XV. Oikía, una casa de acogida para niños y niñas en situación de calle Daniel de la Traba pp.292-304 ; Educación ; Derecho ; Educación ; Arte y Humanidades

Putu Yulita Ayu Werdhaningrum D3 – Business English, Faculty of Languages and Arts, University State of Surabaya, hyoelita@yahoo.co.id Abstract UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is a technical services unit that can carry out the promotion and development of SMEs and Human Resources through technical training in the field of management, technology, process, production, standardization, environmental, and information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya has the aim to improve the performance of the technical implementation of various industrial units and crafts as well as developing human resource to support the competitiveness of the global market. In support of all the aim of the UPT, the researchers looked at the role of leadership to participate in the process of developing the performance of the craftsmen. Therefore, researchers are trying to see and understand firsthand how the leadership role to improve the performance of the craftsmen and what the response generated afterwards. Through the process of making this final assignment, the author can know that leadership is very supportive to improve the performance of the craftsmen. And by conducting job training, participated in various exhibitions, and provide counseling and guidance on a variety of crafts has given quite satisfactory results for the craftsmen in preparation to launch a new world in opening a small business and can also be one way to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. Keywords: Leader, Managerial Skill, Craftsmen. Introduction High unemployment in Indonesia, including the city of Surabaya. It then becomes a reference for policy actors seek alternative employment for others to absorb the available labor. Entrepreneurship is one alternative that can provide solutions to these problems. As of 2009, the number of unemployed in Indonesia as many as 3.713 million people, higher than the desired target of government at the level of 2.38 million people (Kompas, 2009). In addition, until 2007, there were 740,206 unemployed college graduates. This proves that the field work in Indonesia is very small while the number of graduates each year continues to grow, Eddy Suryanto Soegoto, 2010. Entrepreneurship in the goods sector is economic artery in big cities like Surabaya. The high increase of population, resulting in the need for goods is also increasing rapidly. The problem becomes more complex due to the time available did not allow the public to be able to do all the priority needs at once. Bids will need items that instantly becomes an option. According Ritonga (2011), unemployment is mainly due to the problem of unskilled labor and skilled. The company prefers candidates who already have the skills or expertise. The issue is very relevant in our country, given the large numbers of unemployed are people who do not have the skills or expertise. The causes of unemployment are very visible from the complaint that the lack of skills in a person. The lack of confidence in one's soul, lack of interest and lack of socializing with others is also very influential in the intensity rising unemployment. It also agrees with Drs. Sudrajad, MM. (2011) who said "Cause Unemployment in Indonesia is the lack of desire to work, lack of skills and have thoughts just want to be an employee." This should be addressed with all efforts possible, because the average company today want and need employees who have the skill and expertise. Strengthening small and medium business sector is one of Indonesia's development policy. SMEs have the ability to survive in times of economic crisis gripping the country. At great effort faltered storm knocked down the financial crisis, the SME sector is able to give breath to the nation's economy. On this basis then arise initiative on craftsmen, to be able to meet those needs, by following the guidance and development by implementing the rules or ordinances of a leader who is really to improve the performance skills of a craftsman and judge it as something that is fairly decent to undertake entrepreneurial activities. Therefore, this is the reason why the researcher write about the efforts of a craftsman in business by implementing the rules of a good leader to improve their skills. In this case why the writer discuss this issue in order to make a useful input for all beginner craftsmen in Indonesia in order to become a successful craftsman and can open their own business field and in order to reduce the value of unemployment in Indonesia, especially in Surabaya. In the discussion of this material writer took guidance on UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. Because according to the writer here is one of the features of a good government and the right to develop one's own skills to become a craftsman by implementing the rules of a successful leader as well. And in this case, the craftsmen also want to improve the quality and quantity of a craftsman in Indonesia. And with the application is expected to be more able to produce more young craftsmen who are talented and can create new business field and to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. By conducting training to improve the skills of a person more likely to get jobs than those who do not. This is because companies prefer to hire people with the skills, so do not bother to practice again. And can even be a great opportunity to expand the opening of a new business pitch. This is also one way to overcome the educated unemployment is mostly done by the government, AnneAhira (Social and Cultural Rights, 2012). Based on the research, the objective of the study are : To describe the implementation of leadership role, To implementation of leadership role of the craftsman, To analyze the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role. The researcher hopes this study can give contribution to the student, craftsmen, University, the institution and for the readers. For the student it can be provide new insights about the real world of work to students in the field of trade and industry and can prepare themselves before entering the world of work firsthand. For the Craftsmen to be a reference to become a successful entrepreneur by implementing the rule of a leader. For the University as input to evaluate the Extend to which the curriculum has been implement in accordance with requirements of skilled manpower in the field. For the Institution as a media to open up new business opportunities as an example for students. For the Readers can provide the information needed by the reader. Definition of Leadership Leadership is a person or a leader who can build the subordinates especially in this case is a craftsman to craftsmen to become a more developed and has a broad view of creativity in him. By applying the concepts and meaning of fostering a craftsman can be expected to be a key new birth craftsmen talented and have high creativity. A leader in this regard should be always trying to develop the talents of the craftsmen gradually and regularly which lead to the desired goals or objectives. Leaders and leadership can be approached from different angles (Thoha, 1986:3). Each approach will bear different meanings with other approaches. Leaders and leadership needed by humans due to the advantages and disadvantages possessed by each human being. The leader is a person who has certain skills that can influence their followers to cooperate towards the achievement of predetermined objectives. The ideal leader is a dream for every person, because that's what leaders will bring forward-pullback of an organization, institution, company, state and nation. Surely the soul of a leader must have good soul of leadership that has been described in the above basic concepts and leadership should not be viewed as a facility for control, but meant as a sacrifice that must be carried out as well as possible. Leadership is also not arbitrary to act, but the power to serve and protect and do the fairest. Miftha Thoha in his book Organizational Behavior (1983:255) leader is someone who has the ability to lead, it means having the ability to influence another person or group without regard to the form of reason. Kartini Kartono (1994:33) the leader is a person who has the skills and strengths in particular skills and strengths in one area, so he was able to influence others to jointly carry out certain activities, for the achievement of one or more goals. Concept of Leadership The basic concept of the soul of leadership by Mr. Athoenk's (2010): Leadership is a force that flows in a way that is not known to the leader of the disciples, encouraging his followers to be mobilized on a regular basis to the point that formulated. Working towards goals and achievements provide satisfaction for leaders and followers. Leadership is also coloring and colored by the place, the environment and climate in which it serves. Leadership does not work in an empty room, but the atmosphere created by the various elements. Leadership is always active, it could change in rank, intensity and extent. Leadership works according to the principles, tools and methods are defined and fixed. Leadership Function According to Yuki (1998) the function of leadership is trying to influence and direct the employees to work hard, have high morale and high motivation to achieve organizational goals. This is primarily tied to the function of regulating the relations between individuals or groups within the organization. Craftsmen Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". Craftsmen create great skill in the manual arts. Craftsmen also called creator, which means people who grow or make or create things. The Relationship between Leadership and Craftsmen In this case the role of a leader is also very important and participate in fostering and development by conducting training and exhibitions the work of craftsmen. And may provide a strategy to cultivate the efforts of craftsmen. It is expected that the craftsmen also have the soul of a leader in developing a business. It is also stated by Ari Setiawanan (2011) in his personal blogger states "Leadership is the process of influencing or give examples of leaders to followers in an effort to achieve organizational goals. Natural way to learn leadership is to "do it in the workplace" with practices like apprenticeship in a skilled artist, craftsman, or practitioner. In this connection, the expert is expected as part of its role providing teaching / instruction ". Discussion about leaders and leadership as well as its influence on a craftsman in general explains how to be a good leader, and a style that suits the nature of leadership and what conditions need to be possessed by a good leader. Nevertheless it is still difficult to implement in full, so that in practice only a few leaders are able to perform well and the leadership to bring his followers to the desired state. The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Research activities will not regardless of where the data is the raw material of information to provide a specific description of the object of research. Data are facts collected by researchers for the purpose of solving the problem or answer the research questions. Research data can come from a variety of sources collected by using a variety of techniques during the course of the study. Based on the source, research data can be grouped into two types of data qualitative research and quantitative research data. In this research, entitled "The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya". Based on the question "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen? And How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?" so this research used qualitative research. Qualitative data is data that collected by means of a process that saw the object of research. Such data over see the process rather than the result because it is based on a description of the process and not on mathematical calculations. Data collection techniques include observation, interviews, literature reviews, etc. It also agrees with Cahya Suryana (2010:115) which says the data is qualitative data in the form of words, not in the form of numbers. Qualitative data obtained through a variety of data collection techniques such as interviews, document analysis, the discussion focused or observations that have been set forth in the notes field (transcript). Other forms of qualitative data was obtained through shooting images or video recordings. In this research the researcher conducted research in UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. UPT is Technical Services Unit are carrying out promotion and development of Small and Medium Industries (SMEs) and the Human Resources or business through Technical Training in the field of Management, Technology, Production Process, Standardization, Environment and Information. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya is located on Jl. Pagesangan II / 38-42 Surabaya. In this place has two training rooms, each for a capacity of 40 people, has 10 bedrooms for 40 craftsmen, and other facilities provided. The writer believe this place highly qualified resource persons and trusted to get info on how the implementation of leadership role of the craftsmen to improve their performance and other info needed writer. In this case the implementation of leadership role is expected to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen and to cultivate leadership skills and can teach it back to the new craftsmen later. In improving the performance of the craftsmen, the researcher often do see education and training, held an exhibition to the work of the craftsmen, and attend job training activities in the field of craft in UPT. Therefore the role of leadership is needed to manage and cultivate the managerial skills of the craftsmen. The role of leaders build skills one must master thriving. This is the next level of the management skills pyramid. Someone who must master personal development. This is the level of management skills, which shows the skills a person must master to be successful and show how management skills build on each other toward success. These are the basics that made the role of a leader for the management skill craftsmen: Plans Set Direct Control Motivation Conducting Training and Coaching The direct involvement of leader In this study the data of things that can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, caring and discipline. All that can be applied when crafting artisan training, opened the exhibition and even open their own craft business. Which was all the training can provide the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing artisans to improve their skills through training and creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. By implementing a leadership role in the managerial skill craftsmen are expected to increase knowledge of the design and color combination to make crafts. Craftsmen can transfer the new knowledge gained to other craftsmen and all those who would learn a new craftsmen. Craftsmen can be more creative in making other handicrafts. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This chapter will analyze the data that has been collected. The purpose of analyzing the data is to answer the questions of the researcher. As mentioned in the first chapter, "How does the implementation of leadership role in improving managerial skill of craftsmen?" and "How does the craftsmen respond after the implementation of leadership role?". The subject in this research are the craftsmen. From sources that the authors could have about ±30 craftsmen who are doing the implementation and development of skill. In this research the author prefers the craftsmen making plaiting and ceramic or gypsum. The Implementation of Leadership Role in Improving Managerial Skill of Craftsmen In this case the data subject can be applied by craftsmen is the attitude of leadership, responsibility, a sense of caring and discipline. All that can be applied when artisans craft training, opened the exhibition and even opened his own craft business. Which is the training it can provide all the knowledge and skills in the use of natural materials as craft materials. Preparing crafters to enhance the capabilities and skills through creative design products. Facilitate in developing its business so as to improve the competitiveness of products in the local and international markets. With the moral support and provide the necessary facilities, providing motivation, conduct training and job fairs for the efforts of craftsmen also a way to improve the performance of the leader of the craftsmen. Here are some ways to improve the performance of the craftsmen: Guide and cultivate prospective new employers that will be developed into an independent businessman. Given coaching or income. Given technical training. Examples given creative woven design, gypsum, and ceramics. Held the exhibition of the craftsmen. The purpose of these activities is intended to: Improve the skills of the craftsmen, To foster the craftsmen in order to thrive, That the craftsmen more creative, Can give entrepreneurs insight, To support the welfare and craftsmen, Fostering the craftsmen to be independent and get satisfactory results, Mental strengthen the craftsmen to become a successful entrepreneur, as a successful entrepreneur should require struggle and sacrifice. The Craftsmen Respond after the Implementation of Leadership Role Subject (actor) and object in every handicraft industry development program. People who work to make craft items or people who have specific skills related to the craft. These items are not made by machines, but by hand so often called handicraft items. Craftsman is a professional who works consistently high quality, "as an actor he was a perfect craftsmen". For craftsmen to apply leadership role to improve the managerial skills of the craftsmen is very important because it can help the craftsmen to be able to perform all the activities during the training on the craft. In this case that is the primary motivation is a craftsman wants to be a successful artisans, craft businesses can open and create new jobs to reduce unemployment in Indonesia. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION Conclusion The conclusion is that the performance can be improved either craftsmen, company or institution requires a good leader. Performance can be affected craftsmen of how leaders motivate, leadership style, giving implementation skills of the craftsmen, performance planning, and human resource management policies. Someone craftsmen who satisfied the leadership of the head or leader, will show a good attitude and strive earnestly perform their duties as the reciprocal of the leaders and organizations that have given him satisfaction. If the quality of work improved craftsmen, will have an impact on the quality of earnings in a personal effort to open his business. Leadership positive influence in improving the performance of craftsmen, craftsmen positive influence on the performance of the work of art. With so very obvious that the relationship between the two closely related and have a positive impact for both parties. Suggestion The expectations of the craftsmen is that welfare can be much better and can open their own business field by always applying a given leadership roles during a training run. And hopefully this research can be useful for readers to find the information they want to know about the craftsmen can add insight and knowledge. And also can make a new discourse about the craftsmen at UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Surabaya. REFERENCE Peraturan Gubernur Jawa Timur, 2008, Organisasi Dan Tata Kerja Unit Pelayanan Teknis Dinas Perindustrian Dan Perdagangan Provinsi Jawa Timur, Surabaya. UPT Aneka Industri dan Kerajinan Jawa Timur, 2012, Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Karyawan dan Pengrajin, Jawa Timur, Surabaya. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Skill. About.com Guide Http//.www.geogle.com.Bisnis dan Kewirausahaan Qibtiyah, Mariyatul. 2008. "PENGEMBANGAN USAHA SENTRA PENGRAJIN BATIK". Malang: UIN. Reh, F. John. 2009. Management Guide. About.com Guide. It's retrieved from http://management.about.com/bio/F-John-Reh-229.htm http//.www.geogle. com.What is Leadership Drs. Sudrajad, MM. 2011. Kiat Mengentaskan Pengangguran dan Kemiskinan melalui Wirausaha. Bumi Aksara Athoenk's. Mr. (2010) Konsep Jiwa Pemimpin / Leadership. http://athoenk46.wordpress.com/?s=konsep+jiwa+pemimpin Zahra. Fatimah. Opinion Blog Unemployment, 2012. Universitas Gunadarma: Jakarta. It's retrieved from http://fzahrah.blogspot.com/ Smith. Nasuha. 2011. Teori Dasar Kepemimpinan. It's retrieved from http://nasuhasmith13.blogspot.com/2011/03/teori-dasar-kepemimpinan.html Wiradi. Dewa. 2012. Definisi Kepemimpinan Menurut Para Ahli dan Dalam Beberapa Kamus Modern Elqorni. Ahmad. 2011. Definisi pemimpin dan kepemimpinan. Emzeth. 2010. Kriteria Seorang Pemimpin from http://www.emzeth.com/2010/11/kriteria-seorang-pemimpin-sejati.html#ixzz1u0ecM9K6 Bahrodin. Deby Putra. 2012. Arti seorang Pemimpin, from http://www.dputra.com/2012/02/arti-seorang-pemimpin.html Setiadi, MKEP. 2011. Konsep Kepemimpinan. Power Point: Jakarta. http://referensi-kepemimpinan.blogspot.com/

Author's introductionAlthough criminologists have long dominated the field of school violence research, there has been a growing body of research by cultural sociologists in this area as well. In many ways, a cultural approach to understanding school violence has taken school violence beyond the realm of just criminal and physical acts of violence. These scholars have begun to examine verbal, emotional, sexual, and racial expressions violence, as well as violence that is perpetuated by institutions, what Bourdieu has called symbolic violence. Courses that take this perspective explore how cultural concepts, or what Swidler calls a 'cultural toolkit', can be used as a lens for analyzing the experiences and practices of school violence. This can include, for example, an examination of how the dominant American ideology of meritocracy and competition can foster fights between middle school students, or how a feminine identity might push girls to be relationally aggressive towards each other rather than physically aggressive. In this regard, cultural sociology broadens our understanding of what constitutes school violence to uncover a wide spectrum of behaviors, attitudes and beliefs that may indeed lead to more overt expressions of violence. In doing so, a cultural approach can also help educators rethink discipline policies that have been created to resolve this social problem.Author recommendsSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review51: 273–86.Swidler's concept of a cultural toolkit provides a strong foundation for any cultural sociology course. Swidler defines a cultural toolkit as the symbols, stories, rituals, beliefs, ideologies and practices of daily life through which people use to shape their behavior. This paper presents a broad understanding of culture, which Swidler argues is not a unified system, but rather a set of complex and changing concepts from which we select different pieces from in order to construct different strategies of actions. When considering cultural approaches to school violence, it is useful to consider this broad definition of culture.Henry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.'Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science567: 16–30.Henry provides a definition of school violence that transcends physical violence and interpersonal violence between students to include psychological, emotional, ethical and moral violence that occurs not only between students, but also includes harm committed by teachers and organizations against students. This latter form of harm can include tracking, school security, sexual harassment, or essentially anything that hinders the creativity, learning and academic success of a student. Henry argues that school violence must include symbolic violence, which he defines as the use of authority, power, and coercion to dominate an individual or group of people.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press.Ferguson builds on Bourdieu's concept of symbolic violence and Foucault's theory of disciplinary power to examine an intervention program for 'at‐risk' students, which was comprised of mainly 5th and 6th grade African‐American males. Her ethnography provides a great example of the benefit of using a cultural approach to studying violence, discipline and punishment in schools. For example, Ferguson argues that fighting among boys should be seen as a symbolic expression of masculinity and a space for boys to do emotional work, as well as a site for the production of power and a form of resistance to authority. Her work also explores how teachers and administrators can enact a form of symbolic violence onto students. She observed how the cultural behaviors of African‐American boys, for example, their use of Black English, was often translated by the teachers as 'problem behavior' and resulted in their label of 'Troublemaker'. Such labels often condemned the boys to the bottom rung of the social order and negatively impacted their academic success.Spina, Stephanie Urso, ed. 2000. Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.This edited collection examines school violence as a complicated and multi‐faceted phenomenon, exploring how political, economic, ideological and discursive practices contribute to school violence. This interdisciplinary book includes chapters from Donna Gaines, Henry Giroux, Peter McLaren, Stanley Aronowitz, and Paulo Freire and Donald Macedo. The authors expand the definition of violence by arguing that youth violence, adult violence and societal violence are all intricately connected, and therefore prevention of school violence would requires educators to move beyond reform that only takes place in the school system. Instead, violence prevention needs to implore a broader strategy for change that includes schools, families, communities, and beyond.Brown, Lyn Mikel 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. New York, NY: New York University Press.Mikel Brown conducted qualitative interviews with more than 400 girls from first grade through high school who were from different economic, racial and geographic backgrounds. She begins the book by analyzing the cultural messages that girls receive in the media; messages and images that she argues provide girls with a context for fighting among their peers. She draws on Paulo Freire's notion of horizontal violence to look at how girls' meanness to other girls is a result of their struggle to make sense of gender‐saturated images of beauty and heterosexuality that often reinforce their subordinate status in the world. Girlfighting then becomes an avenue to power for young girls in a culture that is rife with sexism. Unlike many other recent books on relational aggression among girls, Mikel Brown interrogates the complicated intersections of race, ethnicity, and class as it relates to girlfighting.Casella, Ronnie 2001. 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.Casella's ethnography of Brandon High School, a small city school in a diverse neighborhood in upstate New York, takes a cultural‐ecological approach to school violence, capturing systemic, interpersonal and hidden forms of violence. He provides a thoughtful critique of intervention strategies that have been created to deal with school violence, such as peer mediation programs, the use of police officers in the hallways, and D.A.R.E. programs, because these programs only address individual acts of violence and do not account for the realities of urban environments, prejudice, economic injustice and poverty that underlie and contribute to school violence.Merten, Don E. 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly25(1): 29–43.Don Merten has published several articles that provide a useful framework for examining aggressive behavior from a cultural standpoint. The data from this article come from a larger ethnographic project of predominantly middle class students in a suburban area who recently transitioned from elementary to junior high school. Merten argues that middle class culture promotes and celebrates individualism, success and hierarchy, which in turn creates a culture that promotes aggressive behavior among students, because students learn that meanness can be an easy avenue for gaining power and status in the hierarchy of cliques in schools.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives48(1): 25–48.Morris draws on Bourdieu's classic reproduction theory to look at the relationship between cultural capital and bodily discipline as it relates specifically to clothing styles and manners. This article is based on an ethnographic study of an urban middle school in Texas that recently enlisted a 'Standard Mode of Dress' uniform policy. The regulation of dress became a constant source of conflict between the students and staff at the school, but had the most punitive effect on poor and racially ethnic minority students, whose cultural styles tended to be negatively stereotyped by the teachers. These students were more likely to punished for violating the policy, even though all social class and racial groups, to some degree, violated the policy. This harsher punishment engendered resistance and alienation among the minority students, which Morris argues had the potential of pushing these students away from school, further reproducing the very inequalities that the school was trying to change.Online materials http://nces.ed.gov/programs/crimeindicators/crimeindicators2008/ The National Center for Education Statistics puts out an annual report on indicators of School Crime and Safety. The indicators in this report are based on information drawn from a variety of data sources, including national surveys of students, teachers, and principals. The report covers not just overt forms of school violence, such as bringing a weapon to school, fighting, and teacher injuries, but also covers bullying, victimization, student perceptions of school safety, and availability and use of drugs and alcohol. http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/yrbs/index.htm The Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System is a school‐based survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The survey is conducted every 2 years and provides a representative sample of 9th through 12th graders in public and private schools in the United States. The YRBSS asks a wide variety of questions, but most relevant to school violence include self‐reported responses about behaviors that might lead to unintentional injuries and violence, such as carrying a weapon to school, being threatened by a weapon or being in a fight on school grounds. These data serve a useful comparison between student self‐reporting of violent behavior and school reporting of incidents of school violence. http://www.sshs.samhsa.gov/default.aspx The Safe Schools/Healthy Students website is a federal initiative by the U.S. Departments of Education, Justice, and Health and Human Services. It provides many useful resources, including links federal reports on school safety, a list of related websites, and video podcast discussions of school violence that can be used in the classroom. http://www.hrw.org/legacy/reports/2001/uslgbt/toc.htm 'Hatred in the Hallways: Violence and Discrimination against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Students in U.S. Schools' is a report conducted by the Human Rights Watch. Data consists of interviews with 140 students, ages 12–21, and 130 parents, teachers, administrators and counselors across seven states, in every region of the U.S. The findings discuss a broad spectrum of violent behavior, including verbal harassment, homophobia, and physical violence. It can be useful for classroom discussion because each finding section of the report includes a 'case study' of one of the participants with direct quotes from their interview. http://www.aauw.org/research/hostile.cfm 'Hostile Hallways: Bullying, Teasing and Sexual Harassment in School' is a national report conducted by American Association of University Women on 8th to 11th grade students. The study found that 8 in 10 students experienced some form of harassment during their time in school. Both the executive summary and entire report are available to download on the website.Sample syllabusCourse outline and selected reading assignmentsSection 1: Introduction to cultural sociologyDefining CultureSwidler, Ann 1986. 'Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.'American Sociological Review 51: 273–86.Jepperson, Ronald and Ann Swidler 1994. 'What Properties of Culture Should We Measure?'Poetics 22: 359–71.Cultural Capital and Symbolic ViolenceBourdieu, Pierre and Jean‐Claude Passeron 1977. Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture. London: Sage.Lareau, Annette, and Elliott B. Weininger 2003. 'Cultural Capital in Educational Research: A Critical Assessment.'Theory and Society 32: 567–606.Reproduction TheoryMacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 2, 'Social Reproduction in Theoretical Perspective.' Pp. 11–24 and Chapter 8, 'Reproduction Theory Reconsidered,' pp. 135–54.Cultural PedagogyGiroux, Henry 2000. 'Representations of Violence, Popular Culture and Demonization of Youth.' Pp. 93–105 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. Edited by Stephanie Urso Spina. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 2: Broadening the definition of school violenceHenry, Stuart 2000. 'What is School Violence? An Integrated Definition.' Annals of the American Academy of Political and social Science 567: 16–30.Watkinson, Ailsa 1997. 'Administrative Complicity and Systemic Violence in Education.' Pp. 3–24 in Systemic Violence in Education: Promise Broken. Edited by Juanita Ross Epp and Ailsa M. Watkinson. Albany, NY: State University of NY Press.Urso Spina, Stephanie 2000. 'Violence in Schools: Expanding the Dialogue.' Pp. 1–40 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and LittlefieldCasella, Ronnie 2001. 'What is Violent about School Violence? The Nature of Violence in a City School.' Pp. 15–46 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Edited by Joan Burstyn. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Elliott, Delbert S., Beatrix Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams 1998. 'Violence in American Schools: An Overview.' Pp. 3–30 in Violence in American Schools. Edited by Delbert S. Elliott, Beatrix A. Hamburg, and Kirk R. Williams. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part I, Chapters 1–3, pp. 3–76.Section 3: Ideology and aggressionMerten, Don 1994. 'The Cultural Context of Aggression: The Transition to Junior High School.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly, v. 25 (1): 29–43.Willis, Paul 1977. Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs. Farnborough, England: Saxon House.Newman, Katherine 2004. Rampage: The Social Roots of School Shootings. NY: Basic Books. Read Part II, Chapters 4–7, pp. 77–178.MacLeod, Jay 1987. Ain't No Makin' It: Aspirations and Attainment in a Low Income Neighborhood. Oxford: Westview Press. Read Chapter 6, 'School: Preparing for Competition,' pp. 83–111.Devine, John 1997. Maximum Security: The Culture of Violence in Inner‐City Schools. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Read Chapter 1, 'Schools or 'Schools'? Competing Discourses on Violence,' pp. 19–46.Section 4: Cultural scripts – masculinityKimmel, Michael S. and Matthew Mahler 2003. 'Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence.'The American Behavioral Scientist 46(10): 1439–58.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 4, 'Naughty by Nature,' pp. 77–99 and Chapter 6, 'Getting into Trouble,' pp. 163–96.Bender, Geoff 2001. 'Resisting Dominance? The Study of a Marginalized Masculinity and its Construction within High School Walls.' Pp. 61–78 in Preventing Violence in Schools: A Challenge to American Democracy. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Klein, Jessi and Lynn S. Chancer 2000. 'Masculinity Matters: The Omission of Gender from High‐Profile School Violence Cases.' Pp. 129–62 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 5: Cultural scripts – femininityEder, Donna 1985. 'The Cycle of Popularity: Interpersonal Relations among Female Adolescents.'Sociology of Education 58(3): 154–65.Merten, Don 1997. 'The Meaning of Meanness: Popularity, Competition, and Conflict Among Junior High School Girls.'Sociology of Education 70(3): 175–91.Merten, Don 2005. 'Transitions and 'Trouble': Rites of Passage for Suburban Girls.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 36(2): 132–48.Artz, Sibylle 2004. 'Violence in the Schoolyard: School Girls' Use of Violence.' Pp. 167–90 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities, edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Morris, Edward W. 2007. ''Ladies' or 'Loudies'? Perceptions and Experiences of Black Girls in Classrooms.'Youth & Society 38: 490–515.Mikel Brown, Lyn 2003. Girlfighting: Betrayal and Rejection among Girls. NY: New York University Press.Section 6: Culture resources and school violence – languageLanguage and Symbolic ViolenceFerguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 7, 'Unreasonable Circumstances,' pp. 197–226.Youth Talk about ViolenceDiket, Read M. and Linda G. Mucha 2002. 'Talking about Violent Images.'Art Education March: 11–7.Morrill, Calvin, Christine Yalds, Madelaine Adelman, Michael Musheno, and Cindy Bejarano 2000. 'Telling Tales in School: Youth Culture and Conflict Narratives.'Law & Society Review 34(3): 521–65.Burman, Michele 2004. 'Turbulent Talk: Girls Making Sense of Violence.' Pp. 81–103 in Girls' Violence: Myths and Realities. Edited by Christine Alder and Anne Worrall. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Obidah, Jennifer 2000. 'On Living (and Dying) with Violence: Entering Young Voices in the Discourse.' Pp. 49–66 in Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society. New York, NY: Rowan and Littlefield.Section 7: Culture resources and school violence – clothingClothing and School Safety DebatesHolloman, Lillian and Velma LaPoint, Sylvan I. Alleyne, Ruth J. Palmer, and Kathy Sanders‐Phillips 1996. 'Dress‐Related Behavioral Problems and Violence in Public School Settings: Prevention, Intervention, and Policy—A Holistic Approach.'The Journal of Negro Education 65(3): 267–281.Stanley, M. Sue 1996. 'School Uniforms and Safety.'Education and Urban Society 28(4): 424–35.Gereluk, Dianne 2008. 'Limiting Free Speech in the United States.' Pp. 41–64 in Symbolic Clothing in Schools: What Should Be Worn and Why. New York, NY: Continuum.Brunsma, David L., ed. 2006. Uniforms in Public Schools: A Decade of Research and Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.Clothing, School Policies and Symbolic ViolenceHorvat, Erin McNamara 1999. '"Hey, Those Shoes are Out of Uniform": African American Girls in an Elite High School and the Importance of Habitus.'Anthropology and Education Quarterly 30(3): 317–42.Morris, Edward 2005. '"Tuck in that Shirt!" Race, Class, Gender and Discipline in an Urban School.'Sociological Perspectives 48(1): 25–48.Ferguson, Ann Arnett 2000. Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Read Chapter 3, 'School Rules,' pp. 49–73.FilmsTough guise: violence, media, and the crisis in masculinity (2002)This Media Education Foundation film explores the relationship between popular culture and the construction of violent masculinity. Of particular relevance to this class, the film examines how the construction of masculinity relates to school shootings. The film is directed by Sut Jhally and narrated by Jackson Katz. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.Wrestling with manhood: boys, bullying and battering (2004)This Media Education Foundation film, written and directed by Sut Jhally, examines the relationship between professional wrestling and the construction of masculinity. The film looks at how wrestling contributes to homophobia, violence against women and bullying in school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Scripts – Masculinity.School violence: answers from the inside (2000)This film originally aired on PBS''In the Mix,' a television series created by and for teens. The film examines stereotyping and conflict in schools through the eyes and voices of teenagers attending a diverse suburban high school. This film could be used in the section Cultural Resources – Language.The killer at Thurston high (2000)This PBS Frontline film focuses on Kip Kinkel, who in 1998, at the age of 15, shot his mother and father, and then opened fire at his school in Springfield, Oregon, killing two and injuring 25. He is currently serving 111 years in prison. The film provides an understanding of the tragedy through multiple viewpoints, including interviews with Kip's sister, teachers and psychiatrists. This film could be used in the section Broadening the Definition of School Violence.Mean girls (2004)Written by Tina Fey and based on Rosalind Wiseman's book, Queen Bees and Wannabes: Helping Your Daughter Survive Cliques, Gossip, Boyfriends, and Other Realities of Adolescence, this fictional account of 'mean girls' is a film that most college students will be familiar with. Clips from the film can be used in the section Cultural Scripts—Femininity to begin a discussion about relational aggression between girls in schools. It can also be used to examine the role that racism and classism play in our public perception of violent behavior, particularly since 'mean girls' in this film tend to be constructed as white and upper class, whereas in contrast, 'violent girls' in film have historically been constructed as poor, young women of color.Project ideas1. Social Policy and Intervention. This assignment is intended to get students critically thinking about how educators approach school violence. Have students pick either a national intervention program, such as D.A.R.E., or a local school policy created to deal with school violence. Begin by analyzing how school violence is defined and what type of intervention/prevention is being proposed. Require students to use a cultural approach to understand and critique the policy. In writing the paper, students should consider the following questions. How would a cultural sociologist define violence? What types of violence are missing from this policy? How would this policy be different if it took into account a cultural approach? The book, 'Being Down': Challenging Violence in Urban Schools (2001) by Ronnie Casella provides a good background resource for completing this assignment.2. Observation Project: Clothing and School Safety. Students will begin by gaining permission to observe at a local middle school or high school. Begin by analyzing the school policy towards clothing. Some schools might have an official uniform policy, whereas others might have policies regarding certain types of clothing (i.e. gang clothing, clothing with profanity, etc.) Next, spend several days observing students in non‐classroom settings, like the hallways, cafeteria, bus or playground. Take detailed fieldnotes. Pay particular attention to the clothing that students wear, any discussion made about clothing by either students or teachers, the relationship between clothing and identity, how clothes are used as a site of resistance, and how clothes might cause conflict between students, or between students and teachers. (You may also want to informally interview students about their perception of the school's policy on clothing, how they negotiate rules about clothing, and how they see clothing policies as contributing to conflict and violence, as well as school safety.) As a class, develop a coding scheme for the fieldnotes. Each student will then individually write an analysis paper on the relationship between clothing, conflict, discipline policies, and school violence.3. Mean Girls: Examining Relational Aggression in Schools. There has been much public attention in recent years to 'mean girls.' As a class, view the film Mean Girls during the course section, Cultural Scripts – Femininity. As a class, develop an interview guide with about six open‐ended questions (i.e. What were your experiences with 'mean girls' in high school? How did you or a close friend deal with being the victim of relational aggression? To what extent did you ever participate in being a 'mean girl'? How did teachers at your school respond to relational aggression between girls?) Next, have students interview six female students using the class interview guide. Students can work individually or in groups to write a paper that compares and contrasts the social construction of mean girls in the film with the actual perceptions of mean girls from their research participants. The analysis should be grounded in the social science research that students are reading on relational aggression.

Freizeitverhalten, Freundschaften, Familie, Gefühle und Überzeugungen, Identität, derzeitige Situation und Berufsausbildung von Jugendlichen. Geschwistersituation.

Welle 4

Fragebogen Jugendliche:

Themen: Freizeitverhalten: Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten (Verwandtenbesuch, Kino, Ausgehen, Lesen, Sportverein oder Musikverein, Konzert, Museum, Zeitunglesen); Stundenaufwand an einem typischen Schultag für Fernsehen, Chatten, Arbeiten im Haushalt, Video oder Computerspiele allein und mit anderen.

Freundschaften: Ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; interethnischer Kontakt mit Menschen ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft; Migrationshintergrund; Wichtigkeit von gleicher Bildung, Religion und ethnischem Hintergrund beim eigenen Partner für den Befragten persönlich und für dessen Eltern; fester Freund oder Freundin; Angaben zu Partner bzw. Partnerin: derzeitige Tätigkeit, besuchter Schultyp bzw. höchster Bildungsabschluss, ethnischer Hintergrund, Konfession, Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Partner bzw. die Partnerin; Beziehungsbeginn (Beziehungsdauer); Kontext des Kennenlernens (z.B. durch Freunde); Partner bzw. Partnerin lebt in derselben Nachbarschaft; Eltern haben Kenntnis von der Beziehung bzw. haben den Partner bzw. die Partnerin bereits getroffen; Eltern kannten sich bereits vor Beziehungsbeginn; familiäre Beziehungen: Interesse der Familie an Gesprächen über den Freund bzw. die Freundin; elterliche Einmischung: Forderung nach Informationen über Aktivitäten und Aufenthaltsort bei Unternehmungen mit dem Freund bzw. der Freundin, Forderung nach sofortigem Kennenlernen des Freundes bzw. der Freundin; erwartete Heirat; derzeitiger Freund bzw. Freundin ist erste feste Beziehung; Anzahl der vorherigen Freunde bzw. Freundinnen; Familie lehnt Beziehung ab; erwartete Offenheit der Familie bei ablehnender Haltung dem Freund bzw. der Freundin gegenüber; Familie überlässt Beziehungsentscheidungen dem Befragten; arrangierte Beziehungen durch die Familie; Forderung der Familie nach Abbruch der Beziehung bei fehlender Sympathie; präferiertes Heiratsalter; gewünschte Kinderzahl. Familie: Migrationshintergrund der biologischen Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; Häufigkeit von Taschengeld und Höhe des Taschengeldes.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer); Diskriminierung: Sympathie-Skalometer für ausgewählte Herkunftsgruppen; Rollenverständnis.

Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntnisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich zu Gleichaltrigen; delinquentes Verhalten in den letzten drei Monaten: mutwilliges Zerstören fremden Eigentums, Stehlen, Tragen von Messer oder Waffe, Trunkenheit); Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Zigarettenkonsum und Drogenkonsum; Körpergröße in Zentimeter und Gewicht in Kilogramm; präferierte und realistische Bildungsaspiration; Zukunftserwartungen hinsichtlich Aufenthalt in Deutschland, Heirat, Kinder und Gesundheitszustand.

Derzeitige Situation:
Schule: Schulabschluss während des letzten Schuljahres; Noten in Mathematik, Deutsch und Englisch im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; derzeitige Situation; derzeit besuchte Schulform; Zweig der kooperativen Gesamtschule; derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe; Häufigkeit devianten Verhaltens in der Schule (Auseinandersetzungen mit Lehrern, erfahrene Bestrafung, unerlaubtes Fernbleiben vom Unterricht, Zuspätkommen); Selbstwirksamkeit; Einstellung zur Schule: Wichtigkeit guter Schulnoten.

Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS); Ausbildungsdauer; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Höhe der Ausbildungsvergütung pro Monat (kategorisiert); Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Arbeitsbeginn in diesem Beruf (Monat und Jahr); Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle seit Verlassen der Schule; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Arbeitsstelle (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS); aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle; Berufsbezeichnung des Wunschberufs (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Hauptinterviews; Interviewdatum; Flaggenvariable (Interviewdatum abgeleitet vom Eingangsdatum der Kontaktinformationen); Data release version.

Abgeleitete Indizes: Berufsvercodung gemäß ISCO (International Standard Classification of Occupations) 1988; SIOPS (nach Ganzeboom); ISEI (nach Ganzeboom).

2. Fragebogen Geschwister: Anzahl Geschwister insgesamt; für bis zu 15 Geschwister wurde erfragt: Bruder oder Schwester; Alter; derzeitige Situation bzw. Tätigkeit; besuchte Schulform; Bildungsabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Hauptinterviews; Interviewdatum; Flaggenvariable (Interviewdatum abgeleitet vom Eingangsdatum der Kontaktinformationen); Data release version.

Tracking Datensatz: Individuelle Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; ID der Klasse und der Schule; Erhebungseinheit auf Klassenebene und Schulebene Welle 2; Land; Stratum der Schule (Migrantenanteil); Schultyp; Bundesland; Teilnahmestatus aus Wellen 1 bis 4.

Welle 5

Themen: Derzeitige Situation: Schule: Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss im letzten Jahr; erreichter Ausbildungsabschluss und Bezeichnung des Abschlusses; Ausbildungsdauer; Abschlussnote; Erreichen eines Schulabschlusses gleichzeitig mit der Ausbildung; Art des Schulabschlusses; Noten in Mathematik, Deutsch und Englisch im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; derzeitige Tätigkeit; derzeit besuchte Schulform; Zweig der kooperativen Gesamtschule; derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe; Häufigkeit devianten Verhaltens in der Schule (Auseinandersetzungen mit Lehrern, erfahrene Bestrafung, unerlaubtes Fernbleiben vom Unterricht, Zuspätkommen); Selbstwirksamkeit; Einstellung zur Schule; Wichtigkeit guter Schulnoten.

Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Gesamtdauer der Ausbildung; Erreichen eins zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommen (kategorisiert).

Studium: Monat und Jahr des Studienbeginns; Art der Hochschule; Name und Ort der Hochschule; Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Studiengang mit Zulassungsbeschränkung oder Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, Bildungskredit oder Stipendium; Gesamthöhe der Einnahmen aus BAföG, Bildungskredit und/oder Stipendium.

Beruf: Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Arbeitsbeginn (Monat und Jahr); Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle seit Verlasse der Schule; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Arbeitsstelle; aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle; Berufsbezeichnung des Wunschberufs.

Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntnisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); weitere Sprache(n) zu Hause außer Deutsch; Selbsteinschätzung der Kenntnisse in dieser Sprache (Sprechen, Schreiben); Häufigkeit von Fernsehen, Gesprächen mit der Familie und Freunden sowie Zeitunglesen in dieser Sprache.

Besitz der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit; Interesse an der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit bzw. Einbürgerung; beabsichtigte Einbürgerung in den nächsten 5 Jahren; Meinung zu deutscher Staatsangehörigkeit bzw. Einbürgerung (aufwändig und teuer, wichtig, da Einbürgerung Wahlteilnahme ermöglicht, Schutz vor möglicher Abschiebung, bei Einbürgerung alte Staatsangehörigkeit abgeben); Einstellung zur deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit (ablehnende Haltung der Familie, weniger zum Herkunftsland der Familie zugehörig fühlen, Erleichterung des Alltags z.B. bei Behörden oder auf Reisen, Vorteile bei Ausbildung, Studium oder Jobsuche, richtig in Deutschland dazugehören).

Freizeitverhalten: Aktivität in Vereinen oder Gruppen; Verein oder Gruppe, in dem die meiste Zeit verbracht wird; Name des Vereins oder der Gruppe; Ausübung eines Amtes in diesem Verein; Anteil der Personen mit ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft; Art der politischen Partizipation im letzten Jahr (Petition, Demonstration, Parteiunterstützung); Informationshäufigkeit über politische und soziale Themen; Häufigkeit von Diskussionen über politische und soziale Themen; Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Rauchen, Drogenkonsum; Nebenjob; Wochenstunden und Monatsverdienst im Nebenjob.

Familie: Migrationshintergrund der Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Interesse an der Politik dieses Landes; Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; Häufigkeit von Taschengeld und Höhe des Taschengelds.

Freundschaften: Ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; Kontakt in Schule, Studium oder Beruf mit Menschen ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft.

Gefühle und Einstellungen: Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Wichtigkeit von Traditionalismus im Hinblick auf diese Gruppe; Deutsche sollten alles tun, um ihre Bräuche und Traditionen zu bewahren, Ausländer sollten sich der deutschen Gesellschaft anpassen, Deutsche sollten offen für Bräuche und Traditionen von Ausländern sein, Ausländer sollten alles tun, um ihre Bräuche und Traditionen bewahren.

Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Sympathie-Skalometer für ausgewählte Herkunftsgruppen; Meinung zum Zusammenleben als unverheiratetes Paar, zu Scheidung, Abtreibung und Homosexualität; Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer); Gesundheitsprobleme: Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Bauchschmerzen und Einschlafproblemen in den letzten 6 Monaten; Zukunftserwartungen hinsichtlich Arbeitsstelle, Aufenthalt in Deutschland, Universitätsabschluss und Reichtum.

Politische Meinung: Kompliziertheit der Politik; einfache Meinungsbildung über politische Themen; Politiker nur an Wählerstimmen interessiert; Politiker sorgen sich darum, was Leute denken; besonders guter Politiker; Zufriedenheit mit dem demokratischen System in Deutschland und der Arbeit der Bundesregierung; Institutionenvertrauen (politische Parteien, Gerichte, Polizei, Politiker, Zeitungen, Radio und Fernsehen); Parteipräferenz (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlberechtigung und Teilnahme an der Europawahl im Mai 2014; Selbsteinstufung Links-rechts.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Geburtstag (Tag, Monat, Jahr).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum; Data release version.

Welle 6

Themen: Beruflicher Werdegang nach der Schule, Familie, Freunde, Partnerschaft und Freizeit

Youth main questionnaire:
Wohnsituation: Beziehung zu weiteren Haushaltsmitgliedern.

Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntnisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); weitere Sprache(n) zu Hause außer Deutsch; am meisten zu Hause gesprochene zweite Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Kenntnisse in dieser Sprache (Sprechen, Schreiben); Häufigkeit von Fernsehen, Gesprächen mit der Familie und Freunden sowie Zeitunglesen in dieser Sprache; Nationalität.

Freizeitverhalten: Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten (Verwandtenbesuch, Ausgehen, Lesen, Sportverein oder Musikverein, Konzert, Museum, Zeitunglesen); Informationshäufigkeit über politische und soziale Themen; Häufigkeit von Diskussionen über politische und soziale Themen; Anzahl der Bücher im Haushalt.

Familie: Migrationshintergrund der Eltern und Großeltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Bildung der Eltern (nur Auffrischungsstichprobe); Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; derzeitiger bzw. letzter Beruf der Eltern.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Zukunftserwartungen im Alter von 30 Jahren bezüglich Aufenthaltsland, Heirat, Kinder, Gesundheitszustand, Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Meinung zur Einschränkung der Einwanderung von Flüchtlingen durch Festlegung einer Höchstgrenze; Meinung zur Flüchtlingsaufnahme im Land ( Kriegs- oder Bürgerkriegsflüchtlinge, Politisch Verfolgte, Religiös Verfolgte, Menschen, die vor dem Verhungern oder vor Naturkatastrophen fliehen, Ethnisch Verfolgte sowie Flüchtlinge, die ihr Land aufgrund unzureichender Beschäftigungschancen verlassen haben); Geschlechterrollen (Kindererziehung, Kochen, Saubermachen, Geld verdienen).

Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Einschätzung der der Chancen auf eine Ausbildung oder einen Job bei gleicher Abschlussnote (Männer oder Frauen, Ausländer oder Einheimische, Kinder von Arbeitern oder von Akademikern); jemals beworben; Diskriminierungserfahrung aufgrund Geschlecht, ethnischer Zugehörigkeit und sozialer Herkunft.

Freundschaften: fester Freund bzw. feste Freundin; Tätigkeit und Herkunft des festen Freundes/der festen Freundin; ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; Personenvertrauen; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich mit Gleichaltrigen; Anteil Personen bei der Hauptaktivität mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft; allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit.

Derzeitige Situation: Schulabschluss, Ausbildungsabschluss oder Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieser Abschlüsse; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; derzeitige Tätigkeit; Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulform; Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommen (kategorisiert); Studium: Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Berufstätigkeit: Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art der Einkommensquellen und Höhe der jeweils zur Verfügung stehenden Beträge.

Feste Partnerschaft; Zusammenleben mit dem Partner seit Januar 2011; verheiratet; Kinder; Kinderzahl.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Geburtstag (Tag, Monat, Jahr); Auffrischungstichprobe: Geburtsland; Migrationsalter; Generation.

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Gewichtungsfaktoren; Flaggenvariablen.

Youth achievement questionnaire:
Aufgaben zur Sprachkompetenz sowie ein Wort- und Figurenrätsel (kognitiver Fähigkeitstest)

Youth life history calendar -structural:
Technische Informationen: Art des Wellenerfassung; persönlicher Wellen Index; Wellentyp (2 Ebenen); Wellenbeginn und Wellenende (Monat, Jahr); Andauern der Welle; Korrektur im Prüfmodul; technisches Problem im Längsschnitt.
Informationen zu sämtlichen Bildungswegen seit Januar 2011: detaillierte Angaben zur allgemeinen Bildung Erster und Zweiter Bildungsweg, Angaben zur Berufsausbildung (Lehre in einer Firma und in der Schule), Angaben zur Schulischen Berufsausbildung, Angaben zu berufsbildenden Schulen für Aus- und Weiterbildung, Angaben zu Umschulung, Angaben zum Studium, Berufsvorbereitung, andere Berufsausbildung,
Erfasst wurden z.B. besuchte Schulform(en), Schulabschluss erreicht, Bundesland des Schulabschlusses, Abschlussnote; Ausbildungsberuf, Studienfächer, Hochschulart, Hochschulstadt, Zulassungsbeschränkung, Studienabschluss, erreichter Studiengrad, weitere Studiengänge.

Angaben zu sämtlichen Beschäftigungsformen (z.B. Vollzeitbeschäftigung: Beruf, Art des Arbeitsvertrages, Umwandlung der Befristung in einen unbefristeten Vertrag, Wochenarbeitszeit, Praktikum, Nebenjob, Art der Tätigkeit, etc.) , Angaben zu Mutterschutz, Elternzeit, Freiwilligendienst, Wehrdienst, Work & Travel, Auslandsaufenthalten, Arbeitslosigkeit, Jobsuche; Tätigkeit als Hausmann bzw. Hausfrau, Arbeitsunfähigkeit.
Angaben zur Art anderer Aktivitäten.

Überprüfung der Angaben durch Öffnen des Kalenders; fehlende Informationen.

Youth life history calendar - partner:
Angaben zum Partner: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat, Geburtsjahr); Zeitpunkt Beginn und Ende der Partnerschaft; Andauern der Partnerschaft; weitere Partnerschaften; Beginn und Ende weiterer Partnerschaften; Schulbesuch des Partners zu Beginn der Partnerschaft und besuchte Schulform; Bildung des Partners zu Beginn der Partnerschaft; Migrationshintergrund; Zeitpunkt des Zusammenlebens mit dem Partner; Andauern des Zusammenlebens; verheiratet mit dem Partner; Zeitpunkt Beginn und Ende der Ehe; Andauern der Ehe.

Youth life history calendar - children:
Angaben zu Kindern: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat, Geburtsjahr); leibliches Kind.

Informationen zur Stichprobe (Youth main questionnaire, Youth achievement questionnaire, youth life history calendar, youth life history calendar - partner, youth life history calender - children): Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Datenerhebungsmethode (persönliches Interview); Version, Stichprobe (Panel, Auffrischung); Interviewdatum (Tag, Monat, Jahr); Data release version; eindeutiger Partner-Index; eindeutiger Kinder-Index; Teilnahmestatus Wellen 1 bis 6 (Gründe für Nichtteilnahme).

Welle 7
Youth main questionnaire:

Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in der Landessprache (sprechen und schreiben); weitere zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Nennung dieser Sprache(n); Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in dieser zweiten Sprache (sprechen und schreiben); Anwendungshäufigkeit dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit der Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitunglesen); Familiensituation bzw. Situation außerhalb der Familie oder alleinlebend; Vereinsmitgliedschaft; Persönlichkeitsmerkmale (Extrovertiertheit, Wohlwollen, Gewissenhaftigkeit, Neurotizismus, Offenheit für Erfahrungen).
Angaben zum Partner: fester Partner/ feste Partnerin; Zeitpunkt des Beziehungsbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Alter; derzeitige Tätigkeit; höchster Bildungsabschluss; angestrebter Bildungsabschluss; Herkunft des Partners/ der Partnerin; Heirat; Zeitpunkt der Eheschließung (Monat, Jahr); Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr der Kinder.

Einstellungen zu anderen Gruppen: Meinung zu Einwanderern: nationale Bevölkerung/ Einwanderer sollten an ihren Bräuchen und Traditionen festhalten, Einwanderer sollten sich der Gesellschaft im Land anpassen, nationale Bevölkerung sollte offen für Sitten und Gebräuche von Einwanderern sein; Zusammenleben ohne Trauschein, Scheidung, Abtreibung und Homosexualität sind ok; Gefühle gegenüber verschiedenen Bevölkerungsgruppen (Deutsche, Italiener, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrer, Afghanen, Albaner, Bulgaren, Nordafrikaner, andere Afrikaner);
Migrationshintergrund der Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; derzeitiger Erwerbsstatus der Eltern.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: habe viele gute Eigenschaften, viel, auf das ich stolz sein kann, mag mich so wie ich bin, Zukunftszuversicht; Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; persönliche Bedeutung an Sitten und Gebräuchen dieser Gruppe festzuhalten; Häufigkeit verschiedener Gefühle (sorgenvoll, schnell wütend, ängstlich, niedergeschlagen, wertlos, handeln ohne nachzudenken);
Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten.

Freunde und Bekannte: Kontakthäufigkeit mit Personen verschiedener Herkunft (Deutsche, Italiener, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrer, Afghanen, Albaner, Bulgaren, Nordafrikaner, andere Afrikaner, andere nationale Herkunft); Anteil der Freunde mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft.

Aktivitäten und Gesundheit: allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit; Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Magenschmerzen und Einschlafschwierigkeiten in den letzten sechs Monaten; delinquentes Verhalten in den letzten drei Monaten: mutwilliges Zerstören fremden Eigentums, Stehlen, Tragen von Messer oder Waffe, Trunkenheit); Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Zigarettenkonsum und Drogenkonsum; Körpergröße in Zentimetern und Gewicht in Kilogramm; Zukunftserwartungen im Alter von 30 Jahren bezüglich Arbeitsplatz, Aufenthaltsort, Hochschulabschluss und finanzielle Situation.

Derzeitige Situation: generierte Anzahl der genannten Aktivitäten aus Welle 6; Andauern dieser Aktivität; Zeitpunkt des Ende der Aktivität(en) (Monat, Jahr); Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieser Abschlüsse; Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs (ISEI, SIOPS – generiert); Erwerb einer Hochschulzugangsberechtigung bzw. Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Schulabgangszeugnis und in den Fächern Mathematik, Deutsch und, Englisch; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieses Hochschulabschlusses; Gesamtnote Hochschulabschluss.

Detaillierte Angaben zur derzeitigen Tätigkeit: Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulform; Beginn des Schulbesuchs (Monat, Jahr); Klassenstufe, Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Zeitpunkt des Ausbildungsbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Studium: Zeitpunkt des Studienbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Hochschulart; genaue Bezeichnung der Hochschule; Hochschulort; Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Studium mit Zugangsbeschränkung; Berufstätigkeit: Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Wochenarbeitszeit; Arbeitsbeginn in diesem Job (Monat, Jahr); derzeitiger Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle nach Verlassen der Schule; erste Arbeitsstelle nach Verlassen der Schule (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungsstelle bzw. einem Job in den letzten drei Monaten; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Art der Einkommensquellen und Höhe der jeweils zur Verfügung stehenden Beträge.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsdatum - Tag, Monat, Jahr).

Youth friends questionnaire:

Angaben zu den drei besten Freunden: Geschlecht; Alter; Herkunft; derzeitige Tätigkeit; höchster Bildungsabschluss; Beruf (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID (Deutschland); Untersuchungsgebiet; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum (Tag, Monat, Jahr); Version Youth main Interview, Youth friends Interview).

Tracking Datensatz: Individuelle Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; ID der Klasse und der Schule; Erhebungseinheit auf Klassenebene und Schulebene Welle 2; Sample (Panel, Auffrischungsstichprobe); Land; Stratum der Schule (Migrantenanteil); Schultyp; Bundesland; Teilnahmestatus aus Wellen 1 bis 7.

COVID-19-Special - Zusatzbefragung zur Corona-Pandemie (Youth main questionnaire):

Derzeitige hauptsächlich ausgeübte Tätigkeit; Job im Februar 2020; Verlust dieses Jobs aufgrund der Corona-Pandemie; Veränderung des Arbeitsalltags durch die Corona-Pandemie (z.B. Arbeit von zu Hause aus, weniger/ mehr Geld, weniger/ mehr Wochenstunden, freigestellt ohne/ mit Entgeltfortzahlung, zusätzlichen Nebenjob oder Minijob angenommen, Nebenjob oder Minijob verloren, nichts davon, momentan kein Job oder Nebenjob und nicht in Ausbildung); Informationshäufigkeit über die Corona-Pandemie durch folgende Quellen in deutscher Sprache (Zeitungen (auch online), öffentlich-rechtliche und private Fernseh- und Rundfunksender (auch online), öffentliche Stellen, z.B. Regierung oder Gesundheitsministerium, Informationen von Wissenschaftlern oder Forschungseinrichtungen, soziale Medien); Vertrauen in die vorgenannten Informationsquellen; Informieren über die Corona-Pandemie in einer anderen Sprache als Deutsch; am häufigsten genutzte Sprache für diese Informationen; Informationshäufigkeit über die Corona-Pandemie durch ausgewählte Quellen in dieser Sprache; Vertrauen in die die Informationsquellen in dieser Sprache; Vertrauen in verschiedene Parteien in Bezug auf die Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie (CDU/CSU, SPD, AfD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen); Zustimmung zu Aussagen zur Corona-Pandemie (die deutsche Bundesregierung hat rechtzeitig auf die Corona-Pandemie reagiert, die von der deutschen Bundesregierung ergriffenen Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie schränken die persönliche Freiheit unnötig ein, der wirtschaftliche Schaden durch die Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie steht in keinem Verhältnis zu ihrem Nutzen); Bewertung der Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie; Hauptverantwortung für die Eindämmung der Corona-Pandemie (Staat oder Bürger); mehr oder weniger Sorgen seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie im Hinblick auf folgende Bereiche: finanzielle Situation, eigene Gesundheit, Gesundheit von Freunden und Verwandten, wirtschaftliche Situation in Deutschland; nachgewiesene Infektion mit dem Corona-Virus (selbst, eine Person aus der Familie, eine Person aus dem Freundeskreis, eine Person aus dem Bekanntenkreis, nein, möchte ich nicht sagen); Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Bauchschmerzen und Problemen beim Einschlafen in den letzten zwei Monaten; Häufigkeit persönlicher Vorsorgemaßnahmen gegen COVID-19 (niese oder huste in die Armbeuge, trage in der Öffentlichkeit Mundschutz und /oder Handschuhe, wasche gründlich die Hände, gebe anderen Menschen zur Begrüßung nicht die Hand); Häufigkeit verschiedener Gefühlszustände seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie (mache mir viele Sorgen, werde leicht wütend, fühle mich ängstlich, traurig, wertlos, handle ohne nachzudenken, fühle mich einsam); Veränderungen im Verhalten anderer Personen in der Öffentlichkeit seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie (gehen mir auf der Straße oder in Geschäften häufiger aus dem Weg, setzen sich in der Öffentlichkeit häufiger von mir weg, sind mir gegenüber insgesamt hilfsbereiter geworden); Veränderung des eigenen Verhaltens; häufigeres Gefühl ungerechter Behandlung oder Diskriminierung aufgrund der ethnischen Herkunft seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie; Veränderungen seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie im Hinblick auf die Häufigkeit von Streit oder Auseinandersetzungen, Beleidigungen oder verbaler Gewalt, Handgreiflichkeiten oder körperlicher Gewalt, Störung durch Nachbarn sowie Hilfe von Nachbarn; Vertrauen in verschiedene Parteien in Bezug auf die Bewältigung des Klimawandels (CDU/CSU, SPD, AfD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen); Zustimmung zu verschiedenen Aussagen: Bundesregierung hat rechtzeitig auf den Klimawandel reagiert, die von der Bundesregierung ergriffenen Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels schränken die persönliche Freiheit unnötig ein, der wirtschaftliche Schaden durch die Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels steht in keinem Verhältnis zu ihrem Nutzen, es ist richtig, dass Themen wie Klimawandel oder Migration während der Corona-Pandemie nicht mehr im Vordergrund stehen); Bewertung der Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels; Hauptverantwortung für die Eindämmung des Klimawandels (Staat oder Bürger); Zustimmung zu Aussagen zur Corona-Pandemie (Freiheit des Einzelnen sollte während der Corona-Pandemie hinter dem Wohl der Bevölkerung zurückstehen, während der Corona-Pandemie sollte Deutschland keine Geflüchteten aufnehmen, der wahre Ursprung der Corona-Pandemie wird uns verschwiegen, während der Corona-Pandemie brauchen wir eine starke Führungsperson, die für unsere Sicherheit sorgt); Zustimmung zu folgenden Aussagen (es ist wichtig, jetzt den Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zu folgen, ohne sie zu hinterfragen, Personen mit deutscher Staatsangehörigkeit sollten während der Corona-Pandemie bevorzugt medizinisch versorgt werden, es ist nicht gut, wenn Virologen anstatt demokratisch gewählter Politiker das Land regieren, Menschen, die sich nicht an die Schutzmaßnahmen der Bundesregierung halten, sollten sofort bei der Polizei gemeldet werden); Zufriedenheit mit verschiedenen Lebensbereichen (allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit, Gesundheit, deutsches Gesundheitssystem).

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsdatum).

Zusätzlich vekodet wurde: nationale Befragten-ID; Untersuchungsgebiet (Deutschland); Erhebungsmodus der Zusatzbefragung; Interviewdatum; Angabe des Datums; Version der Zusatzbefragung; Zuordnung zu Experimentalgruppen.

Welle 8
Youth main questionnaire:

Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in der Landessprache (sprechen und schreiben); deutscher Dialekt; am häufigsten gesprochene Dialekte; weitere zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Nennung dieser weiteren Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in dieser zweiten Sprache (sprechen und schreiben); Anwendungshäufigkeit dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit der Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitunglesen); Partner/ Partnerin; Herkunft des Partners/ der Partnerin; verheiratet, Zeitpunkt der Eheschließung (Monat, Jahr); Heiratsabsicht; Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr der Kinder; weiterer Kinderwunsch in den nächsten zwei Jahren; Familiensituation: Geburt der Eltern im Ausland (Migrationshintergrund); Besuch des Herkunftslandes der Mutter/ des Vaters.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Geschlechterrollen; Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Aktivität in einer religiösen Gemeinschaft.

Wohnsituation: Alter bei Auszug aus dem Elternhaus; Hauptwohnsitz (Bundesland, Land, regionale Klassifikation; Wohnstatus; Höhe der monatlichen Miete bzw. monatlichen Rückzahlungskosten für Hypothekendarlehen und andere Darlehen zur Finanzierung der Eigentumswohnung bzw. des Hauses; Anzahl der Wohn- und Schlafzimmer; Zusammensetzung der Wohngegend (Familien mit Kindern, Ältere, Ausländer, Arbeitslose); Bewertung der Wohngegend hinsichtlich Wohnungen, Grünflächen, öffentliche Verkehrsmittel, Einkaufsmöglichkeiten, Sicherheit tagsüber und nachts, Entfernung zum Arbeitsplatz bzw. Ausbildungsort oder Studienort; genutztes Verkehrsmittel; Umzugsabsicht innerhalb der nächsten zwei Jahre; Hauptgrund für die Umzugsabsicht; maximal akzeptierte Entfernung in Minuten zum Arbeitsplatz bzw. Ausbildungsort oder Studienort; präferierte Ortsgröße.

Alltag: Häufigkeit verschiedener Freizeitaktivitäten; Zeitaufwand an einem Wochentag für Fernsehen, Nutzung von Streamingdiensten, sozialen Medien, Online Dating Plattformen, Haushaltstätigkeiten, Videospiele oder Computerspiele allein und mit anderen; Anteil der Freunde mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich mit Gleichaltrigen; allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit und Zufriedenheit mit der derzeitigen Wohnung sowie der Wohnumgebung; Zukunftsperspektiven mit 30 Jahren in Bezug auf den Aufenthalt im Land, Heirat, Kinder, Gesundheit und Wohneigentum.

Derzeitige Situation: Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art des Ausbildungsabschlusses; Bezeichnung der beruflichen Qualifikation nach ISCO 2008 (ISEI, SIOPS – generiert); Erwerb einer Hochschulzugangsberechtigung durch die berufliche Qualifikation; Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Gesamtnote bzw. Credit Points im Abschlusszeugnis; Erwerb eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses mit dem Berufsabschluss; Art des zusätzlich erworbenen Bildungsabschlusses; Gesamtnote im Schulabgangszeugnis und in den Fächern Mathematik, Deutsch und, Englisch; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieses Hochschulabschlusses; Gesamtnote Hochschulabschluss; derzeitige Haupttätigkeit.

Schule: Derzeit besuchter Schultyp; Schulzweig; Schulbesuch seit Monat, Jahr; Klassenstufe;
Lehre/ berufsbezogene Ausbildung: Berufsbezeichnung; wichtige Aspekte für die Ausübung des Berufs (Schlichten bei Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen Personen, Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts mit Menschen aus der Region, klare und verständliche Sprache, andere davon überzeugen ihre Meinung oder ihr Verhalten zu ändern, Unterstützen von Kunden oder Klienten im persönlichen Gespräch, Lehren); Nettoeinkommen; Ausbildungsbeginn (Monat, Jahr); Ausbildungsdauer; Erwerb eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses mit der Ausbildung; Art des zusätzlich erworbenen Bildungsabschlusses.

Studium: Studienbeginn (Monat, Jahr); Duales Studium; Beruf; Berufsbezeichnung im Rahmen des Dualen Studiums (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Hochschulart; Name der Hochschule; Studienort; Anzahl der Studienfächer (Haupt- und Nebenfächer); Studienfächer; Art des Studienabschlusses; Zugangsbeschränkung oder Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, Bildungskredit oder Stipendium; Höhe der bezogenen Leistungen.

Arbeit: Derzeitiger Beruf (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); wichtige Aspekte für die Ausübung des Berufs (Schlichten bei Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen Personen, Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts mit Menschen aus der Region, klare und verständliche Sprache, andere davon überzeugen ihre Meinung oder ihr Verhalten zu ändern, Unterstützen von Kunden oder Klienten im persönlichen Gespräch, Lehren); Teilnahme an Umschulung, Fortbildung oder Ausbildung zusätzlich zur Arbeit; Art der Umschulung etc.; Bezeichnung der Umschulung etc. (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Nettoeinkommen; Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Wochenarbeitszeit; Monat und Jahr des Arbeitsbeginns in diesem Beruf; erste Stelle nach Schulabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Stelle (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Bezeichnung der Umschulung oder Fortbildung ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Beginn der Umschulung oder Fortbildung (Monat, Jahr); Gesamtumfang der Umschulung oder Fortbildung (Stundenzahl); Anbieter; Erhalt einer Teilnahmebescheinigung, anerkannten Lizenz oder einer anderen Zertifizierung mit dieser Umschulung, Fortbildung oder Weiterbildung; aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle in den letzten drei Monaten; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert).

Fragebogen Geschwister: Anzahl Geschwister insgesamt; biologischer Bruder oder Schwester, Halbbruder/ Halbschwester, Adoptivbruder/ Adoptivschwester, Stiefbruder/ Stiefschwester; Alter der Geschwister; derzeitige Situation bzw. Tätigkeit; besuchte Schulform; Bildungsabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Geschwisterinterviews (telephone, post, online); Interviewdatum; Data release version; Flag: Technical error sibling 3 (telephone interview) .

Youth residence history calendar: Alter beim Einzug; Wohnungsstatus (derzeitige oder letzte Wohnung - generiert); Bundesland; Land des Wohnsitzes; regionale Klassifikation (RegioStaR); Haushaltszusammensetzung; Anzahl und Art der Haushaltsmitglieder; Auszugsgründe.

Zusätzlich verkodet: Internationale Befragten ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Youth residence history calendar (telephone, post, online); Interviewdatum; Data release version; Anzahl der Einträge in den youth residence history calendar.

Welle 9

A: Youth main questionnaire:

1. Kulturelle und soziale Integration:
Sprache: Selbsteinschätzung der Beherrschung der Sprache des Erhebungslandes (in Wort und Schrift); (zweite) zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Angabe dieser zweiten Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Beherrschung der zweiten zu Hause gesprochen Sprache (in Wort und Schrift); Häufigkeit der Verwendung dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitung lesen); Migrationsgeschichte: Geburt der Eltern im Ausland; Häufigkeit der Besuche im Geburtsland der Mutter/des Vaters in den letzten 12 Monaten; Migrationshintergrund des Befragten.

Romantische Beziehung, Ehe und Kinder: Derzeitige Beziehung; Datum der Heirat (Monat, Jahr); Hintergrund des Partners; Kennenlernen des Partners durch Familie oder Verwandte, durch Freunde oder Bekannte, durch Dating-Websites, durch soziale Netzwerke usw. ; Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Monat und Jahr der Geburt der Kinder; jemals einen Partner online kennengelernt und eine lockere Beziehung gehabt; jemals einen Partner online kennengelernt und eine feste Beziehung gehabt; jemals einen Partner offline kennengelernt und eine lockere Beziehung gehabt, jemals einen Partner offline kennengelernt und eine feste Beziehung gehabt, Merkmale der Partner dieser Beziehungen (Deutsche ohne Migrationshintergrund, gleiche Religionszugehörigkeit, höherer Bildungsstand, niedrigerer Bildungsstand, gleicher Migrationshintergrund) und Anzahl der Partner.

Diskriminierung: Häufigkeit der Diskriminierung bei der Partnersuche aufgrund der Religionszugehörigkeit, der Sprache, der Sprachkenntnisse, des Dialekts oder Akzents, der Bildung und des Migrationshintergrunds; Einstellungen gegenüber anderen Gruppen: Deutschen, Italienern, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrern, Afghanen, Albanern, Bulgaren, Nordafrikanern, anderen Afrikanern und Ukrainern (Bewertung auf einer Skala von 0 bis 100).

Freundschaft (starke Bindungen): ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde (deutsch, italienisch, polnisch, russisch, türkisch, anderer Hintergrund).

Gesundheit: Häufigkeit von Gesundheitsproblemen (Kopfschmerzen, Magenschmerzen und Einschlafprobleme) in den letzten 6 Monaten; Gesundheitsverhalten: Häufigkeit, eine warme Mahlzeit zu sich zu nehmen, Alkohol zu trinken, Sport zu treiben oder ins Fitnessstudio zu gehen, Zigaretten zu rauchen, zu frühstücken und Drogen zu konsumieren; Impfung gegen COVID-19; Monat und Jahr der ersten Impfung; Gründe für die Impfung (Schutz meiner Gesundheit, Schutz der Gesundheit anderer, Beitrag zur Aufhebung von Beschränkungen, leichterer Zugang zu Restaurants, Cafés, Kinos, Sonstiges, Arbeit, Studium, Berufsausbildung, Druck der Gesellschaft, Familie, Freunde oder Bekannte, sonstige Gründe (offen)); Gründe für die Nichtimpfung (Zweifel an der Wirksamkeit, Angst vor Nebenwirkungen, keine Notwendigkeit, Ablehnung von staatlichem Zwang, Warten auf einen anderen Impfstoff, Warten auf Langzeitstudien, Vorerkrankungen, Schwangerschaft/Stillen, Angst vor Unfruchtbarkeit, andere Gründe (offen)).

Devianz und Straffälligkeit: Straffälliges Verhalten in den letzten 3 Monaten (absichtliche Beschädigung fremder Sachen, Diebstahl in einem Geschäft oder bei einer anderen Person, Tragen eines Messers oder einer Waffe, stark betrunken gewesen).

Politische Beteiligung: Parteipräferenz bei der nächsten Bundestagswahl (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlbeteiligung bei der letzten Bundestagswahl im September 2021; Wahlverhalten bei der letzten Bundestagswahl.

Identität: Einstellungen zu Integrations-/Akkulturationsstrategien (Das deutsche Volk sollte alles tun, um Sitten und Gebräuche zu bewahren, Zuwanderer sollten sich der deutschen Gesellschaft anpassen, das deutsche Volk sollte offen sein für die Sitten und Gebräuche der Zuwanderer, Zuwanderer sollten alles tun, um Sitten und Gebräuche zu bewahren; Bedeutung der deutschen Identität; ethnische Identität (keine andere Gruppe, eine andere Gruppe, zwei andere Gruppen); andere Gruppe, der sich der Befragte noch zugehörig fühlt; Stärke des Zugehörigkeitsgefühls.

Haltungen und Normen: Misstrauen (Coronavirus wurde absichtlich erzeugt, Coronavirus ist harmlos, eine kleine geheime Gruppe ist für die Weltpolitik verantwortlich, Wissenschaftler manipulieren Beweise, um die Öffentlichkeit zu täuschen); Bewertung der Coronapandemie-Maßnahmen durch deutsche Politiker in den letzten zwei Jahren; Toleranz gegenüber dem Zusammenleben, gegenüber Scheidung, gegenüber Abtreibung und gegenüber Homosexualität.

Politische Beteiligung: Parteipräferenz bei der nächsten Bundestagswahl (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlbeteiligung bei der letzten Bundestagswahl im September 2021; Wahlverhalten bei der letzten Bundestagswahl.

Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; Angabe Religionszugehörigkeit Christentum: andere Religion/ Islam: andere Religion; Religionszugehörigkeit andere Religion; religiöse Bedeutung: Wichtigkeit der Religion; religiöses Verhalten (Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Treffpunkte, Häufigkeit des Betens); religiöser Glaube: In meinem Leben genieße ich den Schutz einer höheren Macht.

Persönlichkeit und psychologisches Wohlbefinden: Lebenszufriedenheit im Allgemeinen; Zufriedenheit mit der Beziehungssituation, mit der finanziellen Situation und mit der Gesundheit; Zukunftserwartungen in Bezug auf einen Arbeitsplatz, einen Universitätsabschluss, Heirat, Kinder und Wohlstand.

2. Aktuelle Situation:

Bildung: höchster Bildungsabschluss; weiterer Abschluss; sonstiger Bildungsabschluss (z. B., abgeschlossene Berufsausbildung/Lehre, Fachschulabschluss, etc. ); Abschluss der Schule oder der Berufsausbildung seit dem letzten Interview; Art des Abschlusses der Berufsausbildung; genaue Bezeichnung der beruflichen Qualifikation (ISCO 2008); Berufsabschluss (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Hochschulzugangsberechtigung zusammen mit diesem Berufsabschluss erhalten; Dauer der Ausbildung insgesamt; Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis (Note, Credit Points, Note und Credit Points) (generiert); Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis: Note/Credit Points; zusätzlicher Bildungsabschluss mit dem Berufsabschluss; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Noten im Schulabschlusszeugnis (Note, Credit Points, Note und Credit Points) (generiert); Noten/Credit Points im Schulabschlusszeugnis in folgenden Fächern: Deutsch, Mathe, Englisch; Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis (Note/Credit Points); Angaben zu zusätzlichem Bildungsabschluss; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview; Hochschulabschluss; Noten im Hochschulabschlusszeugnis (Gesamtnote/Credit Points).

Derzeitige Tätigkeit (z. B. Schule, Studium usw.); Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulart; besuchter Bildungsgang der kombinierten Mittel- und Oberstufe, Beginn des Besuchs dieser Schule (Monat und Jahr); derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe.

Lehre/Berufsausbildung: Beruf der aktuellen Ausbildung (ISCO 2008); Beruf der aktuellen Lehre (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); monatliches Nettoeinkommen nach Steuern und Pflichtabzügen; Beginn dieser Lehre (Monat und Jahr); Gesamtdauer dieser Lehre; zusätzlicher Bildungsabschluss mit der Lehre; Art dieses zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses.

Studium: Beginn des Studiums (Monat und Jahr); duales Studium mit Berufsausbildung; Beruf der Berufsausbildung im Rahmen eines dualen Studiums (ISCO 2008); Beruf der Berufsausbildung im Rahmen des dualen Studiums (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Art der Hochschule; Name der Hochschule; Studienort; Studienfächer (generiert); Hauptfach 1 (2, 3): Fächergruppe, Studienrichtung, Fach; Nebenfach 1 (2, 3): Fächergruppe, Studienrichtung, Fach; Abschluss, den der Befragte mit dem derzeitigen Studium erreichen wird; derzeitiges Studium ist ein zulassungsbeschränkter Studiengang oder ein Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, einem Bildungskredit oder einem Stipendium; Summe der monatlichen BAföG-, Bildungskredit- oder Stipendienbezüge.

Erwerbstätigkeit: genaue Bezeichnung der derzeitigen Tätigkeit (ISCO 2008); derzeitige Tätigkeit (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); derzeitige Umschulung/Weiterbildung neben der Erwerbstätigkeit; genaue Bezeichnung dieser Umschulung, Weiterbildung oder Schulung (ISCO 2008); Art der Umschulung/Weiterbildung (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); monatliches Nettoeinkommen nach Steuern und Pflichtabzügen; Art des Arbeitsvertrags; wöchentliche Arbeitszeit; Beginn dieser Tätigkeit (Monat und Jahr); erste Tätigkeit seit Verlassen der Schule; genaue Bezeichnung der ersten Tätigkeit (ISCO 2008); erste Tätigkeit (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert).

Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung: genaue Bezeichnung der Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung (ISCO 2008);Art der Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Beginn der Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung (Monat und Jahr); Gesamtzahl der Stunden dieser Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung; Anbieter dieser Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung; die befragte Person wird mit dieser Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung eine Teilnahmebescheinigung, eine anerkannte Lizenz oder eine andere Zertifizierung erhalten; aktive Suche nach einer Lehrstelle oder einem Arbeitsplatz in den letzten drei Monaten; genaue Bezeichnung dieser Stelle (ISCO 2008); aktive Suche nach welchem Arbeitsplatz oder Beruf (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert).

Demografie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtstag, Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr).

Zusätzlich verkodet: eindeutige Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Erhebung; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum; Data release version.

B. Youth vignette questionnaire:

Das Erhebungsexperiment wurde im Online- (CAWI) und im Papierfragebogen (PAPI) durchgeführt, nicht aber in den Telefoninterviews. Im PAPI- und CAWI-Modus der CILS4EU-DE-Umfrage erhielten alle Befragten vier verschiedene Vignetten mit einer Beschreibung eines hypothetischen Partners und wurden gebeten, ihre Bereitschaft zu einer Partnerschaft mit der beschriebenen Person zu bekunden. Der hypothetische Partner (die Vignettenperson), der in den Vignetten beschrieben wurde, unterschied sich in vier verschiedenen Merkmalen (Vignetten-Dimensionen): Herkunft, Religionszugehörigkeit, Religiosität und Bildungsgrad. Darüber hinaus variierte die Art der Partnerschaft, die die Befragten zu bewerten hatten, zwischen den Vignetten. Nach der Beschreibung der Vignettenperson wurden die Befragten gebeten, ihre Bereitschaft anzugeben, die beschriebene Person entweder zu heiraten, eine feste Partnerschaft mit ihr einzugehen oder eine lockere Partnerschaft mit ihr einzugehen.

Eindeutige Befragten-ID; Erhebungsland; Erhebungsmethode Youth Main Interview; Interviewdatum; Data Release Version Youth Main Interview; Vignettengruppe (einheimisch, Migrationshintergrund); Versuchsgruppe; Vignettennummer, Position der Vignettenfrage; Herkunft, Konfession, Religiosität und Bildungsstand der Vignettenperson; Art der Partnerschaft; Bewertung der Vignette: Web-Fragebogen, Bewertung der Vignette: postalischer Fragebogen, Bewertung der Vignette: postalischer und webbasierter Fragebogen (lineares Stretching).

Freizeitverhalten, Freundschaften, Familie, Gefühle und Überzeugungen, Identität, derzeitige Situation und Berufsausbildung von Jugendlichen. Geschwistersituation.

Welle 4

1. Fragebogen Jugendliche:

Themen: Freizeitverhalten: Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten (Verwandtenbesuch, Kino, Ausgehen, Lesen, Sportverein oder Musikverein, Konzert, Museum, Zeitunglesen); Stundenaufwand an einem typischen Schultag für Fernsehen, Chatten, Arbeiten im Haushalt, Video oder Computerspiele allein und mit anderen.

Freundschaften: Ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; interethnischer Kontakt mit Menschen ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft; Migrationshintergrund; Wichtigkeit von gleicher Bildung, Religion und ethnischem Hintergrund beim eigenen Partner für den Befragten persönlich und für dessen Eltern; fester Freund oder Freundin; Angaben zu Partner bzw. Partnerin: derzeitige Tätigkeit, besuchter Schultyp bzw. höchster Bildungsabschluss, ethnischer Hintergrund, Konfession, Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Partner bzw. die Partnerin; Beziehungsbeginn (Beziehungsdauer); Kontext des Kennenlernens (z.B. durch Freunde); Partner bzw. Partnerin lebt in derselben Nachbarschaft; Eltern haben Kenntnis von der Beziehung bzw. haben den Partner bzw. die Partnerin bereits getroffen; Eltern kannten sich bereits vor Beziehungsbeginn; familiäre Beziehungen: Interesse der Familie an Gesprächen über den Freund bzw. die Freundin; elterliche Einmischung: Forderung nach Informationen über Aktivitäten und Aufenthaltsort bei Unternehmungen mit dem Freund bzw. der Freundin, Forderung nach sofortigem Kennenlernen des Freundes bzw. der Freundin; erwartete Heirat; derzeitiger Freund bzw. Freundin ist erste feste Beziehung; Anzahl der vorherigen Freunde bzw. Freundinnen; Familie lehnt Beziehung ab; erwartete Offenheit der Familie bei ablehnender Haltung dem Freund bzw. der Freundin gegenüber; Familie überlässt Beziehungsentscheidungen dem Befragten; arrangierte Beziehungen durch die Familie; Forderung der Familie nach Abbruch der Beziehung bei fehlender Sympathie; präferiertes Heiratsalter; gewünschte Kinderzahl. Familie: Migrationshintergrund der biologischen Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; Häufigkeit von Taschengeld und Höhe des Taschengeldes.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer); Diskriminierung: Sympathie-Skalometer für ausgewählte Herkunftsgruppen; Rollenverständnis.

Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich zu Gleichaltrigen; delinquentes Verhalten in den letzten drei Monaten: mutwilliges Zerstören fremden Eigentums, Stehlen, Tragen von Messer oder Waffe, Trunkenheit); Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Zigarettenkonsum und Drogenkonsum; Körpergröße in Zentimeter und Gewicht in Kilogramm; präferierte und realistische Bildungsaspiration; Zukunftserwartungen hinsichtlich Aufenthalt in Deutschland, Heirat, Kinder und Gesundheitszustand.

Derzeitige Situation: Schulabschluss während des letzten Schuljahres; Noten in Mathematik, Deutsch und Englisch im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; derzeitige Situation; derzeit besuchte Schulform; Zweig der kooperativen Gesamtschule; derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe; Häufigkeit devianten Verhaltens in der Schule (Auseinandersetzungen mit Lehrern, erfahrene Bestrafung, unerlaubtes Fernbleiben vom Unterricht, Zuspätkommen); Selbstwirksamkeit; Einstellung zur Schule: Wichtigkeit guter Schulnoten.

Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS); Ausbildungsdauer; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Höhe der Ausbildungsvergütung pro Monat (kategorisiert); Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Arbeitsbeginn in diesem Beruf (Monat und Jahr); Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle seit Verlassen der Schule; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Arbeitsstelle (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS); aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle; Berufsbezeichnung des Wunschberufs (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum; Flaggenvariable (Interviewdatum abgeleitet vom Eingangsdatum der Kontaktinformationen); Data release version.

Abgeleitete Indizes: Berufsvercodung gemäß ISCO (International Standard Classification of Occupations) 1988; SIOPS (nach Ganzeboom); ISEI (nach Ganzeboom).

2. Fragebogen Geschwister: Anzahl Geschwister insgesamt; für bis zu 5 Geschwister wurde erfragt: Bruder oder Schwester; Alter; derzeitige Situation bzw. Tätigkeit; besuchte Schulform; Bildungsabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Hauptinterviews; Interviewdatum; Flaggenvariable (Interviewdatum abgeleitet vom Eingangsdatum der Kontaktinformationen); Data release version.

Abgeleitete Indizes: Berufsvercodung gemäß ISCO (International Standard Classification of Occupations) 1988; SIOPS (nach Ganzeboom); ISEI (nach Ganzeboom).

3. Tracking Datensatz: Individuelle Befragten-ID; nationale Befragten-ID; ID der Klasse und der Schule; Erhebungseinheit auf Klassenebene und Schulebene Welle 2; Land; Stratum der Schule (Migrantenanteil); Schultyp; Bundesland; Teilnahmestatus aus Wellen 1 bis 4.

Welle 5

Themen: Derzeitige Situation:
Schule: Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss im letzten Jahr; erreichter Ausbildungsabschluss und Bezeichnung des Abschlusses; Ausbildungsdauer; Abschlussnote; Erreichen eines Schulabschlusses gleichzeitig mit der Ausbildung; Art des Schulabschlusses; Noten in Mathematik, Deutsch und Englisch im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; derzeitige Tätigkeit; derzeit besuchte Schulform; Zweig der kooperativen Gesamtschule; derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe; Häufigkeit devianten Verhaltens in der Schule (Auseinandersetzungen mit Lehrern, erfahrene Bestrafung, unerlaubtes Fernbleiben vom Unterricht, Zuspätkommen); Selbstwirksamkeit; Einstellung zur Schule; Wichtigkeit guter Schulnoten.

Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Gesamtdauer der Ausbildung; Erreichen eins zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommen (kategorisiert).

Studium: Jahr des Studienbeginns; Art der Hochschule; Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Studiengang mit Zulassungsbeschränkung oder Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, Bildungskredit oder Stipendium; Gesamthöhe der Einnahmen aus BAföG, Bildungskredit und/oder Stipendium.

Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Arbeitsbeginn (Monat und Jahr); Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle seit Verlasse der Schule; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Arbeitsstelle; aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle; Berufsbezeichnung des Wunschberufs.
Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntnisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); weitere Sprache zu Hause außer Deutsch; Selbsteinschätzung der Kenntnisse in dieser Sprache (Sprechen, Schreiben); Häufigkeit von Fernsehen, Gesprächen mit der Familie und Freunden sowie Zeitunglesen in dieser Sprache.

Besitz der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit; Interesse an der deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit bzw. Einbürgerung; beabsichtigte Einbürgerung in den nächsten 5 Jahren; Meinung zu deutscher Staatsangehörigkeit bzw. Einbürgerung (aufwändig und teuer, wichtig, da Einbürgerung Wahlteilnahme ermöglicht, Schutz vor möglicher Abschiebung, bei Einbürgerung alte Staatsangehörigkeit abgeben); Einstellung zur deutschen Staatsangehörigkeit (ablehnende Haltung der Familie, weniger zum Herkunftsland der Familie zugehörig fühlen, Erleichterung des Alltags z.B. bei Behörden oder auf Reisen, Vorteile bei Ausbildung, Studium oder Jobsuche, richtig in Deutschland dazugehören).

Freizeitverhalten: Aktivität in Vereinen oder Gruppen; Verein oder Gruppe, in dem die meiste Zeit verbracht wird; Name des Vereins oder der Gruppe; Ausübung eines Amtes in diesem Verein; Anteil der Personen mit ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft; Art der politischen Partizipation im letzten Jahr (Petition, Demonstration, Parteiunterstützung); Informationshäufigkeit über politische und soziale Themen; Häufigkeit von Diskussionen über politische und soziale Themen.

Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Rauchen, Drogenkonsum; Nebenjob; Wochenstunden und Monatsverdienst im Nebenjob.

Familie: Migrationshintergrund der Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Interesse an der Politik dieses Landes; Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; Häufigkeit von Taschengeld und Höhe des Taschengelds.

Freundschaften: Ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; Kontakt in Schule, Studium oder Beruf mit Menschen ausgewählter ethnischer Herkunft.

Gefühle und Einstellungen: Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Wichtigkeit von Traditionalismus im Hinblick auf diese Gruppe; Deutsche sollten alles tun, um ihre Bräuche und Traditionen zu bewahren, Ausländer sollten sich der deutschen Gesellschaft anpassen, Deutsche sollten offen für Bräuche und Traditionen von Ausländern sein, Ausländer sollten alles tun, um ihre Bräuche und Traditionen bewahren.

Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Sympathie-Skalometer für ausgewählte Herkunftsgruppen; Meinung zum Zusammenleben als unverheiratetes Paar, zu Scheidung, Abtreibung und Homosexualität; Lebenszufriedenheit (Skalometer); Gesundheitsprobleme: Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Bauchschmerzen und Einschlafproblemen in den letzten 6 Monaten; Zukunftserwartungen hinsichtlich Arbeitsstelle, Aufenthalt in Deutschland, Universitätsabschluss und Reichtum.

Politische Meinung: Kompliziertheit der Politik; einfache Meinungsbildung über politische Themen; Politiker nur an Wählerstimmen interessiert; Politiker sorgen sich darum, was Leute denken; besonders guter Politiker; Zufriedenheit mit dem demokratischen System in Deutschland und der Arbeit der Bundesregierung; Institutionenvertrauen (politische Parteien, Gerichte, Polizei, Politiker, Zeitungen, Radio und Fernsehen); Parteipräferenz (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlberechtigung und Teilnahme an der Europawahl im Mai 2014; Selbsteinstufung Links-rechts.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Geburtstag (Monat, Jahr).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum (Monat, Jahr); Data release version.

Welle 6

Themen: Beruflicher Werdegang nach der Schule, Familie, Freunde, Partnerschaft und Freizeit

Youth main questionnaire:
Wohnsituation: Beziehung zu weiteren Haushaltsmitgliedern.

Selbsteinschätzung der Deutschkenntnisse (Sprechen, Schreiben); weitere Sprache(n) zu Hause außer Deutsch; Selbsteinschätzung der Kenntnisse in dieser Sprache (Sprechen, Schreiben); Häufigkeit von Fernsehen, Gesprächen mit der Familie und Freunden sowie Zeitunglesen in dieser Sprache; Nationalität.

Freizeitverhalten: Häufigkeit ausgewählter Freizeitaktivitäten (Verwandtenbesuch, Ausgehen, Lesen, Sportverein oder Musikverein, Konzert, Museum, Zeitunglesen); Informationshäufigkeit über politische und soziale Themen; Häufigkeit von Diskussionen über politische und soziale Themen; Anzahl der Bücher im Haushalt.

Familie: Migrationshintergrund der Eltern und Großeltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; Bildung der Eltern (nur Auffrischungsstichprobe); Erwerbsstatus der Eltern; derzeitiger bzw. letzter Beruf der Eltern.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Zukunftserwartungen im Alter von 30 Jahren bezüglich Aufenthaltsland, Heirat, Kinder, Gesundheitszustand, Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Meinung zur Einschränkung der Einwanderung von Flüchtlingen durch Festlegung einer Höchstgrenze; Meinung zur Flüchtlingsaufnahme im Land ( Kriegs- oder Bürgerkriegsflüchtlinge, Politisch Verfolgte, Religiös Verfolgte, Menschen, die vor dem Verhungern oder vor Naturkatastrophen fliehen, Ethnisch Verfolgte sowie Flüchtlinge, die ihr Land aufgrund unzureichender Beschäftigungschancen verlassen haben); Geschlechterrollen (Kindererziehung, Kochen, Saubermachen, Geld verdienen).

Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Einschätzung der der Chancen auf eine Ausbildung oder einen Job bei gleicher Abschlussnote (Männer oder Frauen, Ausländer oder Einheimische, Kinder von Arbeitern oder von Akademikern); jemals beworben; Diskriminierungserfahrung aufgrund Geschlecht, ethnischer Zugehörigkeit und sozialer Herkunft.

Freundschaften: fester Freund bzw. feste Freundin; Tätigkeit und Herkunft des festen Freundes/der festen Freundin; ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde; Personenvertrauen; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich mit Gleichaltrigen; Anteil Personen bei der Hauptaktivität mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft; allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit.

Derzeitige Situation: Schulabschluss, Ausbildungsabschluss oder Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieser Abschlüsse; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; derzeitige Tätigkeit; Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulform; Berufsausbildung: Bezeichnung des Ausbildungsberufs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommen (kategorisiert); Studium: Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Berufstätigkeit: Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs; Höhe des monatlichen Nettoeinkommens (kategorisiert); Art der Einkommensquellen und Höhe der jeweils zur Verfügung stehenden Beträge.

Feste Partnerschaft; Zusammenleben mit dem Partner seit Januar 2011; verheiratet; Kinder; Kinderzahl.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Geburtstag (Monat, Jahr); Auffrischungstichprobe: Geburtsland; Migrationsalter; Generation.

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Gewichtungsfaktoren; Flaggenvariablen.

Youth achievement questionnaire:
Aufgaben zur Sprachkompetenz sowie ein Wort- und Figurenrätsel (kognitiver Fähigkeitstest)

Youth life history calendar -structural:
Technische Informationen: Art des Wellenerfassung; persönlicher Wellen Index; Wellentyp (2 Ebenen); Wellenbeginn und Wellenende (Monat, Jahr); Andauern der Welle; Korrektur im Prüfmodul; technisches Problem im Längsschnitt.
Informationen zu sämtlichen Bildungswegen seit Januar 2011: detaillierte Angaben zur allgemeinen Bildung Erster und Zweiter Bildungsweg, Angaben zur Berufsausbildung (Lehre in einer Firma und in der Schule), Angaben zur Schulischen Berufsausbildung, Angaben zu berufsbildenden Schulen für Aus- und Weiterbildung, Angaben zu Umschulung, Angaben zum Studium, Berufsvorbereitung, andere Berufsausbildung.
Erfasst wurden z.B. besuchte Schulform(en), Schulabschluss erreicht, Abschlussnote; Ausbildungsberuf, Studienfächer, Hochschulart, Zulassungsbeschränkung, Studienabschluss, erreichter Studiengrad, weitere Studiengänge.

Angaben zu sämtlichen Beschäftigungsformen (z.B. Vollzeitbeschäftigung: Beruf, Art des Arbeitsvertrages, Umwandlung der Befristung in einen unbefristeten Vertrag, Wochenarbeitszeit, Praktikum, Nebenjob, Art der Tätigkeit, etc.) , Angaben zu Mutterschutz, Elternzeit, Freiwilligendienst, Wehrdienst, Work & Travel, Auslandsaufenthalten, Arbeitslosigkeit, Jobsuche; Tätigkeit als Hausmann bzw. Hausfrau, Arbeitsunfähigkeit.
Angaben zur Art anderer Aktivitäten.

Überprüfung der Angaben durch Öffnen des Kalenders; fehlende Informationen.

Youth life history calendar - partner:
Angaben zum Partner: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat, Geburtsjahr); Zeitpunkt Beginn und Ende der Partnerschaft; Andauern der Partnerschaft; weitere Partnerschaften; Beginn und Ende weiterer Partnerschaften; Schulbesuch des Partners zu Beginn der Partnerschaft und besuchte Schulform; Bildung des Partners zu Beginn der Partnerschaft; Migrationshintergrund; Zeitpunkt des Zusammenlebens mit dem Partner; Andauern des Zusammenlebens; verheiratet mit dem Partner; Zeitpunkt Beginn und Ende der Ehe; Andauern der Ehe.

Youth life history calendar - children:
Angaben zu Kindern: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat, Geburtsjahr); leibliches Kind.

Informationen zur Stichprobe (Youth main questionnaire, Youth achievement questionnaire, youth life history calendar, youth life history calendar - partner, youth life history calender - children): Internationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Datenerhebungsmethode (persönliches Interview); Version, Stichprobe (Panel, Auffrischung); Interviewdatum (Monat, Jahr); Data release version; eindeutiger Partner-Index; eindeutiger Kinder-Index.

Welle 7

Youth main questionnaire:

Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in der Landessprache (sprechen und schreiben); weitere zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in dieser zweiten Sprache (sprechen und schreiben); Anwendungshäufigkeit dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit der Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitunglesen); Familiensituation bzw. Situation außerhalb der Familie oder alleinlebend; Vereinsmitgliedschaft; Persönlichkeitsmerkmale (Extrovertiertheit, Wohlwollen, Gewissenhaftigkeit, Neurotizismus, Offenheit für Erfahrungen).

Angaben zum Partner: fester Partner/ feste Partnerin; Zeitpunkt des Beziehungsbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Alter; derzeitige Tätigkeit; höchster Bildungsabschluss; angestrebter Bildungsabschluss; Herkunft des Partners/ der Partnerin; Heirat; Zeitpunkt der Eheschließung (Monat, Jahr); Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr der Kinder.
Einstellungen zu anderen Gruppen: Meinung zu Einwanderern: nationale Bevölkerung/ Einwanderer sollten an ihren Bräuchen und Traditionen festhalten, Einwanderer sollten sich der Gesellschaft im Land anpassen, nationale Bevölkerung sollte offen für Sitten und Gebräuche von Einwanderern sein; Zusammenleben ohne Trauschein, Scheidung, Abtreibung und Homosexualität sind ok; Gefühle gegenüber verschiedenen Bevölkerungsgruppen (Deutsche, Italiener, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrer, Afghanen, Albaner, Bulgaren, Nordafrikaner, andere Afrikaner).

Eltern: Migrationshintergrund der Eltern; Besuchshäufigkeit im Herkunftsland der Eltern in den letzten 12 Monaten; derzeitiger Erwerbsstatus der Eltern.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: habe viele gute Eigenschaften, viel, auf das ich stolz sein kann, mag mich so wie ich bin, Zukunftszuversicht; Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; persönliche Bedeutung an Sitten und Gebräuchen dieser Gruppe festzuhalten; Häufigkeit verschiedener Gefühle (sorgenvoll, schnell wütend, ängstlich, niedergeschlagen, wertlos, handeln ohne nachzudenken); Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten.

Freunde und Bekannte: Kontakthäufigkeit mit Personen verschiedener Herkunft (Deutsche, Italiener, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrer, Afghanen, Albaner, Bulgaren, Nordafrikaner, andere Afrikaner, andere nationale Herkunft); Anteil der Freunde mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft.

Aktivitäten und Gesundheit: allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit; Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Magenschmerzen und Einschlafschwierigkeiten in den letzten sechs Monaten; delinquentes Verhalten in den letzten drei Monaten: mutwilliges Zerstören fremden Eigentums, Stehlen, Tragen von Messer oder Waffe, Trunkenheit); Häufigkeit von warmer Mahlzeit und Frühstück; Häufigkeit von Alkoholkonsum, Sport, Zigarettenkonsum und Drogenkonsum; Körpergröße in Zentimetern und Gewicht in Kilogramm; Zukunftserwartungen im Alter von 30 Jahren bezüglich Arbeitsplatz, Aufenthaltsort, Hochschulabschluss und finanzielle Situation.

Derzeitige Situation: generierte Anzahl der genannten Aktivitäten aus Welle 6; Andauern dieser Aktivität; Zeitpunkt des Ende der Aktivität(en) (Monat, Jahr); Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieser Abschlüsse; Erwerb einer Hochschulzugangsberechtigung bzw. Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Gesamtnote im Abschlusszeugnis; Gesamtnote im Schulabgangszeugnis und in den Fächern Mathematik, Deutsch und, Englisch; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieses Hochschulabschlusses; Gesamtnote Hochschulabschluss.

Detaillierte Angaben zur derzeitigen Tätigkeit: Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulform; Beginn des Schulbesuchs (Monat, Jahr); Klassenstufe, Berufsausbildung: Zeitpunkt des Ausbildungsbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Erreichen eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses durch die Ausbildung; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Studium: Zeitpunkt des Studienbeginns (Monat, Jahr); Hochschulart; Studienfächer im Haupt- und Nebenfach; voraussichtlicher Studienabschluss; Studium mit Zugangsbeschränkung; Berufstätigkeit: Berufsbezeichnung des derzeitigen Berufs oder Jobs (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Wochenarbeitszeit; Arbeitsbeginn in diesem Job (Monat, Jahr); derzeitiger Job ist erste Arbeitsstelle nach Verlassen der Schule; erste Arbeitsstelle nach Verlassen der Schule (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungsstelle bzw. einem Job in den letzten drei Monaten; Beruf (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Art der Einkommensquellen und Höhe der jeweils zur Verfügung stehenden Beträge.

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsdatum - Monat, Jahr).

Youth friends questionnaire:

Angaben zu den drei besten Freunden: Geschlecht; Alter; Herkunft; derzeitige Tätigkeit; höchster Bildungsabschluss; Beruf (ISCO, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; Untersuchungsgebiet; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum (Monat, Jahr); Version Youth main Interview, Youth friends Interview)

Tracking Datensatz: Individuelle Befragten-ID; ID der Klasse und der Schule; Erhebungseinheit auf Klassenebene und Schulebene Welle 2; Sample (Panel, Auffrischungsstichprobe); Land; Stratum der Schule (Migrantenanteil); Schultyp; Teilnahmestatus aus Wellen 1 bis 7.

COVID-19-Special - Zusatzbefragung zur Corona-Pandemie (Youth main questionnaire):

Derzeitige hauptsächlich ausgeübte Tätigkeit; Job im Februar 2020; Verlust dieses Jobs aufgrund der Corona-Pandemie; Veränderung des Arbeitsalltags durch die Corona-Pandemie (z.B. Arbeit von zu Hause aus, weniger/ mehr Geld, weniger/ mehr Wochenstunden, freigestellt ohne/ mit Entgeltfortzahlung, zusätzlichen Nebenjob oder Minijob angenommen, Nebenjob oder Minijob verloren, nichts davon, momentan kein Job oder Nebenjob und nicht in Ausbildung); Informationshäufigkeit über die Corona-Pandemie durch folgende Quellen in deutscher Sprache (Zeitungen (auch online), öffentlich-rechtliche und private Fernseh- und Rundfunksender (auch online), öffentliche Stellen, z.B. Regierung oder Gesundheitsministerium, Informationen von Wissenschaftlern oder Forschungseinrichtungen, soziale Medien); Vertrauen in die vorgenannten Informationsquellen; Informieren über die Corona-Pandemie in einer anderen Sprache als Deutsch; am häufigsten genutzte Sprache für diese Informationen; Informationshäufigkeit über die Corona-Pandemie durch ausgewählte Quellen in dieser Sprache; Vertrauen in die die Informationsquellen in dieser Sprache; Vertrauen in verschiedene Parteien in Bezug auf die Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie (CDU/CSU, SPD, AfD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen); Zustimmung zu Aussagen zur Corona-Pandemie (die deutsche Bundesregierung hat rechtzeitig auf die Corona-Pandemie reagiert, die von der deutschen Bundesregierung ergriffenen Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie schränken die persönliche Freiheit unnötig ein, der wirtschaftliche Schaden durch die Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie steht in keinem Verhältnis zu ihrem Nutzen); Bewertung der Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zur Bewältigung der Corona-Pandemie; Hauptverantwortung für die Eindämmung der Corona-Pandemie (Staat oder Bürger); mehr oder weniger Sorgen seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie im Hinblick auf folgende Bereiche: finanzielle Situation, eigene Gesundheit, Gesundheit von Freunden und Verwandten, wirtschaftliche Situation in Deutschland; nachgewiesene Infektion mit dem Corona-Virus (selbst, eine Person aus der Familie, eine Person aus dem Freundeskreis, eine Person aus dem Bekanntenkreis, nein, möchte ich nicht sagen); Häufigkeit von Kopfschmerzen, Bauchschmerzen und Problemen beim Einschlafen in den letzten zwei Monaten; Häufigkeit persönlicher Vorsorgemaßnahmen gegen COVID-19 (niese oder huste in die Armbeuge, trage in der Öffentlichkeit Mundschutz und /oder Handschuhe, wasche gründlich die Hände, gebe anderen Menschen zur Begrüßung nicht die Hand); Häufigkeit verschiedener Gefühlszustände seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie (mache mir viele Sorgen, werde leicht wütend, fühle mich ängstlich, traurig, wertlos, handle ohne nachzudenken, fühle mich einsam); Veränderungen im Verhalten anderer Personen in der Öffentlichkeit seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie (gehen mir auf der Straße oder in Geschäften häufiger aus dem Weg, setzen sich in der Öffentlichkeit häufiger von mir weg, sind mir gegenüber insgesamt hilfsbereiter geworden); Veränderung des eigenen Verhaltens; häufigeres Gefühl ungerechter Behandlung oder Diskriminierung aufgrund der ethnischen Herkunft seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie; Veränderungen seit Beginn der Corona-Pandemie im Hinblick auf die Häufigkeit von Streit oder Auseinandersetzungen, Beleidigungen oder verbaler Gewalt, Handgreiflichkeiten oder körperlicher Gewalt, Störung durch Nachbarn sowie Hilfe von Nachbarn; Vertrauen in verschiedene Parteien in Bezug auf die Bewältigung des Klimawandels (CDU/CSU, SPD, AfD, FDP, Die Linke, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen); Zustimmung zu verschiedenen Aussagen: Bundesregierung hat rechtzeitig auf den Klimawandel reagiert, die von der Bundesregierung ergriffenen Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels schränken die persönliche Freiheit unnötig ein, der wirtschaftliche Schaden durch die Maßnahmen zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels steht in keinem Verhältnis zu ihrem Nutzen, es ist richtig, dass Themen wie Klimawandel oder Migration während der Corona-Pandemie nicht mehr im Vordergrund stehen); Bewertung der Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zur Bewältigung des Klimawandels; Hauptverantwortung für die Eindämmung des Klimawandels (Staat oder Bürger); Zustimmung zu Aussagen zur Corona-Pandemie (Freiheit des Einzelnen sollte während der Corona-Pandemie hinter dem Wohl der Bevölkerung zurückstehen, während der Corona-Pandemie sollte Deutschland keine Geflüchteten aufnehmen, der wahre Ursprung der Corona-Pandemie wird uns verschwiegen, während der Corona-Pandemie brauchen wir eine starke Führungsperson, die für unsere Sicherheit sorgt); Zustimmung zu folgenden Aussagen (es ist wichtig, jetzt den Maßnahmen der Bundesregierung zu folgen, ohne sie zu hinterfragen, Personen mit deutscher Staatsangehörigkeit sollten während der Corona-Pandemie bevorzugt medizinisch versorgt werden, es ist nicht gut, wenn Virologen anstatt demokratisch gewählter Politiker das Land regieren, Menschen, die sich nicht an die Schutzmaßnahmen der Bundesregierung halten, sollten sofort bei der Polizei gemeldet werden); Zufriedenheit mit verschiedenen Lebensbereichen (allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit, Gesundheit, deutsches Gesundheitssystem).

Demographie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat, Geburtsjahr).

Zusätzlich vekodet wurde: nationale Befragten-ID; Untersuchungsgebiet (Deutschland); Erhebungsmodus der Zusatzbefragung; Interviewdatum; Angabe von Monat und Jahr; Version der Zusatzbefragung; Zuordnung zu Experimentalgruppen.

Welle 8

Youth main questionnaire:

Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in der Landessprache (sprechen und schreiben); deutscher Dialekt; weitere zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Sprachkompetenz in dieser zweiten Sprache (sprechen und schreiben); Anwendungshäufigkeit dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit der Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitunglesen); Partner/ Partnerin; Herkunft des Partners/ der Partnerin; verheiratet, Zeitpunkt der Eheschließung (Monat, Jahr); Heiratsabsicht; Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr der Kinder; weiterer Kinderwunsch in den nächsten zwei Jahren; Familiensituation: Geburt der Eltern im Ausland (Migrationshintergrund); Besuch des Herkunftslandes der Mutter/ des Vaters.

Gefühle und Überzeugungen: Nationale Identität; Zugehörigkeitsgefühl zu einer anderen Gruppe und Stärke der Identität; Geschlechterrollen; Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; Wichtigkeit von Religion für den Befragten; Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Begegnungsstätten; Häufigkeit von Gebeten; Aktivität in einer religiösen Gemeinschaft.

Wohnsituation: Alter bei Auszug aus dem Elternhaus; Hauptwohnsitz (Land, regionale Klassifikation; Wohnstatus; Höhe der monatlichen Miete bzw. monatlichen Rückzahlungskosten für Hypothekendarlehen und andere Darlehen zur Finanzierung der Eigentumswohnung bzw. des Hauses; Anzahl der Wohn- und Schlafzimmer; Zusammensetzung der Wohngegend (Familien mit Kindern, Ältere, Ausländer, Arbeitslose); Bewertung der Wohngegend hinsichtlich Wohnungen, Grünflächen, öffentliche Verkehrsmittel, Einkaufsmöglichkeiten, Sicherheit tagsüber und nachts, Entfernung zum Arbeitsplatz bzw. Ausbildungsort oder Studienort; genutztes Verkehrsmittel; Umzugsabsicht innerhalb der nächsten zwei Jahre; Hauptgrund für die Umzugsabsicht; maximal akzeptierte Entfernung in Minuten zum Arbeitsplatz bzw. Ausbildungsort oder Studienort; präferierte Ortsgröße.

Alltag: Häufigkeit verschiedener Freizeitaktivitäten; Zeitaufwand an einem Wochentag für Fernsehen, Nutzung von Streamingdiensten, sozialen Medien, Online Dating Plattformen, Haushaltstätigkeiten, Videospiele oder Computerspiele allein und mit anderen; Anteil der Freunde mit deutscher, italienischer, polnischer, russischer, türkischer bzw. anderer Herkunft; Selbsteinschätzung des Gesundheitszustands im Vergleich mit Gleichaltrigen; allgemeine Lebenszufriedenheit und Zufriedenheit mit der derzeitigen Wohnung sowie der Wohnumgebung; Zukunftsperspektiven mit 30 Jahren in Bezug auf den Aufenthalt im Land, Heirat, Kinder, Gesundheit und Wohneigentum.

Derzeitige Situation: Schulabschluss oder Ausbildungsabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art des Ausbildungsabschlusses; Bezeichnung der beruflichen Qualifikation nach ISCO 2008 (ISEI, SIOPS – generiert); Erwerb einer Hochschulzugangsberechtigung durch die berufliche Qualifikation; Ausbildungsdauer insgesamt; Gesamtnote bzw. Credit Points im Abschlusszeugnis; Erwerb eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses mit dem Berufsabschluss; Art des zusätzlich erworbenen Bildungsabschlusses; Gesamtnote im Schulabgangszeugnis und in den Fächern Mathematik, Deutsch und, Englisch; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview und Art dieses Hochschulabschlusses; Gesamtnote Hochschulabschluss; derzeitige Haupttätigkeit.

Schule: Derzeit besuchter Schultyp; Schulzweig; Schulbesuch seit Monat, Jahr; Klassenstufe;
Lehre/ berufsbezogene Ausbildung: Berufsbezeichnung; wichtige Aspekte für die Ausübung des Berufs (Schlichten bei Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen Personen, Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts mit Menschen aus der Region, klare und verständliche Sprache, andere davon überzeugen ihre Meinung oder ihr Verhalten zu ändern, Unterstützen von Kunden oder Klienten im persönlichen Gespräch, Lehren); Nettoeinkommen; Ausbildungsbeginn (Monat, Jahr); Ausbildungsdauer; Erwerb eines zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses mit der Ausbildung; Art des zusätzlich erworbenen Bildungsabschlusses.

Studium: Studienbeginn (Monat, Jahr); Duales Studium; Beruf; Berufsbezeichnung im Rahmen des Dualen Studiums (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Hochschulart; Anzahl der Studienfächer (Haupt- und Nebenfächer); Studienfächer; Art des Studienabschlusses; Zugangsbeschränkung oder Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, Bildungskredit oder Stipendium; Höhe der bezogenen Leistungen.

Arbeit: Derzeitiger Beruf (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); wichtige Aspekte für die Ausübung des Berufs (Schlichten bei Meinungsverschiedenheiten zwischen Personen, Aufrechterhaltung des Kontakts mit Menschen aus der Region, klare und verständliche Sprache, andere davon überzeugen ihre Meinung oder ihr Verhalten zu ändern, Unterstützen von Kunden oder Klienten im persönlichen Gespräch, Lehren); Teilnahme an Umschulung, Fortbildung oder Ausbildung zusätzlich zur Arbeit; Art der Umschulung etc.; Bezeichnung der Umschulung etc. (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Nettoeinkommen; Art des Arbeitsvertrages; Wochenarbeitszeit; Monat und Jahr des Arbeitsbeginns in diesem Beruf; erste Stelle nach Schulabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung der ersten Stelle (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Bezeichnung der Umschulung oder Fortbildung ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert); Beginn der Umschulung oder Fortbildung (Monat, Jahr); Anbieter; Erhalt einer Teilnahmebescheinigung, anerkannten Lizenz oder einer anderen Zertifizierung mit dieser Umschulung, Fortbildung oder Weiterbildung; aktive Suche nach einer Ausbildungs- oder Arbeitsstelle in den letzten drei Monaten; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO-08, ISEI, SIOPS - generiert).

Fragebogen Geschwister: Anzahl Geschwister insgesamt; biologischer Bruder oder Schwester, Halbbruder/ Halbschwester, Adoptivbruder/ Adoptivschwester, Stiefbruder/ Stiefschwester; Alter der Geschwister; derzeitige Situation bzw. Tätigkeit; besuchte Schulform; Bildungsabschluss; Berufsbezeichnung (ISCO 2008, ISEI, SIOPS).

Zusätzlich verkodet wurde: Internationale Befragten-ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Geschwisterinterviews (telephone, post, online); Interviewdatum; Data release version; Flag: Technical error sibling 3 (telephone interview) .

Youth residence history calendar: Alter beim Einzug; Wohnungsstatus (derzeitige oder letzte Wohnung - generiert); regionale Klassifikation (RegioStaR); Haushaltszusammensetzung; Auszugsgründe.

Zusätzlich verkodet: Internationale Befragten ID; Land der Datenerhebung; Erhebungsmethode des Youth residence history calendar (telephone, post, online); Interviewdatum; Data release version; Anzahl der Einträge in den youth residence history calendar.

Welle 9

A: Youth main questionnaire:

1. Kulturelle und soziale Integration:
Sprache: Selbsteinschätzung der Beherrschung der Sprache des Erhebungslandes (in Wort und Schrift); (zweite) zu Hause gesprochene Sprache; Selbsteinschätzung der Beherrschung der zweiten zu Hause gesprochen Sprache (in Wort und Schrift); Häufigkeit der Verwendung dieser zweiten Sprache (Gespräche mit Familie und Freunden, Fernsehen und Zeitung lesen); Migrationsgeschichte: Geburt der Eltern im Ausland; Häufigkeit der Besuche im Geburtsland der Mutter/des Vaters in den letzten 12 Monaten; Migrationshintergrund des Befragten.

Romantische Beziehung, Ehe und Kinder: Derzeitige Beziehung; Datum der Heirat (Monat, Jahr); Hintergrund des Partners; Kennenlernen des Partners durch Familie oder Verwandte, durch Freunde oder Bekannte, durch Dating-Websites, durch soziale Netzwerke usw. ; Kinder; Anzahl der Kinder; Monat und Jahr der Geburt der Kinder; jemals einen Partner online kennengelernt und eine lockere Beziehung gehabt; jemals einen Partner online kennengelernt und eine feste Beziehung gehabt; jemals einen Partner offline kennengelernt und eine lockere Beziehung gehabt, jemals einen Partner offline kennengelernt und eine feste Beziehung gehabt, Merkmale der Partner dieser Beziehungen (Deutsche ohne Migrationshintergrund, gleiche Religionszugehörigkeit, höherer Bildungsstand, niedrigerer Bildungsstand, gleicher Migrationshintergrund) und Anzahl der Partner.

Diskriminierung: Häufigkeit der Diskriminierung bei der Partnersuche aufgrund der Religionszugehörigkeit, der Sprache, der Sprachkenntnisse, des Dialekts oder Akzents, der Bildung und des Migrationshintergrunds; Einstellungen gegenüber anderen Gruppen: Deutschen, Italienern, Polen, Russen, Türken, Syrern, Afghanen, Albanern, Bulgaren, Nordafrikanern, anderen Afrikanern und Ukrainern (Bewertung auf einer Skala von 0 bis 100).

Freundschaft (starke Bindungen): ethnischer Hintergrund der Freunde (deutsch, italienisch, polnisch, russisch, türkisch, anderer Hintergrund).

Gesundheit: Häufigkeit von Gesundheitsproblemen (Kopfschmerzen, Magenschmerzen und Einschlafprobleme) in den letzten 6 Monaten; Gesundheitsverhalten: Häufigkeit, eine warme Mahlzeit zu sich zu nehmen, Alkohol zu trinken, Sport zu treiben oder ins Fitnessstudio zu gehen, Zigaretten zu rauchen, zu frühstücken und Drogen zu konsumieren; Impfung gegen COVID-19; Monat und Jahr der ersten Impfung; Gründe für die Impfung (Schutz meiner Gesundheit, Schutz der Gesundheit anderer, Beitrag zur Aufhebung von Beschränkungen, leichterer Zugang zu Restaurants, Cafés, Kinos, Sonstiges, Arbeit, Studium, Berufsausbildung, Druck der Gesellschaft, Familie, Freunde oder Bekannte, sonstige Gründe); Gründe für die Nichtimpfung (Zweifel an der Wirksamkeit, Angst vor Nebenwirkungen, keine Notwendigkeit, Ablehnung von staatlichem Zwang, Warten auf einen anderen Impfstoff, Warten auf Langzeitstudien, Vorerkrankungen, Schwangerschaft/Stillen, Angst vor Unfruchtbarkeit, andere Gründe).

Devianz und Straffälligkeit: Straffälliges Verhalten in den letzten 3 Monaten (absichtliche Beschädigung fremder Sachen, Diebstahl in einem Geschäft oder bei einer anderen Person, Tragen eines Messers oder einer Waffe, stark betrunken gewesen).

Politische Beteiligung: Parteipräferenz bei der nächsten Bundestagswahl (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlbeteiligung bei der letzten Bundestagswahl im September 2021; Wahlverhalten bei der letzten Bundestagswahl.

Identität: Einstellungen zu Integrations-/Akkulturationsstrategien (Das deutsche Volk sollte alles tun, um Sitten und Gebräuche zu bewahren, Zuwanderer sollten sich der deutschen Gesellschaft anpassen, das deutsche Volk sollte offen sein für die Sitten und Gebräuche der Zuwanderer, Zuwanderer sollten alles tun, um Sitten und Gebräuche zu bewahren; Bedeutung der deutschen Identität; ethnische Identität (keine andere Gruppe, eine andere Gruppe, zwei andere Gruppen); andere Gruppe, der sich der Befragte noch zugehörig fühlt; Stärke des Zugehörigkeitsgefühls.

Haltungen und Normen: Misstrauen (Coronavirus wurde absichtlich erzeugt, Coronavirus ist harmlos, eine kleine geheime Gruppe ist für die Weltpolitik verantwortlich, Wissenschaftler manipulieren Beweise, um die Öffentlichkeit zu täuschen); Bewertung der Coronapandemie-Maßnahmen durch deutsche Politiker in den letzten zwei Jahren; Toleranz gegenüber dem Zusammenleben, gegenüber Scheidung, gegenüber Abtreibung und gegenüber Homosexualität.

Politische Beteiligung: Parteipräferenz bei der nächsten Bundestagswahl (Sonntagsfrage); Wahlbeteiligung bei der letzten Bundestagswahl im September 2021; Wahlverhalten bei der letzten Bundestagswahl.

Religion: Religionszugehörigkeit; religiöse Bedeutung: Wichtigkeit der Religion; religiöses Verhalten (Häufigkeit des Besuchs religiöser Treffpunkte, Häufigkeit des Betens); religiöser Glaube: In meinem Leben genieße ich den Schutz einer höheren Macht.

Persönlichkeit und psychologisches Wohlbefinden: Lebenszufriedenheit im Allgemeinen; Zufriedenheit mit der Beziehungssituation, mit der finanziellen Situation und mit der Gesundheit; Zukunftserwartungen in Bezug auf einen Arbeitsplatz, einen Universitätsabschluss, Heirat, Kinder und Wohlstand.

2. Aktuelle Situation:

Bildung: höchster Bildungsabschluss; weiterer Abschluss; sonstiger Bildungsabschluss (z. B., abgeschlossene Berufsausbildung/Lehre, Fachschulabschluss, etc. ); Abschluss der Schule oder der Berufsausbildung seit dem letzten Interview; Art des Abschlusses der Berufsausbildung; Berufsabschluss (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Hochschulzugangsberechtigung zusammen mit diesem Berufsabschluss erhalten; Dauer der Ausbildung insgesamt; Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis (Note, Credit Points, Note und Credit Points) (generiert); Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis: Note/Credit Points; zusätzlicher Bildungsabschluss mit dem Berufsabschluss; Art dieses Bildungsabschlusses; Noten im Schulabschlusszeugnis (Note, Credit Points, Note und Credit Points) (generiert); Noten/Credit Points im Schulabschlusszeugnis in folgenden Fächern: Deutsch, Mathe, Englisch; Gesamtnote im Berufsabschlusszeugnis (Note/Credit Points); Angaben zu zusätzlichem Bildungsabschluss; Hochschulabschluss seit dem letzten Interview; Hochschulabschluss; Noten im Hochschulabschlusszeugnis (Gesamtnote/Credit Points).

Derzeitige Tätigkeit (z. B. Schule, Studium usw.); Schule: derzeit besuchte Schulart; besuchter Bildungsgang der kombinierten Mittel- und Oberstufe, Beginn des Besuchs dieser Schule (Monat und Jahr); derzeit besuchte Klassenstufe.

Lehre/Berufsausbildung: Beruf der aktuellen Lehre (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); monatliches Nettoeinkommen nach Steuern und Pflichtabzügen; Beginn dieser Lehre (Monat und Jahr); Gesamtdauer dieser Lehre; zusätzlicher Bildungsabschluss mit der Lehre; Art dieses zusätzlichen Bildungsabschlusses.

Studium: Beginn des Studiums (Monat und Jahr); duales Studium mit Berufsausbildung; Beruf der Berufsausbildung im Rahmen des dualen Studiums (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Art der Hochschule; Studienfächer (generiert); Hauptfach 1 (2, 3): Fächergruppe, Studienrichtung, Fach; Nebenfach 1 (2, 3): Fächergruppe, Studienrichtung, Fach; Abschluss, den der Befragte mit dem derzeitigen Studium erreichen wird; derzeitiges Studium ist ein zulassungsbeschränkter Studiengang oder ein Auswahlverfahren; Bezug von BAföG, einem Bildungskredit oder einem Stipendium; Summe der monatlichen BAföG-, Bildungskredit- oder Stipendienbezüge.

Erwerbstätigkeit: derzeitige Tätigkeit (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); derzeitige Umschulung/Weiterbildung neben der Erwerbstätigkeit; Art der Umschulung/Weiterbildung (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); monatliches Nettoeinkommen nach Steuern und Pflichtabzügen; Art des Arbeitsvertrags; wöchentliche Arbeitszeit; Beginn dieser Tätigkeit (Monat und Jahr); erste Tätigkeit seit Verlassen der Schule; erste Tätigkeit (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert).

Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung: Art der Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert); Beginn der Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung (Monat und Jahr); Anbieter dieser Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung; die befragte Person wird mit dieser Umschulung, Fort- oder Weiterbildung eine Teilnahmebescheinigung, eine anerkannte Lizenz oder eine andere Zertifizierung erhalten; aktive Suche nach einer Lehrstelle oder einem Arbeitsplatz in den letzten drei Monaten; aktive Suche nach welchem Arbeitsplatz oder Beruf (ISEI (generiert), SIOPS (generiert).

Demografie: Geschlecht; Alter (Geburtsmonat und Geburtsjahr).

Zusätzlich verkodet: eindeutige Befragten-ID; Land der Erhebung; Erhebungsmethode; Interviewdatum; Data release version.

B. Youth vignette questionnaire:

Das Erhebungsexperiment wurde im Online- (CAWI) und im Papierfragebogen (PAPI) durchgeführt, nicht aber in den Telefoninterviews. Im PAPI- und CAWI-Modus der CILS4EU-DE-Umfrage erhielten alle Befragten vier verschiedene Vignetten mit einer Beschreibung eines hypothetischen Partners und wurden gebeten, ihre Bereitschaft zu einer Partnerschaft mit der beschriebenen Person zu bekunden. Der hypothetische Partner (die Vignettenperson), der in den Vignetten beschrieben wurde, unterschied sich in vier verschiedenen Merkmalen (Vignetten-Dimensionen): Herkunft, Religionszugehörigkeit, Religiosität und Bildungsgrad. Darüber hinaus variierte die Art der Partnerschaft, die die Befragten zu bewerten hatten, zwischen den Vignetten. Nach der Beschreibung der Vignettenperson wurden die Befragten gebeten, ihre Bereitschaft anzugeben, die beschriebene Person entweder zu heiraten, eine feste Partnerschaft mit ihr einzugehen oder eine lockere Partnerschaft mit ihr einzugehen.

Eindeutige Befragten-ID; Erhebungsland; Erhebungsmethode Youth Main Interview; Interviewdatum; Data Release Version Youth Main Interview; Vignettengruppe (einheimisch, Migrationshintergrund); Versuchsgruppe; Vignettennummer, Position der Vignettenfrage; Herkunft, Konfession, Religiosität und Bildungsstand der Vignettenperson; Art der Partnerschaft; Bewertung der Vignette: Web-Fragebogen, Bewertung der Vignette: postalischer Fragebogen, Bewertung der Vignette: postalischer und webbasierter Fragebogen (lineares Stretching).

ABSTRACT Gereja Masehi Injili di Minahasa atau GMIM adalah gereja dengan organisasi terbesar di Sulawesi Utaradengan populasi jemaat hampir 900.000 jiwa, Bermula dari hampir 100 orang. Kemudian melewati 177 tahun menjadi hampir sembilan ratus ribu jiwa. Data tahun 2005 GMIM mempunyai sekitar 900 pendeta, 65% di antaranya adalah perempuan, yang melayani 818 gereja lokal, yang dibagi ke dalam 85 wilayah, dengan sekitar 1.000.000 anggota. Oleh karena banyaknya jumlah anggota GMIM,dalam setiap pesta Demokrasi yang di laksanakan di Indonesia banyak partai-partai politik melakukan pendekatan- pada elit-elit GMIM dan di percayakan untuk memegang kekuasaan pada partai politik yang ada di Indonesia. Negara Indonesia setiap lima tahun sekali melaksanakan pesta Demokrasi.termasuk Pilkada Minahasa Selatan.Pada tahun 2010 Minahasa Selatan melaksanakan pemilihan kepala daerah secara langsung di pilih oleh rakyat.sebagaimana kita ketahui dalam setiap pesta demokrasi ada lembaga-lembaga tertentu termasuk Gereja menyuarakan bahwa "pilihlah sesuai dengan hati nurani'.kalimat ini berdasarkan pandangan gereja merupakan suara Kenabian.Kenabian yang dimaksud adalah membawa suara ALLAH dalam proses pembuatan kebijakan. Jadi GMIM disini berperan agar supaya masyarakat yang ada di minahasa selatan harus mengambil bagian dalam pesta demokrasi,tetapi jangan kita terlibat oleh politik praktis,seperti money politik dan hal-hal lain yang menghalalkan segala cara untuk mencapai tujuan.warga GMIM atau warga gereja harus mampu menilai setiap keadaan,situasi dan kondisi yang ada.gereja harus tegas,gereja harus memberitakan nilai-nilai etika untuk memperkaya bangsa.1 Skripsi Penulis Dijurusan Ilmu Pemerintahan, Program Studi Ilmu Politik Universitas Sam Ratulangi 2 Mahasiswa FISIP UNSRATPENDAHULUANA. Latar Belakang Masalah.Sejak masa sebelum kemerdekaan NKRI umat Kristen dan atau Gereja-gereja telah mengusahakan pendidikan melalui sekolah-sekolah yang diasuhnya.Usaha demikian masih banyak yang berkelanjutan hingga dewasa ini.Walaupun jalannya tidak selalu mulus, namun usaha tersebut mengalami perkembangan juga.Hal itu, misalnya, tampak jelas dari data tahun 1980, dimana cita-cita pendidikan Kristen dan sumbangannya kepada kehidupan nasional pada umumnya tidak jauh berbeda dari pemikiran yang dirumuskan oleh Majelis Pusat Pendidikan Kristen. Pemikiran tentang tujuan pendidikan Kristen, dalam Anggaran Dasarnya berbunyi: "Mempersiapkan tenaga pembangunan yang takut dan taat kepada Tuhan, terampil, menguasai ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi serta memiliki integritas moral dan bersedia mengamalkan dirinya di dalam pembangunan bangsa dan negara Indonesia". Dari cita-cita itu tampak bahwa yang menjadi tujuan pendidikan tidak hanya pembinaan intelektualitas belaka, melainkan juga kepribadian secara menyeluruh.Walau pun masih sering terdapat anggapan dari beberapa orang bahwa umat Kristen pada umumnya dan Gereja-gereja pada khususnya kurang peduli terhadap aktivitas politik, karena politik masih di anggap tabu ketika di bawa ketataran agama. Namun kenyataannya bahwa tidak sedikit jumlah orang Kristen yang diikutsertakan duduk dalam kabinet (kecuali dalam kabinet terakhir) dan dalam pimpinan ABRI pada waktu lalu. Unsur-unsur pokok dalam mengambil bagian di bidang politik pada masa kemerdekaan adalah bahwa mereka loyal terhadap pemerintah, mereka ikut mendukung mempertahankan Pancasila selaku dasar negara, mereka menolak ideologi komunisme, dan bahkan mereka di sekitar tahun 1960 merupakan kelompok moderat dalam pergolakan zaman. Sampai peleburannya dalam Partai Demokrasi Indonesia (PDI) pada tahun 1970-an, Partai Kristen Indonesia (Parkindo) menjadi salah satu saluran penting aspirasi dan pemikiran Kristen di bidang sosio-politis.Di samping itu, sejak tahun 1950 Dewan Gereja-geraja di Indonesia (DGI) yang pada 1984 diubah namanya menjadi Persekutuan Gereja-geraja di Indonesia (PGI) menjadi wadah penting dalam memikirkan tanggung jawab Kristen dalam politik. Secara singkat, pemikiran itu menekankan kewajiban setiap orang Kristen untuk memenuhi tanggung jawabnya terhadap nasib masyarakat dan negara dengan berpartisipasi di bidang politik.Gereja Masehi Injili di Minahasa adalah suatu lembaga Gereja yang bernaung dalam PGI, bertugas untuk mempersiapkan anggota-anggotanya agar dapat memenuhi tanggung jawab tersebut lewat partisipasi politik jemaat dalam kehidupan politik, termasuk didalamnya ikut berpartisipasi pada kegiatan PEMILU. Partisipasi haruslah positif, kreatif, kritis, dan realistis, adalah pernyataan-pernyataan yang sering dikeluarkanGMIM berhubungan dengan salah satu masalah politik yang ditujukan kepada pemerintah, masyarakat, dan golongan jemaat Kristen sendiri.Atas dasar pemikiran diatas mengenai peran gereja terutama dalam memperkuat partisipasi politik warga gereja, maka penelitian kali ini akan mengambil topik mengenai lembaga gereja yakni Gereja Masehi Injili di Minahasa atau GMIM, dengan mengangkat soal peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan partisipasi politik Jemaat pada pelaksanaan PILKADA Minahasa Selatan tahun 2010 (suatu studi di Jemaat GMIM Kalvari Kapitu)B. Perumusan MasalahBerdasarkan permasalahan yang sudah di uraikan sebelumnya, akhirnya dirumuskanlah masalah kedalam pertanyaan berikut :-Bagaimana peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan Partisipasi Politik Jemaat pada PILKADA Minahasa Selatan Tahun 2010 ?.METODOLOGI PENELITIANA. Desain Penelitian.Pendekatan yang dipergunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah pendekatan kualitatif, dengan metode analisis deskriptif.Pada dasarnya desain deskriptif kualitatif disebut pula dengan kuasi kualitatif (Bungin, 2009). Maksudnya, desain ini belumlah benar-benar kualitatif karena bentuknya masih dipengaruhi oleh tradisi kuantitatif, terutama dalam menempatkan teori pada data yang diperolehnya. Format deskriptif kualitatif bertujuan untuk menggambarkan, meringkaskan berbagai kondisi, berbagai situasi, atau berbagai fenomena realitas sosial yang ada, kemudian berupaya untuk menarik realitas ke permukaan sebagai suatu ciri, kharakter, sifat, model, tanda, atau gambaran tentang kondisi, ataupun fenomena tertentu. Format ini tidak memiliki ciri seperti air (menyebar di permukaan), tetapi memusatkan diri pada suatu unit tertentu dari berbagai fenomena.Dengan ciri yang seperti ini, maka memungkinkan penelitian ini bersifat mendalam dan "menusuk" ke sasaran penelitian.Dengan demikian penelitian deskriptif kualitatif lebih tepat jika digunakan untuk masalah-masalah yang membutuhkan studi mendalam seperti permasalahan tingkah laku, masalah respons masyarakat terhadap objek tertentu, serta permasalahan implementasi kebijakan publik di masyarakat.Adapun unit yang diteliti dalam penelitian deskriptif kualitatif adalah individu, kelompok atau keluarga, masyarakat dan kelembagaan sosial atau pranata sosial.unit individu adalah masalah-masalah individu, orang per orang, sedangkan unit kelompok atau keluarga. Sedangkan unit kelompok atau keluarga, yaitu bisa satu kelompok atau satu keluarga.Masyarakat adalah suatu desa, kecamatan, beberapa kecamatan, beberapa kotamadia dan seterusnya tergantung pada konsep masyarakat yang digunakan (Bungin, 2009).Pemilihan pendekatan kualitatif adalah untuk menjawab masalah penelitian yaitu :Untuk dapat memperoleh gambaran tentang bagaimana peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan partisipasi politik jemaat pada PILKADA Minahasa Selatan Tahun 2010Penggunaan pendekatan kualitatif dalam penelitian ini akan mampu memberikan informasi yang mendalam dan akurat sehingga akan membantu proses interpretasi informasi dan data yang diperoleh.Dengan demikian aktivitas penelitian dicirikan oleh kegiatan mengumpulkan, menggambarkan dan menafsirkan data tentang situasi yang dialami, hubungan tertentu, kegiatan, pandangan, sikap yang ditunjukkan atau tentang kecenderungan, yang tampak dalam proses yang sedang berlangsung, atau pertentangan yang meruncing serta kerjasama yang dijalankan. Dengan menggunakan desain ini, maka akan dapat diperoleh gambaran fenomena, fakta, sifat sertahubungan fenomenal tentang peran GMIM dan dukungannya terhadap proses pemilihan Kepala Daerah di Kabupaten Minahasa Selatan .B. Jenis Data.Data yang diolah dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer dan data sekunder.Data primer adalah data yang langsung direkam di lapangan melalui wawancara mendalam dan yang didapat melalui observasi yang dilakukan oleh peneliti sendiri.Sementara itu data sekunder adalah data olahan atau data telah dipublikasikan secara resmi yang didapat dari berita media, dokumentasi dan arsip lembaga terkait lainnya.a. Data Primer.Data primer dalam penelitian ini adalah data yang diperoleh secara langsung dari para informan di lapangan.b. Data Sekunder.Data sekunder dalam penelitian ini adalah seluruh data dokumnter yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan pemilukada di kabupaten Minahasa Selatan tahun 2010.C. Teknik Pengumpulan, Pencatatan dan Pengolahan Data.Adapun metode pengumpulan data yang dipilih untuk penelitian ini adalah wawancara mendalam (in depth-interview).Pada dasarnya wawancara mendalam yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini merupakan wawancara tidak berstruktur, meskipun disiapkan pula pedoman untuk melakukan wawancara.Menurut Bungin (2009) bahwa : "Wawancara terstruktur sebagaimana yang lazim dalam tradisi survey adalah kurang memadai, yang diperlukan adalah wawancara tak berstruktur yang bisa secara leluasa melacak ke berbagai segi dan arah guna mendapatkan informasi yang selengkap mungkin dan semendalam mungkin".Pedoman wawancara bebas tidak berstruktur berisikan daftar pertanyaan terbuka dalam dialog lisan dengan secara bebas dan informal dengan informan tentang fakta dan informasi tentang peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan Partisipasi Politik Jemaat pada PILKADA Minahasa Selatan Tahun 2010.D. Informan Penelitian.Adapun yang menjadi informan dalam penelitian ini adalah warga GMIM Jemaat Kalvari yang dinilai representatif untuk memberikan informasi dan data tentang peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan Partisipasi Politik Jemaat pada PILKADA Minahasa Selatan Tahun 2010 yaitu :a. Ketua Jemaat GMIM Kalvari Kapitu.b. BPMJ GMIM Kalvari Kapituc. Majelis Jemaat GMIM Kalvari Kapitud. Tokoh-tokoh Jemaat GMIM Kalvari KapituE. Instrumen Penelitian.Instrumen penelitian yang dipergunakan dalam proses pengumpulan data melalui wawancara tak berstruktur dan ketika pengamatan, adalah peneliti sendiri dengan menggunakan alat bantu seperti alat perekam suara (tape recorder), alat rekam visual (video recorder), alat tulis, serta lap top untuk menyimpan data hasil penelitian. Adapun materi wawancara dan pengamatan adalah diperluas dari berbagai variabel yang dikemukakan dalam hipotesis kerja.F. Arena dan Situasi Penelitian.Setting dalam penelitian ini adalah arena dan situasi dimana proses wawancara dan observasi dilaksanakan. Pola ini adalah merujuk pada apa yang dikemukakan oleh Miles dan Huberman dalam Creswell (1994:149) yaitu bahwa the setting (where the research will take place). Selanjutnya area penelitian adalah area dari kegiatan sehari-hari dari para informan penelitian, sebagaimana dijelaskan oleh Emerson dalam Newman (1973: 343) bahwa field research is the study of people acting in the natural courses of their activites.G. Prosedur Penelitian, Pengumpulan dan Analisis Data.Prosedur dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut :1) Tahap pra penelitian. Yaitu menyusun rancangan penelitian, menentukan lokasi penelitian, penilaian kondisi fisik area penelitian, penentuan para narasumber atau informan, menyiapkan perlengkapan penelitian dan mempersiapkan diri untuk dapat masuk dan menyesuaikan dengan lingkungan dan pola kehidupan dari objek penelitian. Ini dibutuhkan dalam konteks untuk membangun kepercayaan dari objek yang akan diteliti, serta mendorong kepada nuansa akademik.2) Tahap Pengumpulan dan Analisis data.Pada tahap ini data dan informasi yang diperoleh, direduksi atau dipilah-pilah, kemudian dilakukan focusing dan penyederhanaan terhadap catatan lapangan. Reduksi dilakukan dengan cara membaca transkrip, hasil wawancara, catatan pengamatan atu dokumen yang akan dianalisis.3) Tahap Penulisan Laporan Penelitian. Penulisan laporan akhir adalah memuat temuan penelitian, tetapi selain itu juga menguraikan hasil interpretasi dan eksplanasi temuan-temuanpenelitian dan penarikan kesimpulan penelitian, verifikasi, perumusan dalil-dalil dan rekomendasi akademik, serta rekemonedasi pragmatis yang terkait dengan tujuan dan manfaat penelitian.Tahap terakhir dari bagian ini adalah penarikan kesimpulan yaitu menarik proposisi atau dalil-dalil atau hipotesis tertentu berdasarkan kecenderungan interaksi yang terjadi antar atribut. Pada dasarnya kesimpulan yang diarahkan sebagai jawaban masalah penelitian, akan menjelaskan pola korelasi antara kategori dan properties.HASIL PENELITIAN DAN PEMBAHASANA. Peran Gereja dalam Menghadapi PilkadaHaris mengatakan gereja punya peran penting dalam politik.Ia mengajukan dua alasan. Saya ringkas sebagai berikut :Pertama, banyak warga gereja yang setiap hari harus menghadapi masalah sosial-politik-ekonomi. Kebijakan politik yang dibuat pemerintah berhubungan langsung dengan kualitas kehidupan warga gereja. Gereja tidak bisa lepas dari realitas yang dihadapi jemaatnya.Bahkan Alkitab telah menujukkan banyak tokoh yang aktif terlibat dalam politik seperti Amos dan Daniel.Johanes Pembabtis dan Yesus Kristus juga banyak berbicara tentang kondisi politik pada masa mereka.Keterlibatan gereja dalam politik merupakan bentuk reflektif iman terhadap lingkungan sekitarnya.Kedua, gereja harus membawa suara kenabian. Kenabian yang dimaksud adalah membawa suara Allah kedalam proses pembuatan kebijakan, stuktur dan isu-isu yang mengarah pada kemanusian secara umum. Gereja harus berani mengatakan "iya" dan "tidak" terhadap kebijakan dan janji pemerintah. "Iya" yang maksudnya adalah mendukung program pemerintah yang komit kepada penyediaan pendidikan yang bermutu, memberikan akses kesehatan yang baik dan significant dan hal-hal lain yang membuat kehidupan warga menjadi lebih baik. "Tidak" ditujukan kepada tindakan penyelengara pemerintahan yang koruptif, manupulatif, sengaja melakukan kesalahan dan tidak memberikan keuntungan kepada masyarakat.Kesimpulannya : gereja harus ada dalam proses perumusan kebijakan publik. Gereja harus aktif mempengaruhi kebijakan negara melalui politik. Gereja tidak bisa menarik diri atau diam terhadap proses politik. "The church has to be prophetic, speaking for God. The church has to herald the ethical values that enrich a nation. The church has to be bold and forthright, constructive and innovative. The church has to be "salt and light" in what is so often a corrupt environment, to bring light and health (Gereja harus seperti nabi, berbicara atas nama Allah. Gereja harus memberitakan nilai-nilai etika yang memperkaya bangsa. Gereja harus berani dan tegas, konstruktif dan inovatif.Gereja harus menjadi "garam dan terang" dalam lingkungan yang dikenal korup, untuk membawa terang dan kebaikan)," tulis Jim Haris.Relasi Gereja dan Negara menurut Prof. J. Philip Wogaman, guru besar Etika Kristen di Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, Amerika Serikat (AS) menulis buku berjudul Christian Perspectives on Politics (2000). Melalui buku itu, Wogaman membantu kita mengidentifikasi relasi antara gereja dan negara. Merujuk kepada sejarah, Ia membagi hubungan gereja dan negara kedalam empat relasi:1. Pertama, Teokrasi, di mana negara berada di bawah kontrol pemimpin-pemimpin agama. Dalam masyarakat primitif, bentuk negara seperti ini sangat lazim, seperti di dalam teokrasi Ibrani kuno.2. Kedua, Erastianisme. Istilah ini berasal dari nama seorang Swiss-Jerman di abad ke-16, Thomas Erastus. Di sini negara, atau lebih tepat para politisi berusaha mengendalikan gereja.Mereka mencari keuntungan-keuntungan politik dengan memperalat gereja.Singkatnya, gereja dipolitisasi bagi keuntungan-keuntungan politik.3. Ketiga, pemisahan gereja dan negara secara ramah. Di banyak negara pemisahan itu berlaku secara legal, tanpa kekerasan dan rasa benci.Itulah yang secara konstitusional terjadi di Amerika Serikat, kendati di dalam kenyataannya tidak selalu begitu.4. Keempat, pemisahan gereja dan negara yang tidak ramah. Khususnya dalam dua abad terakhir pemisahan seperti ini marak.Gerakan anti-klerikalisme (anti-gereja) misalnya di Perancis pada abad ke-19.Juga di Mexico terjadi hal serupa, ketika para imam dilarang memakai pakaian imam.Di kebanyakan negeri Marxis juga pemisahan seperti ini terjadi. Negara Albania dulu merupakan contoh yang sangat jelas bahwa negara sama sekali tidak mau tahu dengan gereja.Pdt. Alokasih Gulö, S.Th, M.Si dalam artikel Gereja dan Politik: Suatu Catatan Pengantar Tentang Hubungan dan Peran Gereja Dalam Politik (2013) menulis bahwa relasi antara gereja dan negara sangat dipengaruhi kondisi politik setempat. Relasi gereja dengan negara tidak sama di setiap tempat dan periode. Dalam keadaan kristis, peran politik gereka untuk mempengaruhi negara biasanya lebih besar dan agresif. Gereja bahkan bisa masuk kedalam politik praktis.Bahkan bila diperlukan gereja dapat menjadi partai politik dan terlibat dalam revolusi.Peran ini ditujukan untuk mengubah perilaku penyelengara, dari kedikatoran menjadi lebih demokratis.Namun dalam keadaan yang relative bebas seperti di negara demokratis, peran politik gereja cenderung lebih sedikit dan sederhana.Dalam sistem politik terbuka dimana warga punya kebebasan berbicara, gereja lebih berperan sebagai mediator baik sebagai lembaga pendidikan politik, perpanjangan loby masyarakat dan penegak moral.B. Sikap Politik Gereja GMIM Kalvari Kapitu dalam PilkadaKondisi politik di Jemaat Kalvari Kapitu menjelang pilkada tergolong normal. Warga tidak kehilangan kebebasan untuk menyatakan pendapat politiknya.Keamanan warga dijamin baik dengan baik oleh Polisi dan TNI.Hukum masih tegak berdiri. Dengan situasi normal seperti ini, peran politik gereja merujuk Prof. J. Philip Wogaman hanya ada tiga yaitu menegakan moral, melakukan pendidikan politik dan melakukan loby-loby politik untuk isu tertentu.Lantas bagaimana gereja secara institusi melaksanakan peran politiknya itu?Tulisan Dr. James Emery White dalam artikel Christian and Politics (2012) menarik dijadikan sebagai rujukan. Menurut White gereja bisa mengambil posisi resmi, asalkan tidak langsung mendukung atau menentang calon dalam proses pemilihan. Gereja dapat membantu warga untuk memahami pilihan apa yang baik bagi mereka, namun hal itu boleh dilakukan selama mereka (warga) diarahkan pada semua pemilih yang berhak dan tidak menuju hanya satu partai politikGereja juga dapat mengundang kandidat di dalam sebuah forum untuk membahas isu-isu khusus seperti kemiskinan, kesehatan dan hal-hal yang berhubungan kesejahteraan warga.Di dalam forum itu, setiap kandidat diminta memberikan solusi atas isu-isu yang didiskusikan.Lewat forum ini, gereja memberikan warga kesempatan menilai kandidat dan program mana yang paling mereka percaya.Gereja juga harus terbuka menerima kunjungan kandidat. Gereja harus memperlakukan semua kandidat dengan cara yang sama yaitu berdoa baginya dan mengingatkanya tentang moralitas baik dalam proses pemilihan dan ketika Ia memimpin. kata kuncinya adalah "secara langsung". Gereja tidak bisa mengatakan secara resmi,"Kami mendukung Jhon Doe atau "Kami menentang Jane Doe," tulis James Emery White newsletter CCA Connection, Cincinnati Christian University, AS. Gereja juga tidak boleh mengirimkan dukungan kepada salah satu kandidat dengan menggunakan kop surat resmi gereja. Tanda-tanda politik tidak boleh ditampilkan pada property gereja.Bisakah Pendeta Mendukung Kandidat? White mengatakan, seorang pendeta (termasuk penatua dan jemaat -red) secara pribadi dapat mendukung seorang kandidat.Namun dukungan itu harus diberikan secara "tidak langsung".Maksudnya seperti ini. Sebagai pribadi, seorang pendeta dapat mempengaruhi orang yang Ia kenal, termasuk jemaatnya sendiri. Ia boleh mekakukan hal itu melalui percakapan-percakapan harian, seperti berbicara di tempat parkir dll. Namun pendeta itu tidak boleh menyampaikan dukungan kepada kandidat dari atas podium.Pendeta secara pribadi, dapat bekerja untuk kandidat dan memberikan dukungan keuangan.Namun gereja secara institusi tidak bisa memberikan dukungan keuangan kepada kandidat, sekalipun anggota gereja telah menyetujuinya.Sebagai pribadi, pendeta dapat menulis di media masa sebagai bentuk dukungannya kepada kandidat. Pendeta itu dapat menggunakan gelar dan affiliasi gerejanya." sebagai pendeta saya bebas bebicara dan mengajarkan moral dan isu sosial yang berhubungan dengan debat politik, seperti aborsi, pernikahan sejenis dan masalah ekonomi – bahkan jika, hal itu berimplikasi memberikan dukungan kepada salah satu kandidat dan mengkritik yang lain," tukas James Emery White.C. Peran Gereja GMIM Kalvari Kapitu dalam Peningkatan Partisipasi Politik JemaatPenelitian ini merupakan analisis mengenai peran Gereja terlebih khusus Gereja Masehi Injili di Minahasa, dalam peningkatan partisipasi politik jemaat, sehingga menjadikan warga gereja dewasa dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara.Hasil wawancara dengan informan mengenai program pelayanan GMIM tahun pelayanan 2010-2013 yang berkaitan dengan partisipasi politik bagi warga GMIM, adalah sebagai berikut:Pdt. SR selaku Ketua BPMJ GMIM Kalvari Kapitu mengatakan: GMIM dalam melaksanakan tugas pelayanan, dituangkan melalui program kerja yang disusun setiap tahunnya, program kerja ini dibagi menurut pelayanan kategorial yang ada, yaitu Bapa, Ibu, Pemuda, Remaja, dan Anak. Dalam penetapan program pelayanan ini disampaikan melalui suatu rapat paripurna yaitu Sidang Tahunan Majelis Sinode (STMS) yang dilaksanakan setiap tahunnya.Dalam STMS ini dilaporkan dan dibahas kegiatan/program pelayanan dari masing-masing kategorial yang ada sepanjang tahun yang berjalan.Pnt. VJ sekretaris BPMJ GMIM Kalvari mengatakan: dalam periode pelayanan 2010-2013, banyak program yang telah dilaksanakan oleh GMIM yang berhubungan dengan pemberian pendidikan politik bagi warga gereja khususnya warga GMIM, program pendidikan politik ini terbagi atas beberapa BIPRA yang melaksanakan, seperti PKB GMIM, dan Pemuda GMIM. Pemberian pendidikan politik bagi warga gereja ini bertujuan memberikan pembekalan dan pengetahuan, agar warga GMIM tidak lupa akan kapasitasnya sebagai warga Negara, yang harus turut aktif dalam pelaksanaan pemberian suara seperti pada pemilu atau pilkada. Kami tidak mengarahkan, tetapi lebih dititikberatkan kepada pemberian diri/partisipasi politik warga gereja terhadap mekanisme politik yang ada di Negara ini, agar kedepannya warga GMIM sadar akan kapasitasnya sebagai jemaat dan warga Negara, yang tentunya mempunyai hak-hak politik tertentu.Pnt. MK selaku ketua Kategorial Pelayanan Pemuda GMIM Kalvari mengatakan: dalam program pelayanan yang dilaksanakan oleh Pemuda GMIM, sebenarnya banyak sekali program yang tujuannya adalah memberikan pendidikan kepada pemuda GMIM agar mampu memainkan peran sebagai pemuda yang tanggap, aktif dan cerdas, dalam berinovasi, berkreatifitas, dan tumbuh dalam iman kekristenan. Program-program itu diantaranya adalah pelatihan pemuda gereja, dalam kegiatan pelatihan ini, pemuda gereja dilatih untuk menjadi kader yang potensial, berkualitas, mampu untuk menunjukkan jati diri sebagai pemuda dalam kehidupan berbangsa dan bernegara juga berjemaat. Karena dalam pelatihan kepemimpinan pemuda gereja ini ada 3 tahap, yaitu tahap dasar, menegah, dan sampai pada tahap tiga yaitu analisa social, sehingga pelatihan kepemimpinan pemuda gereja ini mampu melahirkan pemuda yang berkualitas. Disamping itu ada pula program Perkemahan Karya Pemuda GMIM yang pada periode pelayanan ini dilaksanakan setiap tahunnya, disamping untuk mempertemukan seluruh pemuda GMIM yang ada di daerah Minahasa, Manado, Bitung, jugapara pemuda dibekali dengan beberapa seminar-seminar, workshop, dan pembinaan keterampilan. Pada intinya program pelayanan pemuda dalam pembinaan warga pemuda GMIM sudah cukup banyak untuk dapat mendewasakan pemuda GMIM dalam kapasitasnya sebagai warga Negara yang memiliki hak dan kewajiban dalam partisipasi politik.Pdt. HL selaku wakil ketua BPMJ Kalvari mengatakan: memang selama ini ada wacana yang berkembang di jemaat bahwa menjadi pengurus/pelayan di GMIM merupakan batu loncatan untuk mendapatkan jabatan tertentu, tentunya wacana ini tidaklah benar, karena GMIM sebagai gereja hadir untuk melayani, bukan sebagai kekuatan politik local. Apabila ada anggapan yang berkembang seperti itu, hendaknya hal itu lebih dipahami sebagai suatu tindakan dari pada personal/pribadi bukan sebagai institusinya GMIM. Sebagai pelayan tentunya saya selalu memberikan pengertian kepada warga jemaat kiranya mampu untuk memilah apa yang menjadi tugas sebagai jemaat, dan apa pula tugas sebagai warga Negara. Hal ini sesuai yang tercantum dalam Alkitab, Roma 15:1 dimana dikatakan bahwa pemerintah itu adalah wakil Allah didunia, sehingga sudah sepatutnyalah setiap warga jemaat tunduk kepada pemerintah, dan setiap rule of the game yang ada dalam system pemerintahan Negara.KESIMPULAN DAN SARANA. KesimpulanBerdasarkan hasil dan wawancara dengan para informan di bagian pembahasan, maka penelitian tentang peran GMIM Kalvari Kapitu pada pemilihan kepala daerah, dapat disimpulkan sebagai berikut:1. Peran Gereja Masehi Injili di Minahasa khususnya GMIM Kalvari Kapitu dalam meningkatkan partisipasi politik telah cukup baik dilaksanakan, hal ini dapat dirasakan melalui program pelayanan jemaat, seperti pendidikan warga gereja yang berkaitan dengan politik dan kewarganegaraan.2. Dalam memberikan pembinaan dan sosialisasi kepada setiap warga gereja, GMIM Kalvari Kapitu dan tokoh-tokoh atau pemimpinnya juga telah berperan untuk memberikan kedewasaan kehidupan warga gereja dalam kehidupan politik bangsa, untuk menjaga stabilitas dalam warga gereja, demi terciptanya kehidupan yang rukun dan damai, walaupun sosialisasi dan pembinaan ini belum sepenuhnya efektif, karena tidak semuanya aras pelayanan jemaat GMIM dapat menerima dengan baik.3. Kehadiran para pendeta dalam kegiatan politik, berdasarkan hasil penelitian ini, bahwa menurut beberapa warga GMIM Kalvari Kapitu belum mampu memberikan pendidikan politik kepada warga gereja, malah meninmbulkan antipati dikalangan warga gereja karena dirasa belum mampu menjaga kapasitasnya sebagai pelayan Tuhan, kebanyakan para pendeta yang terlibat dalam politik praktis terhanyut dengan tindakan-tindakan yang tidak sesuai dengan misi kehambaan.B. SARANDari kesimpulan diatas maka saran dalam penelitian ini adalah:1. Mengingat peran GMIM dalam meningkatkan partisipsi politik telah cukup baik dilaksanakan, untuk kedepannya diharapkan dapat membuat program yang universal, artinya program pendidikan politik bagi warga GMIM dapat dijadikan sebagai program pokok GMIM, yang harus dilaksanakan oleh seluruh wilayah yang ada sampai dengan tingkat jemaat.2. Untuk program kedepannya, diharapkan GMIM dapat lebih intens lagi memberikan sosialisasi dan pembinaan kepada setiap warga GMIM, mengingat masih sering terjadinya perselisihan antar umat Bergama yang dipicu dari perbedaan pilihan, dalam proses politik.3. Perlunya penegasan kembali akan fungsi pelayanan seorang pendeta, apabila ada yang terlibat dalam politik praktis, tingkatan Sinode GMIM mampu melakukan Kontrol, agar kapasitas dan fungsi kepelayanan pendeta yang terlibat dalam politik praktis mencerminkan sikap dan perilaku yang benar-benar murni pelayanan.Sebaiknya Pendeta tidak berpolitik agar tidak mengganggu fungsinya dalam pelayananDAFTAR PUSTAKAArbi Sanit. 1985. Swadaya Politik Masyarakat, Telaah tentang Keterkaitan Organisasi Masyarakat, Partisipasi Politik dan Pertumbuhan Hukum dan Hak Asasi. Rajawali, Jakarta .Bungin, Burhan., 2009., Penelitian Kualitatif., Jakarta., Kencana Prenada Media GroupCarlton Clymer Rodee dkk (ed), 2000. Pengantar Ilmu Politik, Jakarta: PT Raja Grafindo PersadaCreswell, John W., 1994., Research Design, Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches., Calfornia., Sage Publication.Djiwandono, J Soedjati, 1994, Gereja dan Politik, Kanisius: YogyakartaErna Yuliandari, 2007. Pembangunan Partisipasi Politik Dalam Pilkada : Menuju Pemerintahan Daerah Yang Demokratis. 2007. PKn Progresif Jurnal Pemikiran dan Penelitian Kewarganegaraan Volume 2.Surakarta : FKIP UNS.Emanuel Gerrit Singgih, 2004. Iman dan Politik dalam Era Reformasi di Indonesia, Jakarta :BPK Gunung MuliaGunche Lugo, 2009. Manifesto Politik Yesus, Yogyakarta: Penerbit ANDIMaliki, Zainuddin, 2004, Politikus busuk, Galang Press, YogyakartaMarbun, B.N., SH, 2007, Kamus Politik, Pustaka Sinar Harapan, JakartaMiles Mathew dan Michael Huberman., 1992., Qualitative Data Analysis., California., Sage Publications Inc.Moleong, J, 1993, Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif, Remaja Karya BandungMiriam Budiardjo. 1998. Partisipasi dan Partai Politik Sebuah Bunga Rampai. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia .N. Muhadjir, 1992. Metodologi Penelitian Kualitatif , Raake Sarasin YogyakartaNasution, S, 1988, Metode penelitian naturalistic Kualitatif, Tarsito Bandung,Yayasan Sabda, 2012 Yayasan Lembaga SABDA (YLSA) | Laporan Masalah/Saran.

In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. ; Winner of the 2020 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the College of Graduate and Continuing Studies Degree Completion category. ; 1 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century Michael J. Bearden Norwich University SOCI401: Cultural and Anthropology Studies Dr. Timothy Maynard April 30, 2020 2 The Culture of Jihad in the 21st Century In the 15-years I have served in the United States Army, the focal point of my tactical and academic study has been almost entirely centered on the Middle East and its unique cultural complexities. As an Infantryman, I was embroiled in the early efforts to prevent a Sunni-Shia civil war in post-invasion Iraq, while also hunting down al-Qaeda operatives under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. A year later, during General Patraeus's troop surge, I was in the urban sprawl of Northwest Baghdad fighting not only a Sunni insurgency, but also the Iranian-backed Jaysh al-Mahdi, comprised of local Shia militia groups. In 2010, I led a battalion reconnaissance team in the Arghandab River Valley of Afghanistan against the Taliban near the very birthplace of their Salafi-jihadist movement. In subsequent years, following my graduation from the Special Forces Qualification Course, I served in the 5th Special Forces Group (SFG) on a variety of missions in support of Operation Inherent Resolve in Turkey and Syria. As a fluent Arabic speaker, I was heavily involved in early efforts to train and equip the Free Syrian Army for its fight against the Islamic State. Following this deployment, I served as a liaison officer to the United States Embassy and Turkish General Staff in Ankara, having daily interaction with foreign dignitaries, defense attachés, and military officials in strategic level planning and coordination efforts. I culminated my time with 5th SFG as the assistant operations sergeant of a detachment fighting the Islamic State in Syria. My understanding of the culture of jihad, the various jihadist groups operating throughout the Central Command (CENTCOM) area of responsibility, and the intricacy of Middle Eastern problem sets as a whole, has come from years of dedicated cultural analysis, in-depth study of Sunni and Shia Islam, and field experience from the strategic to the tactical level. It is because of this experience that I am compelled to discuss the culture of jihad in the 21st Century. 3 Since its beginning in circa 610 CE, when the prophet Muhammad ibn Abdullah was visited by the angel Gabriel in a cave near Mecca, Islam has shaken the foundations of the Middle East and remained in a state of near-perpetual conflict with the Western world. Islam is an Arabic term most closely relating to the English words submission or surrender. Mujahedeen, or holy warriors, spread this new religion by the sword throughout Asia, forcing the "submission" of thousands, and have hardly been at peace with their neighbors since. Centuries later, in the two decades following the attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in the United States, radical Islam's stance against the West has altered the diplomatic landscape between the world's great powers, fundamentally changed the United States' national strategic direction, and caused youth from all walks of life to sacrifice the best years of their lives in holy war to protect the supra-national community of Islam. From the invasion of Afghanistan to the subsequent invasions of Iraq and Syria to the ongoing peace talks with the Taliban, diplomatic and military efforts to eradicate jihadists from the Middle East have to-date been nearly ineffectual. Not only have these efforts failed to contain or defeat jihad, but at times have served to strengthen Islamic extremists' resolve in their call to arms against the West. Because jihad is such a fundamental part of the Islamic faith, it can never be "defeated" in the sense of traditional military eradication of an enemy force, but it can be confronted, contained, or refocused, as this paper will address. I argue that enabling local solutions and promoting education, alongside tailored surgical strike and security cooperation operations where necessary, are the keys to confronting, containing, and countering jihad. 4 Background Defining Jihad and Salafism Jihad is a transliterated form of the Arabic word meaning to struggle or to strive. In the traditional teachings of the Islamic faith, jihad is broken into two distinct categories: Greater jihad and lesser jihad. Greater jihad includes the personal struggle against selfish desires, emphasizing discipline and morality, as well as the struggle against Satan and the forces of evil. It includes jihad of the heart, jihad of the mind, and jihad of the tongue, involving praise for those who follow the will of Allah and correction for those who have gone astray (Gorka, 2016). The second category, lesser jihad, is viewed as the struggle against the enemies of Islam and the defense of its people. Lesser jihad is commonly referred to as Jihad of the Sword. Gorka (p. 60) reveals that, over time, this category of jihad has been used as justification for at least seven different subsets of holy war: 1. Using holy war to build an empire 2. Going after apostate regimes or individuals 3. Revolting against non-pious Muslim leaders 4. Fighting against the forces of imperialism in Muslim lands 5. Countering the West's pagan influence 6. Guerrilla warfare against a foreign invader 7. Using jihad as justification for terrorist attacks against civilian targets In a broad sense, lesser jihad can be viewed as offensive or defensive martial action. On the offensive side, jihadists use religion to justify building an empire, such as the Islamic State, attack apostate regimes, like those of the Taliban against Afghan government forces, and use terrorism against civilians, like the attacks on the World Trade Center. This offensive action 5 often takes jihadists beyond the borders of the ummah, or the people of Islam, striking fear into hearts of unbelievers around the globe. The defensive variety, especially in recent history, has most often correlated directly with the use of guerrilla warfare against foreign invaders, such as al-Qaeda's attacks on the international military coalitions that invaded Afghanistan and Iraq. This radical view of Islam is mostly practiced by those who follow the way of the Salafi, or the pious predecessors from the time of Muhammad, who experienced Islam in its purest form. It is believed that the first three generations who practiced the teachings of the prophet Muhammad are the ones who all Muslims thereafter should try to emulate. Themes of Salafism focus on complete adherence to sharia law, the fight against apostate Muslim regimes, and the spread and protection of Islam and its followers. At its core, Salafism is a very traditionalist view of Islam and has been practiced by multiple 21st Century terrorist organizations. The terms jihad and Salafi have shared such a close relationship in the last few decades that they have become nearly synonymous, at times described as Salafi-Jihadism or Jihadi-Salafism (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019) What Cultural Influences Lead One to the Path of Jihad? Before the attacks on 9/11, the largest call to jihad answered by the international Muslim community was in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. Stopping the spread of communism and defending the ummah against the atrocities of Russian ground forces was seen as a noble and just cause for young Muslim men, and not just among Muslims (Gorka, 2016; Nilsson, 2019). Many nations, including the United States, funded, equipped, and trained the Afghan mujahedeen (those who conduct jihad) for the fight against the Soviet empire. Jihad in the 21st Century has been viewed in a much different light, as it is most closely associated with acts of extreme violence against Western nations. While the piles of rubble that used to be the 6 World Trade Center smoldered, and a gaping hole scarred the wall of the Pentagon, people of the world were forced to ask themselves, "How could a person do this? Why would someone take their own lives and thousands of others in the name of Allah?" Religious Justification for Jihad. Though jihad has become almost entirely associated with Islamic holy war, the term itself is still simply the Arabic word for striving. Struggling against one's selfish desires, striving to maintain traditional values, and defending a community against a common enemy are not just Islamic concepts, they are universal to most tightly-knit cultures. Similarly, Christians and Jews are taught self-discipline, adherence to moral codes, and defending their belief against enemies of their faith. So, why has the Islamic flavor of this common cultural theme become so violent, causing deep unrest around the world in our modern era? Verses from the Qur'an can begin to unpack why horrific public executions, suicide bombings, and advocating for generalized violence against non-Muslims may be justifiable in jihadist culture. The Qur'an (2015) lays out the following decree in chapter 9, verse 29: Fight those from among the People of the Book who believe not in Allah, nor in the Last Day, nor hold as unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have declared to be unlawful, nor follow the true religion, until they pay the tax with their own hand and acknowledge their subjection (p. 208). My personal study of Islam and conversations with Muslims in the field revealed that this bit of prose has been used as motivation and justification for jihad by groups like al-Qaeda, the Taliban, the Islamic State, and Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham of our modern age. Some of the following themes are evident in the translation: 7 • Jews and Christians are recognized as People of the Book, but are required to accept the following—Allah as the one true god, sharia as the acceptable law, and Islam as the one true religion. • If Jews and Christians refuse to accept these statutes, they must pay a tax called the jizyah to show their subjugation. • If they refuse to do either of these, they are to be put to the sword (p. 208). Salafi-jihadist groups such as the Taliban and Islamic State have tried to revive the jizyah tax in areas under their control. Likewise, hundreds of Christians, Jews, and even Muslims who refuse to adhere to strict sharia law have been publicly executed. This vehement enforcement of arcane Islamic law is seen as a return to the purest form of Islam, as pious as the first few generations who followed the Prophet Muhammad. Another common religious cultural theme that ties these jihadist organizations together is a message of religious oppression. They preach to young Muslims that the Islamic world is under siege by the West and that their god, their value systems, and their way of life are being threatened by the evils of capitalism and democracy (Venhaus, 2010). In joining organizations like al-Qaeda or the Islamic State, young men from across the globe find a sense of purpose and direction in their cause to protect the ummah. This theme is manifested in the teachings of Anwar al-Awlaki, the spiritual leader of al-Qaeda and the father of home-grown terrorism in the United States. He calls on Muslims living among those in the West: How can your conscience allow you to live in peaceful coexistence with a nation that is responsible for the tyranny and crimes committed against your own brothers and sisters? How can you have your loyalty to a government that is leading the war against Islam and Muslims? Hence, my advice to you is this, you have two choices: either hijra [migration 8 to an Islamic land] or jihad. You either leave or you fight. You leave and live among Muslims or you stay behind and fight with your hand, your wealth, and your word. I specifically invite the youth to either fight in the West or join their brothers on the fronts of jihad: Afghanistan, Iraq, and Somalia (as cited in Gorka, 2016). This way of thinking is also captured in chapter 9, verse 5 of the Qur'an (2015): Kill the idolaters wherever you find them and take them prisoners, and beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they repent and observe Prayer and pay the Zakat, then leave their way free (p. 204). When taken literally, as they are by followers of Salafi-jihad, scriptures such as these leave no choice. To these men who have committed themselves fully to the ways of the pious ones, they are compelled to become shahid, or martyrs in the protection of the ummah. The Qur'an promises paradise for those who do: Surely, Allah has purchased of the believers their persons and their property in return for the Garden they shall have; they fight in the cause of Allah, and they slay and are slain—a promise the He has made incumbent on Himself in the Torah, and the Gospel, and the Qur'an. And who is more faithful to his promise than Allah? Rejoice, then, in your bargain which you have made with Him; and that it is which is the supreme triumph (p. 222). The concept of becoming a martyr in the struggle for Islam is romanticized by jihadist groups, like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State, and even state governments in local programming. In Lebanon, Mothers of Martyrs are interviewed to share the stories of their sons' glorious end while fighting abroad against the infidels (Venhaus, 2010). The Qur'an itself calls this sacrifice the supreme triumph for a jihadist, striving for the glory of Allah. 9 Though enforcing the jizyah, publicly executing those who do not follow sharia law, and seeking opportunities to kill infidels through suicide attacks represent a very small, extremist cultural sect of Islam, each of these practices is still justifiable if one looks to the Qur'an. This could be viewed as no different than a rural Pentecostal church in the Deep South who maintains strict standards for how women must dress and act: it all comes down to interpretation and a community's willingness to subjugate themselves to these standards. Spiritual leaders of jihadist groups in the 21st Century have used the Qur'an as continued justification for a variety of cruel, inhumane, and brutal actions that served to shock the West. The holy book of Islam acts as the essential glue, binding together all facets of Arab and Islamic culture. Artistic Inspiration for Jihad. A far cry from the harsh proclamations of the Qur'an, Arabic poetry predates Islam by centuries and serves as a bedrock of Arabic culture across the Middle East. Early desert nomads composed poems mostly in mono-rhyme and in one of sixteen standard canonical measures, which made them easy to commit to memory (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Naturally, this beautiful form of cultural expression has found a home in the modern jihadist movement, where it has become an inspiration for new recruits to join the cause and crucial in the sustainment of those already fighting infidels abroad. Creswell and Haykel assert that although analysts have generally ignored this facet of jihadist culture, it is woven deeply into the fabric of modern Islamic extremism. Osama bin Laden, most recognized as the former head of al-Qaeda, was also a highly-celebrated jihadist poet. Without question, his lyrical genius inspired young Arabs with stories of a return to the heroic and chivalrous past of Islam. One of his most famous works celebrates the martyrdom of the 9/11 hijackers. This is a theme among modern jihadist poetry, which preserves the tales of suicide bombers, the conquered apostate regimes of Iraq and Syria, and the glories of jihadist heroes (Creswell & Haykel). Likewise, in a 10 group of individuals who have each traveled far from home to defend Islam against the kuffar, these poems help to establish a sense of cultural identity, strengthening their wartime bond and solidifying their resolve. In seeing the videos of the Islamic State as they carved a path of destruction across large swathes of Iraq in early 2014, it may be difficult for one to believe that its members were motivated by the rhythmic lines of jihadist poetry. It is hard to accept that the same young fighter who is willing to behead an infidel for all the free world to see, could also be found passionately reciting lines celebrating the glorious return of an Islamic caliphate. During its rise, the Islamic State capitalized on the lyrical talent of a Damascus-born woman named Ahlam al-Nasr. In her first broadcast, called the Blaze of Truth, she sang each one of her 107 works a cappella, in accordance with the Islamic State's ban on musical instruments. The video was uploaded to Youtube, receiving thousands of views and further shares on multiple social media platforms (Creswell & Haykel, 2015). In the early days of the group's brutal campaign in Iraq, al-Nasr celebrated victory in Mosul as a new dawn for the country: "Ask Mosul, city of Islam, about the lions— how their fierce struggle brought liberation. The land of glory has shed its humiliation and defeat and put on the raiment of splendor" (as cited in Creswell & Haykel, 2015). Her choice of words helps one sense her deep passion for jihad, hidden within the lines. Mujahedeen are called lions and liberators. Mosul is called both a city of Islam and a land of 11 glory that, because of its liberation, has been released from the chains of shame and can now live in the splendor and pride of its former renown. Poetry has succored those serving in times of war for hundreds, even thousands of years. In the same manner, this key element of artistic cultural expression has helped bind together the modern jihadi movement, capturing the heroic deeds of martyrs who would otherwise remain nameless and unrecognized by the outside world. Serving in lands far away from home, young jihadists find inspiration, strength, and a renewed sense of identity in these haunting bits of rhyme. Social Pressure to Join Jihad. Abdullah Anas was an Algerian who served as one of the mujahedeen in Afghanistan in the 1980s and spent several years studying under Abdullah Azzam, the Palestinian "Father of Resistance to the Soviets" (Gall, 2020). Working to help Algerians achieve nonviolent change in their government, Anas, now in his 60s, has spent a life living and working among jihadists. To Anas, jihad is a fundamental principle of Muslim culture through which mujahedeen receive rewards in heaven: "I will never denounce jihad. As a Muslim, I know this to be a noble deed—where man can be the most beastly" (Gall). In a study of three Swedish jihadists, with experiences ranging from 1980s Afghanistan to the modern fight in Syria, Nilsson (2019) suggests that one of the fundamental social justifications for joining jihad is the sense that Islam and Muslims are collectively under attack. This, again, is a theme that applies to more than just the modern jihadist movement: Americans lined up in droves outside recruiting stations following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and decades later after September 11, 2001. Following the invasion of Afghanistan and Iraq, many Muslims from around the world began to see this not as just the West going after the 9/11 conspirators, but as a global attack on Islam. Each day, fresh news stories of coalition soldiers' crimes against 12 Muslim civilians and pictures of burning villages continued to motivate men to join the fight to protect the ummah from the foreign invaders. Nilsson contends that since most jihadists are very young, in their teens and early twenties, they are very susceptible to the influences of close friends and social groups. Safet, a young Muslim living in Sweden, was pressured by a friend to join the Islamic State in Syria, saying that he became convinced by his friend Ahmed that the group was fighting to protect Muslims (Nilsson). However, after realizing that the Islamic State was actually killing other Muslims in a practice called takfir, or excommunication, Safet became disillusioned and returned to Sweden (Nilsson). From the fight against the foreign invaders in the early 2000s in Afghanistan and Iraq, to the struggle for the establishment of an Islamic caliphate in 2015, it seems jihadists have most often been motivated by the need to protect the international Muslim community. Aside from the social responsibility of defending their faith and people, the need for adventure also seems to permeate the ideations of young men seeking to join a jihadist group. One of Nilsson's (2019) most interesting theories is that jihad is not the radicalization of Islam, but rather the Islamization of radicalism. Individuals who are already naturally predisposed to such adventurous or nihilistic behavior get caught up in the social dynamics of their time, ending up in a jihadist movement. Venhaus (2010) explains that in interviews with over 2,000 al-Qaeda prisoners from Iraq to Guantanamo Bay, he found that young Muslim men sought the cause of jihad for a number of normal social pressures felt by normal teens worldwide: "Revenge seekers need an outlet for their frustration, status seekers need recognition, identity seekers need a group to join, and thrill seekers need adventure" (Venhaus). The Effects of Social Media and Technology on Jihad. In the modern era, news is no longer bound by the time it takes for an article to be published, printed, and distributed across 13 great distance in a community. Social media platforms like Facebook, Youtube, Twitter, and Instagram have made sharing news instantaneous. Additionally, the advent of the smartphone, which acts simultaneously as a hand-held computer, high definition camera, and telephone with nearly world-wide coverage has forever changed the media landscape. In the era of modern jihad, one can post a single video that moves the minds of thousands in a matter of seconds. Following the 2003 invasion of Iraq to topple Saddam Hussein's regime, news stories of atrocity among the efforts of coalition troops over the next decade served to further the cause of local and foreign jihadists to protect the ummah from these invaders. Accidental bombing of civilians, mistreatment of the prisoners at Abu Ghraib, and a general ignorance toward Muslim culture were fueled by social media and smartphone technology. Venhaus (2010) claims that throughout this early phase of the war in Iraq, al-Qaeda very rarely had to actively recruit, their global brand was aggressively promoted through satellite television, internet chat rooms, and social media platforms; willing candidates sought them out. This use of media continued to be perfected by jihadist organizations like the Islamic State, who published a digital magazine called Dabiq, named for the ideological capital of the proposed caliphate, which rallied Muslims to jihad through stories of glory and heroism in the cause for Islam. The Islamic State also posted grisly execution videos, with stunning music and production value, including super high-definition shots of their brutality. Publications and videos such as these could be copied, saved, shared, and re-shared before any sort of government intervention could stop them. Creswell and Haykel (2015) reveal that jihadists were running a massive, secret network of social media websites and fake accounts that could be rapidly assembled and dissembled by hackers. The effects of social media and technology on modern jihadist culture are easy to understand, but challenging to measure in scope and reach. Just as easily as videos of Islamic 14 State propaganda or poetry can be shared, so too can stories of coalition force atrocities in Afghanistan and Iraq. This has put strategists in a unique position, where it is nearly impossible to control the narrative. Unfortunately, the story that breaks first is still the one that is liked and shared the most, even if the truth comes out after. Effects of Western Culture on Jihad. Rapid globalization, including the widespread diffusion of the internet and technology into the Middle East in the last two decades has continued to foment jihadist hatred for the West. Personal conversations with multiple Muslims in Iraq and Afghanistan revealed that the decadence, lavish richness, and sinful lifestyles portrayed by Western movies and media served to fuel the fires of disdain among the pious Salafi-jihadists. Additionally, Muslim men living in Western nations following the attacks on the World Trade Center were ostracized and feared by society, often leading them to an eventual radicalization process. Being denied a peaceful coexistence because of continued Western misperception, caused many young Muslims to become angry and seek community and brotherhood among other Muslims experiencing the same problems. Venhaus (2010) notes that out of the over 2,000 captured jihadists interviewed, more than 30 per cent of them sought al-Qaeda because they were angry. Under the tutelage of local al-Qaeda mentors, the frustrations of these young men were then turned upon their neighbors through careful instruction and manipulation. They were taught to see the West as the enemy of Islam, with hundreds of the ummah being harmed by their military coalitions in Afghanistan and Iraq each day. They were instructed in the ways of the pious ones who came before them, inspiring them to turn from the sinfulness of their Western neighbors and take pride in their newfound self-discipline and righteousness in the eyes of Allah. Eventually, many of these young men would travel to their 15 ancestral homelands to join the struggle, or conduct terrorist attacks on their own Western communities. Analysis A Unique Challenge Given the litany of reasons one might join jihad, the incredibly complex cultural and social environment, and the fluidity of the modern jihadist movement, how can the United States begin to contain this problem? The reasons one individual might join a jihadist cause are as various and sundry as why one might choose to join any movement or profession over another. As Nilsson (2019) and Venhaus (2010) have detailed, there appears to be no singular marker: one could be an extremely religious or a passive Muslim, rich or poor, single or married with a family, have a completely stable social life or be isolated with no friends. Jihadists can be from any country, any walk of life, and usually do not widely broadcast their intentions prior to taking part in acts of violence for the cause of Islam. It is because of the near-impossibility of clearly identifying a pattern of distinguishable cultural markers that make it such a challenge for the United States government and its allies to address the threat of jihad. Targeting an individual before they become a jihadist or before they commit a terrorist act has been one of the most formidable challenges of our time for military and law enforcement professionals alike. Usually, the much simpler job is finding a jihadist who has allowed their communications discipline to slip before an act, or catching them in a pitched battle on foreign soil. In order to protect citizens of the West and East alike against jihadists' aims, the United States Government must be prepared to confront, contain, and counter the jihadist narrative "left of bang," before an attack occurs. 16 The Global War on Terrorism: Taking the Fight to the Jihadists. In the months that followed September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush deployed Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) paramilitary officers and US Special Operations Forces (SOF) to find, fix, and finish pockets of al-Qaeda militants being harbored by the Taliban in Afghanistan. A fierce campaign of relentless aerial bombardment and mounted assaults by the forces of the Afghan Northern Alliance led to a swift and decisive defeat of al-Qaeda and the Taliban. With Kabul and Kandahar in allied hands, and an interim government established under the leadership of the Pashtun Hamid Karzai, the future of a free and prosperous Afghanistan seemed assured, but what came to be known as The Long War had only just begun. Trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and 19 years later, the United States and its allies have been forced to the negotiating table with the Salafi-jihadist Taliban. Likewise, after Saddam Hussein's continued disregard for international law, threats against the United States, and open violence against his own people, the administration of President Bush decided again to pursue a military option. Much like Afghanistan, the coalition was led by CIA operatives and SOF operators, coordinating airstrikes on key positions in a tactical display of American firepower affectionately titled Shock and Awe. However, unlike Afghanistan, a massive conventional invasion followed the bombing campaign, bent on toppling the Baathist regime and finding Saddam's chemical weapons stockpiles. What followed was a series of policy failures, leading to a steady influx of jihadists partnering with local insurgents seeking to oust the foreign invaders and protect the ummah from the atrocities of the kuffar. In my professional opinion, Iraq is still recovering from the decade-long military occupation, cleaning up the destruction left by the Islamic State, and on the brink of civil war due to concerns about being an Iranian puppet state. 17 Ineffective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Operation Iraqi Freedom. During my first combat rotation as an Infantryman in the Triangle of Death in southern Iraq in 2005-2006, I experienced the initial rumblings of a civil war between the Sunni and Shia Muslims in Iraq, each wrestling for power in a post-Saddam world. I was also witness to the inundation of foreign jihadists, joining the ranks of al-Qaeda in Iraq under the leadership of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, who at times headquartered in my area of operations. As I analyze our highly-kinetic and aggressive initial campaigns years later, I can see that the coalition's fight, first against Saddam, then against al-Qaeda, only bolstered jihadist motivation. In being a foreign invader, we inadvertently created a jihadist resistance movement, bent on the removal of their occupiers. Kilcullen (2010) explains this dilemma by explaining that focusing on the wrong metrics in a fight against insurgents can be deceptive: If you kill 20 insurgents, they may have 40 relatives who are now in a blood feud with your unit and are compelled to take revenge. Again in 2007-2008, I was deployed to Iraq as an Infantry squad leader to the sacred city of Khadimiyah in Northwest Baghadad. This was during the famous troop surge, meant to fix the ongoing problems with stability throughout the country. Being in the home of the beautiful Shrine of the Seventh Imam, it was a predominantly Shia area. Over the course of 15 months, my unit fought several engagements against Iranian-backed Shia militias and worked on project after project to strengthen local civil infrastructure, all while maintaining the utmost discretion against damaging homes or creating civilian casualties. Yet again, although we had conducted a nearly perfect counterinsurgency fight, it seemed that Kilcullen's insurgent math still applied: Fighting the jihadists only served to create more unrest within the population, no matter if we were restoring essential services and reducing damage to homes or not. 18 Operation Enduring Freedom. Nearly a decade after the fall of al-Qaeda and its Taliban hosts, I was deployed to the mountains of Afghanistan from 2010-2011. Stationed along the Arghandab River, just north of Kandahar, we were in the heart of the Pashtun Taliban. Again, the same story remained true: We fought the Taliban jihadists almost daily, but could not seem to win over the true key terrain in a counterinsurgency fight: The hearts and minds of the people. The Taliban would harass our unit's base of operations with a few pop shots as we called them, which would unleash a massive response in firepower and resources. Thousands of rounds of machine gun ammunition would be fired into the farm fields surrounding our Combat Out Post (COP), squads would be sent in pursuit of the attackers, and helicopters would spend hours scouring the terrain in an attempt to heap justice on the insurgents. This massive effort against so few served to erode the unit's motivation, exhaust our supplies, and alienate the civilian population whose homes and fields had been damaged in the process. Reflections on Personal Combat Experience. After years of combat experience and deeply studying Muslim culture, I can now see how the mistakes the coalitions made early-on in both operations only fueled the fires of insurgency, resistance to foreign occupiers, and generalized hatred for the West. Porch (2013) argues brilliantly that US counterinsurgency doctrine made the same mistake as its imperialistic predecessors of centuries before: Believing that military action was a proper vehicle for providing Middle Easterners with Western values, as well as a foundation for governance, social programs, and economic transformation in a region. This became evident in my own experience, realizing that no matter what sort of social, infrastructure, or economic programs ran alongside our military efforts, the people of both Afghanistan and Iraq felt the enormous social weight of being occupied by a foreign power, rendering these efforts nearly ineffectual. On the contrary, local and foreign jihadist movements 19 capitalized on each and every mistake of coalition forces, increasing their recruitment and resolve against the West. Though our military may have been winning every major battle against the jihadists, our policy makers and field commanders made the fundamental mistake of believing that these non-Western nations lived in some sort of time-warp, in which the adoption of Western democracy, rule of law, and capitalism would allow them to thrive as a nation (Porch). Effective Military Methods to Combat Jihad Surgical Strike and Precision Targeting. A unique feature of the Global War on Terrorism was the US military's continued perfection of covert strike operations with surgical precision deep into enemy safe havens. This was put on display in the rout of al-Qaeda by CIA and SOF in Afghanistan, in the kill/capture missions against the Baathists in the deck of cards in Iraq, and later in the killing of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan and Sheik Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi in Iraq. Having the ability to appear out of nowhere in the middle of the night, kill or capture an intended target with zero damage to infrastructure or civilian casualties, and leave within minutes of arrival struck fear into the hearts and minds of jihadists across the globe. The success and efficacy of this type of operation was acknowledged in the 2015 National Military Strategy, which stated: "The best way to counter VEOs [violent extremist organizations] is by way of.military strengths such as ISR, precision strike [emphasis added], training, and logistical support" (p.11). Likewise, President Obama's massive expansion of the use of drones, which could watch individuals for days and execute a precise strike that only touched the intended target, has continued to sow fear and deny jihadists' freedom of maneuver on a global scale. The US military and its allies have only continued to master these types of operations throughout the 20 fights in Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other locations. The jihadists know this, and realize that one wrong move at any time could mean disaster. Security Cooperation. An additional theme that has spelled the end for jihadists throughout the globe has been the training, advising, and equipping of security forces and partners within Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, and other nations. Enabling the host-nation military to handle jihadist movements on their own helps the United States military work itself out of a job. US Army Special Forces are uniquely suited to accomplish this mission: With specialized training, language capability, and cultural understanding, they are able to train foreign security forces through a variety of Principle Tasks. These tasks include Foreign Internal Defense, which focuses on a holistic approach to internal security and protection of citizens against lawlessness and insurgency, and Security Force Assistance, which can be focused internally or externally against threats to a nation's stability and security. The success of these mission sets was evident in 2014, during my own experience with the Afghan Commando Kandaks' continued fight against the Taliban and in closely following the Iraqi Counterterrorism Service's efforts against the Islamic State. Both of these forces, built from the ground-up by US Army Special Forces have continually fortified weak conventional military force operations against jihadist groups in their respective nations. Muslim Youth Efforts Against Jihad Globalization, though it has been proven to bolster the jihadists' narrative against the West, has also been beneficial to the movement against jihad itself. Because youth of the world have access to technology that allows them to see the atrocities and lies associated with global jihadist organizations, they are beginning to turn the tide. During the Islamic State's rise to power in Iraq and Syria, Muslim youth from across Europe travelled to join the jihadists in their 21 fight against the West. However, groups of Muslim youth also spoke up to counter this narrative. In 2015 the Muslim Youth League, an anti-Islamic State cultural movement, declared a holy war against all extremist organizations (Dearden, 2015). The group called on all Muslims to stand united against those who have hijacked Islam and misrepresented the faith. Through engagement work in schools and communities, as well as a robust online campaign, the Muslim Youth League is fighting back against jihadist propaganda that bids young Muslims join the Islamic State and other extremist groups (Dearden). Since the time of this publication, the Muslim Youth League has spread to several countries throughout the Middle East, Asia, and Europe, each with their own social media presence, outreach programs, community events, and websites. Local Government Efforts Against Jihad In the years following the Islamic State's spread across Iraq and Syria, the United Kingdom has developed a robust strategy to help at-risk Muslims avoid the radicalization process. The program itself is called Contest, and includes four distinct categories: Prevent, Prepare, Protect, and Pursue (British Broadcasting Corporation [BBC], 2017). Police departments and social organizations have built relationships with doctors, faith leaders, teachers and others, who are required to report suspicious persons to the proper authorities. In response to these reporting requirements and recommendations, over 7,500 reports were filed between 2015-2016, with one in 10 being actionable intelligence for government and police forces (BBC). In 2015 alone, over 150 people, including 50 children, were kept from traveling to conflict zones in Iraq and Syria (BBC). The strategy has of course drawn criticism, for fear that it will further alienate Muslims from their local communities, but it presents as an excellent plan of action for identifying individuals who are at risk beyond just using traditional signals intelligence and 22 surveillance techniques. It does more than just target the individual, it also seeks to reform them through education, outreach, and community programs. Counterarguments You Can Kill an Idea. I have heard the opinion throughout my time in the military that jihad and the idea of Islamic supremacy can be completely eradicated. The example most often given is that Nazism, including the idea that the Aryan race was superior to all others, was effectively destroyed by a global military campaign. This argument is weak. The Nazis represented a very small portion of German culture, including among those serving in the military, so it was relatively easy to contain once there was an overwhelming military victory by the Allies. However, although the German Army of the 1940s was defeated militarily, the idea of white supremacy lives on in small social groups throughout the world to this day. The Ongoing Taliban Peace Talks. I have colleagues throughout the military who are convinced that the current negotiations with the Taliban are a key indicator of success in our two decades at war against the Salafi-jihadist group. The issue with this is that temporary cease fires have already been violated several times, leading one to believe that the strategic level leadership's messages are simply not reaching their subordinates or that local factions are not adhering to the agreement. Trusting that radical Muslim extremists will not allow Afghanistan to become a future safe haven for other jihadists, as it has in the past, is simply unrealistic. Believing some sort of quasi peace deal is going to miraculously pacify an organization that hates everything the West stands for is misguided. My own experiences throughout the Middle East have proven that the spirit of jihad and hatred will live on in Afghanistan. The Islamic State is Nearly Defeated. Multiple global media outlets continue to run stories about the dismantling of the Islamic State, as though the battle is won. Though Sheik Abu 23 Bakr al-Baghdadi has been killed, and the proposed Islamic caliphate was never fully realized, it would be naïve to think that the Islamic State's jihad is over. The movement will metastasize and take on new forms in other parts of the globe: It is already happening. Jihadists are continually leaving the battlefields of Iraq and Syria, headed back to their former homes in mainland Europe. As these individuals reenter the diaspora, the concern is that they will radicalize other individuals and conduct terrorist attacks within the continent. Conclusion The reasons an individual seeks to join a jihadist movement are deeply rooted in personal social dynamics, the security situation of their country, and a multitude of other religious, cultural, and economic factors. I agree with Venhaus (2010) and Gorka (2016) who assert that there is no singular military operation or strategy that can bring about a decisive victory against something so intangible as why one might join the modern jihadist movement. Use of the US military as a vehicle for the establishment of Western democracy and nation-building efforts in tribal nations like Afghanistan and Iraq only served to invigorate the jihadists' call to arms. Jihad is not something that can be eradicated completely by military force. Jihad must be confronted, contained, and countered through a comprehensive approach that empowers state and non-state actors to develop local solutions and directs expeditious military applications only where completely necessary. Recommendations Promote and Protect the Muslim Youth Leagues In order to truly create a cultural paradigm shift in Muslim youth at risk of radicalization, groups like the Muslim Youth League (BBC, 2017) should be promoted by governments worldwide as a bastion of true and peaceful Islam. While they should no doubt be supported, 24 governments must also protect these organizations from becoming targets for violent acts of terrorism or influence operations by jihadists. Through a combination of deep cultural understanding and positive messaging, the Muslim Youth League has already shown its effectiveness in the United Kingdom and beyond. Because the youth of each nation understand the social pressures and cultural influences that may lead one to seek jihad, they can effectively develop tailored, local solutions to persuade at-risk individuals. The Muslim Youth Leagues are on the front lines of countering the jihadist worldview, taking a stand and declaring war on jihad and its misrepresentations of Islam. Enable Local Solutions for Local Problems This should be accomplished through unified government action that involves all the United States' instruments of national power including diplomacy, information sharing, military action where necessary, and economic stimulus as needed. The specific issue with efforts like these, is that they cannot be accomplished during what is perceived by locals as a military occupation. This was proven true in Afghanistan and later in Iraq. Despite massive efforts to rebuild infrastructure, aid in agricultural processes, build schools, and organize community projects, the United States and its allies were still viewed as pushing Western values and democracy on nations through military occupation. As much as possible, we must limit our military presence in areas that are ripe for developing a jihadist movement, or in ones that are recovering. I have seen firsthand that government efforts against jihadist organizations or at-risk communities have often been fragmented, poorly staffed, and uncoordinated. Venhaus (2010) suggests the creation of an agency that is staffed, trained, funded, enabled, and equipped for strategic communications, calling it the United States Strategic Communications Agency. An 25 agency like this could ensure that a comprehensive national communications strategy is developed and achieved, with a focus on enabling local community efforts to counter the jihadist narrative. By promoting social outreach, religious education, and community programs, this agency could bolster the efforts of community leaders and stifle jihadist aims in their areas. Support Religious Education and Reintegration Reintegration programs in Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, Singapore and elsewhere have successfully rehabilitated former jihadists through religious education (Venhaus, 2010). Countering the apocalyptic world view of jihadist groups like al-Qaeda and the Islamic State requires local religious leaders who understand their community's issues to band together and refute the extremist narrative. Through careful, patient, and individually-tailored instruction, Muslim religious leaders can invalidate each and every one of the extremists' claims. Individuals who turn to jihad are often seeking this type of direction, they just find it in the wrong places. Counter Threats with Tailored Military Force Packages Continued themes among the military failures in counterinsurgency and counterterrorism operations during the early years of the Global War on Terrorism are indiscriminate use of force, lack of cultural understanding, and hyper-focus on tactical gains while failing at the strategic level. US government nation-building efforts on the backs of the military cost our country trillions of dollars, thousands of lives, and years of frustration, bogged-down in an endless quagmire of misunderstanding. US Army Special Forces are selected, trained, equipped, and enabled to clandestinely handle complex problem sets in denied or politically-sensitive environments. Each Special Forces Group is regionally-aligned, with Operational Detachments developing deep cultural understanding through Area Studies and continuous relationship-building with regional state and 26 non-state actors. Special Forces operators understand the complex cultural and security situations in their areas of responsibility and have the language capability and strategic understanding to operate with complete independence of outside support. Frankly, if given the authority and autonomy to do their jobs, Special Forces can coerce, disrupt, or overthrow jihadist organizations unilaterally, or train, advise, and equip foreign security forces to accomplish this task on their own. This can all be done independent of a large, slow, and expensive conventional military occupation. Organizations like al-Qaeda must be kept in a state of constant fear and uncertainty. US Special Operations Forces are uniquely suited to this task. Through structured, rapid application of military force, SOF can find, fix, and finish intended targets with surgical precision. This has proven true in the capture of Saddam Hussein and the elimination of Osama bin Laden and Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, among numerous other targets throughout the Global War on Terrorism. Continuing to deny safe havens through short, precise applications of combat power is crucial and does not rely on a conventional military occupation of the target area. Operations such as these, characterized by discriminate use of force and strategic impact, should be the main avenue for denying the relative safety, security, and freedom of maneuver of jihadist organizations. 27 References British Broadcasting Corporation (2017, June 4). Reality check: What is the prevent strategy? Reality Check. https://www.bbc.com/news/election-2017-40151991. Creswell, R., & Haykel, B. (2015, June 1). Battle lines: Want to understand the jihadis? Read their poetry. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/06/08/battle-lines-jihad-creswell-and-haykel. Dearden, L. (2015, March 21). Young British Muslims declare own jihad against ISIS and other terrorists who 'hijack' Islam. Independent. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/young-british-muslims-declare-own-jihad-against-isis-and-other-terrorists-who-hijack-islam-10146534.html. Dempsey, M. (2015). The national military strategy of the United States of America 2015: The United States military's contribution to national security. The Joint Staff. https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Publications/UNCLASS_2018_National_Military_Strategy_Description.pdf. Gall, C. (2020, January 31). From armed struggle to peaceful protest, a road still to travel: A veteran of the Afghan jihad working for nonviolent change in Algeria. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/31/world/middleeast/from-armed-struggle-to-peaceful-protest-a-road-still-to-travel.html. Gorka, S. L. (2016). Defeating jihad: The winnable war. Regnery Publishing. Kilcullen, D. J. (2010). Counterinsurgency. Oxford University Press. Nilsson, M. (2019, 18 June) Motivations for jihad and cognitive dissonance: A qualitative analysis of former Swedish jihadists. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1626091. 28 Porch, D. (2013). Counterinsurgency: Exposing the myths of the new way of war. Cambridge University Press. Qur'an (M. Ali, Trans.; 7th ed.) (2015). Islam International Publications. (Original work published ca. 1537). Venhaus, J. (2010). Why youth join al-Qaeda. Special Report, 236(1), 1-12. https://www.usip. org/sites/default/files/SR236Venhaus.pdf.

Il presente lavoro, tenterà di fornire una visione d'insieme quanto più completa possibile sulle cd. dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. La trattazione muoverà – ovviamente - dai dati normativi nazionali, primari e secondari, proseguendo poi verso l'analisi strutturale dell'istituto scansionando gli elementi costitutivi, quali il consenso, la forma, il diritto all'informazione ed i conseguenti risvolti applicativi, in particolar modo la figura dell'amministratore di sostegno, arrivando poi ai profili di responsabilità sia civile che penale; ma non tralasciando i profili comparatistici. Si presterà particolare attenzione, verso l'iter giurisprudenziale che ha contraddistinto la nascita nonché la giovane evoluzione dell'istituto, che ha prodotto la stesura dei due disegni di legge, che saranno oggetto di una valutazione giuridica, ma anche critica. Ed allora, la tematica del "fine vita" impone – necessariamente - una trattazione multilivello. L'analisi deve muovere dall'ordinamento positivo nazionale, dove l'evoluzione della materia è avvenuta attraverso l'introduzione, rectius creazione, dell'istituto del testamento biologico, ovvero più precisamente, delle dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. Questi ultimi interventi, rispondono anche e soprattutto all'esigenza di allineamento proveniente dall'Europa, impulsati dalla emanazioni delle fondamentali Dichiarazione Universale dei Diritti dell'uomo, Convenzione di Oviedo, Carta Europea dei diritti dell'uomo; tali fonti, seppur in modo differente sottolineano la centralità del Soggetto-Uomo e la conseguenziale importanza del processo autodeterminativo dello stesso. La normativa positiva nazionale, si sedimenta nella Costituzione agli artt. 2,3,31 e 32; e degradando nel quadro delle fonti, si pone a livello della legge ordinaria con il codice civile che all'art. 5 disciplina gli atti dispositivi del corpo. Dal punto di vista penalistico si incentrerà l'attenzione sulle fattispecie del suicidio assistito e l'omicidio del consenziente. Non possono trascurarsi per la trattazione i pareri del comitato di bioetico,i quali sono stati fondanti nella discussione dottrinaria e giurisprudenziale, né tanto meno il codice di deontologia medica; da ultimo in ambito di responsabilità medica la legge 189/2012. L'incipit dell'approfondimento è la normativa nazionale in riferimento ai diritti della personalità, i quali sono fortemente caratterizzati dalla non patrimonialità, dalla immanenza, nonché immaterialità al punto che non è più concepibile una visione dell'essere umano a prescindere da questi diritti. Non tutti i diritti della personalità, trovano una loro disciplina codicistica, ma una maggioranza di questi sono emersi e si sono imposti grazie all'opera di dottrina e giurisprudenza. La dottrina, però, è attualmente divisa tra chi considera il diritto della personalità come un monolitico diritto considerando l'uomo in ogni sua espressione; e tra chi sostiene che sussistano tanti diritti della personalità quanti la legge ne prevede. Diatriba dottrinaria che ha trovato il suo naturale epilogo con l'entrata in vigore della Carta Costituzionale, la quale espressamente all'art. 2 prevede che la Repubblica riconosce e garantisce i diritti inviolabili dell'uomo in funzione dello sviluppo della sua personalità chiarendo, che non debba intendersi ogni singolo diritto, bensi'qualsivoglia interesse proteso alla realizzazione della personalità del soggetto. La protezione di questi diritti, come supra individuato, si lega alla Carta Costituzionale negli artt. 2,3 31 e 32. I requisiti fondamentali di tali diritti sono l'assolutezza tutelata erga omnes, l'indisponibilità derivante dall'impossibilità del trasferimento dell'oggetto-persona, nonché l'imprescrittibilità. Tra questi diritti, assume una particolare rilevanza, il diritto all'integrità fisica, che tradizionalmente è associato al diritto alla salute di cui l'art.5 costituisce punto di riferimento nella normativa codicistica; ma successivamente alla Costituzione è stato necessario un nuovo inquadramento dell'articolo, in orbita alla nuova concezione di personalità e di salute cosi come costituzionalmente interpretati. Attualmente in Italia la tematica del "fine vita" ha trovato in due disegni di legge; il primo di questi "S10" approvato al Senato nel marzo 2009 ed inviato alla camera per ulteriore approvazione, nonostante innumerevoli modifiche, nel luglio 2011. Nonostante la presenza di questi due disegni di legge la via per giungere ad un testo normativo risulta essere ancora lunga ed impervia. Approntato l'inquadramento normativo generale, l'elaborato approfondirà questo nuovo istituto del testamento biologico; e già dalla nomenclatura però risulta giuridicamente inesatta, poichè il testamento così come disciplinato dall'art. 587 c.c. è un atto mortis causa destinato a produrre effetti per il tempo successivo alla morte, invece le disposizioni di fine vita producono il loro effetto prima della morte del soggetto. Pertanto, il termine risulta essere fortemente evocativo perché sottolinea un dato di fondamentale importanza cioè, l'ultrattività del volere che è un dato che unisce il testamento biologico al testamento come atto mortis causa. Ultra-attività del volere che deve avere effetto quando il soggetto non è più capace e non è più in grado di correggere, interpretare, rinnovare questa volontà; implicando in tal modo la sacralità di questo volere, l'esigenza di aumentare la soglia delle cautele procedimentali, perchè solo un volere consapevole e ponderato da parte del soggetto in ordine alle sue scelte esistenziale, è un volere autenticamente libero. Una delle prime definizioni di dichiarazioni anticipate di volontà si rinviene in un atto del comitato di bioetica del 2003, nel quale vengono definite come un documento con il quale il soggetto, dotato di piena capacità, esprime la sua volontà circa i trattamenti ai quali desidera o non desidera essere sottoposto, nel caso in cui nel decorso di una malattia o a causa di traumi improvvisi, non fosse in grado di esprimere il proprio consenso o il proprio dissenso informato. Per attuare una attenta disamina dell'istituto è necessario dividere le direttive a seconda che siano impartite nel corso del rapporto terapeutico oppure vengano date indipendentemente come espressione di una libera scelta. Nella prima eventualità rientrerebbe nel rapporto tra medico e paziente. Dottrina prevalente ritiene di dover inquadrare questo tipo di direttiva all'interno della più ampia categoria dell'atto giuridico, concetto nel quale può ricomprendersi qualsiasi comportamento umano che assuma rilevanza per il diritto in quanto ad esso l'ordine giuridico ricollega una modificazione ad uno stato di cose preesistente. Ulteriore ripartizione fatta all'interno di questa categoria è stara tra negozio giuridico inteso come atto di natura negoziale e atto giuridico in senso stretto, scevro della natura negoziale. L'istituto del negozio giuridico, non ha mai trovato una collocazione sistematica nel codice civile; il legislatore ha sempre inteso il termine atto come categoria per ricomprendervi anche il negozio. Alla luce di ciò secondo alcuni la nozione di atto giuridico è da ricostruirsi in negativo cioè si è in presenza di un atto giuridico quando non ravvisabile nell'atto i caratteri degli atti negoziali. Altra tesi invece basa la catalogazione in base alla finalità perseguita dall'atto asserendo che, quando l'atto è espressione del potere di autoregolamentazione dei privati per creare un assetto vincolante dei loro interessi esso avrà natura negoziale; diversamente invece l'atto è semplicemente il presupposto per degli effetti giuridici già predisposti . L'atto giuridico in senso stretto trova la sua naturale espressione in fattispecie ad effetti tipici. Alla luce di quanto detto può quindi affermarsi che l'elemento distintivo tra atto e negozio è da valutarsi a seguito di una valutazione stutturale-funzionale. Il negozio ha la struttura di volontà precettiva ed è preordinato funzionalente a disporre di una determinata situazione giuridica, nell'atto invece la volontà e la consapevolezza rilevano come requisiti del comportamento poichè gli effetti prescindono dal contenuto volitivo dell'atto e sono determinati dalla legge, è il carattere dispositivo, quindi, l'elemento di discrimen tra le due figure. Alla luce di quanto sopra, si ritiene che in caso di direttive intervenute nel corso del rapporto medico-paziente, si sia in presenza di un atto giuridico in senso stretto, come tali si ritengono gli atti umani volontari i cui effetti sono stabiliti dalla legge. Di converso, sono da ritenersi di natura negoziale le direttive anticipate assunte dal soggetto come libera scelta avulsa da qualsiasi iter medico già in corso, l'ipotesi quindi di un soggetto perfettamente sano, fisicamente e psichicamente, perfettamente capace di intendere e di volere che decide, quale debbano essere o meno i trattamenti a cui sottoporsi nel caso e nel momento in cui non fosse più capace di esprimere la propria volontà. In questa visione viene proiettata la concezione del diritto all'identità da intendersi quale integrazione della personalità, come riscoperta del legame del corpo nella sua eccezione fisica e psichica. Il diritto all'identità porta con sé il principio di integrità, come potestà decisionale unica ed esclusiva del soggetto sulla propria sfera esistenziale. La dichiarazione è un atto che necessità dell'alterità, difatti viene definito come quell'atto che ha come scopo il far conoscere qualcosa a terzi, presupposto per la sua sussistenza è uno o più destinatari, che possono essere anche determinati. La dottrina nell'analizzare l'istituto della dichiarazione, in sé, ha più volte ribadito le tesi per la quale in realtà essa sia composta da due elementi, quello espressivo in cui si formula, e quello emissivo in cui si forma giungendo a maturazione. L'emissione quindi costituisce l'indice di maturità della dichiarazione e segna il momento dal quale questa esiste. Possono quindi distinguersi in dichiarazioni indirizzate per le quali la conoscenza da parte del terzo è condizione necessaria perché l'atto possa sussistere, oppure in dichiarazioni recettizie per le quali la direzione verso un terzo è strumentale alla produzione degli effetti in capo ad esso. L'elemento centrale è ovviamente il consenso, che presuppone un processo informativo, quale modalità di comunicazione bidirezionale che accompagna e sostiene il percorso di cura. È il processo comunicativo attraverso il quale il medico (e l'operatore sanitario, limitatamente agli atti di sua specifica competenza) fornisce al paziente notizie sulla diagnosi, sulla prognosi, sulle prospettive terapeutiche e sulle verosimili conseguenze della terapia e/o della mancata terapia/atto sanitario, al fine di promuoverne una scelta pienamente autonoma e consapevole. Tale processo riguarda anche il minorenne, in forma adeguata all'età, l'interdetto giudiziale e l'incapace naturale, in forma proporzionata al loro livello di capacità, in modo che essi possano formarsi un'opinione sull'atto sanitario. Il consenso informato può definirsi come "esercizio del diritto del paziente all'autodeterminazione rispetto alle scelte diagnostico/terapeutiche proposte." La scelta viene attuata, al termine del processo informativo; tale procedimento che porta la persona assistita ad accettare l'atto sanitario, si articola essenzialmente in tre momenti, tra loro concatenati mediante ricorso ad una successione logica e cronologica. • Il primo momento consiste nella comunicazione al paziente di informazioni di rilevanza diagnostica e terapeutica. • Successivamente, deve sussistere la certezza che il paziente abbia capito il significato della suddetta comunicazione. • Infine, la decisione definitiva dell'interessato. Non si è in grado di acconsentire specificatamente, se non si dispone della informazione adeguata, senza la quale qualsiasi modulo di consenso sottoscritto risulta essere viziato e, conseguentemente, non valido sotto il profilo giuridico. Il consenso valido deve essere: informato, consapevole, personale, manifesto, specifico, preventivo, attuale e revocabile. Per soddisfare il requisito dell'informazione è necessario rispettare le caratteristiche della corretta informazione, la quale deve essere personalizzata, comprensibile, veritiera, obiettiva, esaustiva e non imposta. La personalizzazione, presuppone l'adeguatezza della stessa alla condizione fisica e psicologica, all'età ed alla capacità oltre che al substrato culturale e linguistico del paziente, nonché deve essere proporzionata alla tipologia della prestazione proposta. Per quanto possibile, va evitato il rischio di un involontario e non esplicito condizionamento, legato all'asimmetria informativa tra le figure del medico e del paziente, eventualmente accentuato dalla gravità della malattia e dalla complessità della terapia conseguente. L'informazione deve essere comprensibile, e cioè espressa con linguaggio semplice e chiaro, usando notizie e dati specialistici, evitando sigle o termini scientifici, attraverso anche l'utilizzo di schede illustrate o materiale video che consentano al paziente di comprendere compiutamente ciò che verrà effettuato, soprattutto in previsione di interventi particolarmente invasivi o demolitivi. Nel caso di paziente straniero, è necessario l'interprete nonché il materiale informativo tradotto, affinché venga correttamente e completamente compreso ciò che viene detto. L'informativa deve essere altresì veritiera, ovvero non deve creare false illusioni, ma prudente e accompagnata da ragionevole speranza nelle informazioni che hanno rilevanza tale da comportare gravi preoccupazioni o previsioni infauste. Il requisito dell'obiettività deve riscontrarsi su fonti validate o che godano di una legittimazione clinico - scientifica; oltre che indicativa delle effettive potenzialità di cura fornite dalla struttura che ospita il paziente e delle prestazioni tecnico-strutturali che l'ente è in grado di offrire permanentemente o in quel dato momento; fornendo notizie inerenti l'atto sanitario proposto nell'ambito del percorso di cura intrapreso e al soddisfacimento di ogni quesito specifico posto dal paziente. In particolar modo sulla natura e lo scopo principale; sulle probabilità di successo; sulle modalità di effettuazione; e sul sanitario che eseguirà la prestazione. Esaustivamente precise devono essere le conseguenze previste e la loro modalità di risoluzione; i rischi ragionevolmente prevedibili, le complicanze e la loro probabilità di verificarsi e di essere risolti da ulteriori trattamenti; eventuali possibilità di trattamenti alternativi, loro vantaggi e rischi; conseguenze del rifiuto alle prestazioni sanitarie. Ció detto, al paziente é riconosciuta la facoltà di non essere informato, delegando a terzi la ricezione delle informazioni, dal momento che il diritto all'informazione non necessariamente deve accompagnarsi all'obbligo di riceverla. Traccia però deve essere lasciata in forma scritta. In tal caso egli esprimerà comunque il consenso, subordinatamente all'informazione data a persona da lui delegata. Il consenso deve essere espresso da un soggetto che, ricevute correttamente e completamente le informazioni con le modalità descritte in precedenza, sia capace di intendere e di volere; e tale capacità di intendere non è valutabile separatamente dalla capacità di volere. Del diritto ad esprimere il consenso ne é titolare solo il paziente; l'informazione a terzi (compresi anche i familiari), è ammessa solitamente previo consenso esplicitamente espresso dal paziente. Il consenso espresso dai familiari è giuridicamente irrilevante. Per i minorenni, gli interdetti e per le persone sottoposte ad una amministrazione di sostegno riferita ad atti sanitari si rimanda successivamente proposte manifestatamente e, in particolar modo per le attività che esulano dalla routine. La manifestazione di volontà deve essere esplicita ed espressa inequivocabilmente, e preferibilmente in forma scritta. L'assenso deve essere riferito allo specifico atto sanitario proposto e prestato per un determinato trattamento, e non può peraltro legittimare il medico all'esecuzione di una scelta terapeutica diversa dal percorso di cura intrapreso, per natura od effetti, fatto salvo il sopraggiungere di una situazione di necessità ed urgenza che determini un pericolo grave per la salute o la vita del paziente. Il consenso deve essere prestato prima dell'atto proposto. L'intervallo di tempo tra la manifestazione del consenso e l'attuazione dell'atto sanitario non deve essere tale da far sorgere dubbi sulla persistenza della volontà del paziente; nel caso lo sia, è opportuno ottenere conferma del consenso già prestato, in prossimità della realizzazione dell'atto. Il requisito della attualità del consenso, racchiude i maggiori dubbi sull'ammissibilità delle d.a.t. ( dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento). Il paziente ha il diritto di revocare in qualsiasi momento il consenso prestato, eventualmente anche nell'immediatezza della procedura sanitaria che si sta ponendo in essere; la natura contrattuale del consenso determina che per essere giuridicamente valido esso debba inoltre rispondere ai requisiti "libero" e "relativo al bene disponibile" . Evidenziati i requisiiti del consenso, è necessario soffermarsi su quali soggetti possano essere esecutori di tale dichiarazioni;è emersa quindi, la figura del fiduciario; in un primo momento in sede dottrinale si era fatto riferimento all'istituto del mandato per trovare un istituto cui ricondurre il rapporto tra paziente e fiduciario: il mandante attraverso le istruzioni poteva rendere al fiduciario le proprio volontà in ordine ai trattamento di fine vita ed il mandatario può rendere queste dichiarazioni di volontà secondo uno schema tipico con effetti nella sfera giuridica del mandante, ma in realtà questa ricostruzione trova il suo limite nella sopravvenuta estinzione del mandato per incapacitò del osggetto che da l'incarico fiduciario,da qui allora l'attenzione di dottrina e giurisprudenza si è focalizzata sulla figura dell'amministratore di sostegnodisciplinato nel codice civile dagli artt. 404 e ss. Lo strumento dell'art. 408 c.c.(scelta dell'amministratore di sostegno), avrebbe, al di là della sedes materiae, secondo alcuni, introdotto nel nostro ordinamento l'istituto del testamento biologico; ed, allora, non resterebbe che concludere in conformità al dettato legislativo, che lo stesso debba rivestire la forma solenne dell'atto pubblico o della scrittura privata autenticata. Da qui il ruolo del notaio quale soggetto deputato ad apporre sulla scheda biologica il sigillo di "fedeltà". importante è Delibera del 23 giugno 2006 con la quale Il Consiglio Nazionale del Notariato, ritiene utile "in attesa di un'auspicabile iniziativa legislativa in materia ed al fine di garantire il medico nell'esercizio delle proprie responsabilità" – assicurare "la certezza della provenienza della dichiarazione dal suo autore, mediante intervento notarile e la reperibilità della medesima in un registro telematico nazionale". Considerato, quindi, che l'intervento notarile – proprio perché volto ad assicurare il valore aggiunto della certezza fornito dalla pubblica funzione di certificazione - comporta il rispetto delle modalità operative fissate dalla legge (repertorio, trattamento fiscale, ecc.), ma "che nel contempo è necessario individuare forme che non comportino costi significativi ed aggravi di formalità burocratiche per il cittadino e la collettività". Nel provvedimento di cui si tratta, emerge la volontà del notariato di contribuire a risolvere un'esigenza di grande rilevanza umana e sociale e la disponibilità a provvedere alla istituzione e conservazione del Registro Generale dei testamenti di vita, con costi a proprio carico, mediante le proprie strutture informatiche e telematiche. Un dato di rilievo è che, secondo il Consiglio, "alla luce della attuale normativa, il notaio, richiesto di autenticare la sottoscrizione di una dichiarazione relativa ad un testamento di vita", può "farlo, non ravvisandosi alcuna contrarietà a norme di legge". Propone, quindi, in assenza di un divieto imperativo in materia, di utilizzare un testo di dichiarazione sottoscritta dal solo disponente, contenente la delega ad un fiduciario, incaricato di manifestare ai medici curanti l'esistenza del testamento di vita. Questi argomenti appena trattati, il consenso, la sua forma e il legittimato a porre in essere le volontà espresse sono tutti argomenti che sono stati oggetti di analisi giurisprudenziale in particolar modo nei casi Welby ed Englaro, che congiuntamente al caso Schiavo saranno approfonditi nell'elaborato finale. Bisogna comunque dire che il caso Welby è fondamentale per analizzare la responsabilità che coinvolge la tematica delle dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. Difatti, per la prima volta si è incentrato il problema sulla eutanasia, ed il dottore che aveva "accompagnato alla morte" il soggetto, malato ormai da tempo e senza possibilità di guarigione o miglioramento alcuno, ma solo di peggioramento, accettandone la volontà di sospensione dei trattamenti salva vita, rispettando quindi il diritto al rifiuto dei trattamenti sanitari, facente parte dei diritti inviolabili della persona di cui all'art. 2 Cost, fu rinviato a giudizio con l'accusa ex 579 c.p. E' da sottolineare che il "dissenso "di Welby possedeva tutti i requisiti necessari desumibili dalla Costituzione e dai principi generali dell'ordinamento, affinché la manifestazione di volontà del avesse rilievo giuridico onde escludersi l'applicazione dell'art. 579 in forza della scriminante dell'art. 51 c.p. Il possibile rifiuto del malato deve essere esercitato con riferimento ad un «trattamento sanitario», potendo riguardare solo una condotta che ha come contenuto competenze di carattere medico e sempre all'interno di un rapporto di natura contrattuale a contenuto sanitario. Solo sul professionista e non su altri incombe, quindi, il dovere di osservare la volontà di segno negativo del paziente, in ragione della relazione instauratasi tra i due per l'espletamento di una condotta di natura sanitaria a contenuto concordato. Con la conseguenza che, se il professionista dovesse porre in essere una condotta direttamente causativa della morte del paziente per espressa volontà di quest'ultimo, risponderà ad un preciso dovere che discende dalla previsione dell'art. 32, comma 2 Cost., mentre la stessa condotta posta in essere da ogni altro soggetto non risponderà ad alcun dovere giuridicamente riconosciuto dall'ordinamento, non essendo stata esercitata all'interno di un rapporto terapeutico, nel quale solo nascono e si esercitano diritti e doveri specifici. Alla luce di queste premesse, può essere condivisa la soluzione proscioglitiva in ordine al reato di omicidio del consenziente. Il rifiuto di una terapia, anche se già iniziata, ove venga esercitato nell'ambito sopra descritto ed alle condizioni precedentemente illustrate, costituisce un diritto costituzionalmente garantito e già perfetto, rispetto al quale sul medico incombe, in ragione della professione esercitata e dei diritti e doveri scaturenti dal rapporto terapeutico instauratosi con il paziente, il dovere giuridico di consentirne l'esercizio. Con la conseguenza che, se il medico in ottemperanza a tale dovere, contribuisse a determinare la morte del paziente per l'interruzione di una terapia salvavita, egli non risponderebbe penalmente del delitto di omicidio del consenziente, in quanto avrebbe operato alla presenza di una causa di esclusione del reato e segnatamente quella prevista dall'art. 51 c.p. . La fonte del dovere per il medico, quindi, risiederebbe in prima istanza nella stessa norma costituzionale, che è di rango superiore rispetto alla legge penale, e l'operatività della scriminante nell'ipotesi sopra delineata è giustificata dalla necessità di superare la contraddizione dell'ordinamento giuridico il quale, da una parte, non può attribuire un diritto e, dall'altra, incriminarne il suo esercizio. Da ultimo, sull'argomento si è espressa nuovamente la Corte di Cassazione con la sentenza 20984/2012 la quale sembrerebbe affermare che l'intervento del medico è scriminato non solo nei casi di TSO (casi pacificamente scriminati) ma in tutti i casi in cui si incorra in uno stato di necessità ex art. 54 c.p. Il consenso informato ha come correlato la facoltà, non solo di scegliere tra le diverse possibilità di trattamento medico, ma anche, nell'eventualità, di rifiutare la terapia e di decidere consapevolmente di interromperla (n.b.: questa definizione di consenso informato è espressione di libertà positiva); e ciò in tutte le fasi della vita, anche in quella terminale. Secondo la definizione della Corte Costituzionale (Corte Cost. 438/2008) il consenso informato, inteso quale espressione della consapevole adesione al trattamento sanitario proposto dal medico, si configura quale vero e proprio diritto della persona e trova fondamento nei principi espressi nell'art. 2 Cost., che ne tutela e promuove i diritti fondamentali, e negli artt. 13 e 32 Cost., i quali stabiliscono rispettivamente che la libertà personale è inviolabile e che nessuno può essere obbligato a un determinato trattamento sanitario se non per disposizione di legge. La responsabilità del sanitario (e di riflesso della struttura per cui egli agisce) per violazione dell'obbligo del consenso informato discende: a) dalla condotta omissiva tenuta in relazione all'adempimento dell'obbligo di informazione in ordine alle prevedibili conseguenze del trattamento cui il paziente sia sottoposto; b) dal verificarsi - in conseguenza dell'esecuzione del trattamento stesso, e, quindi, in forza di un nesso di causalità con essa - di un aggravamento delle condizioni di salute del paziente. Non assume, invece, alcuna influenza, ai fini della sussistenza dell'illecito per violazione del consenso informato, se il trattamento sia stato eseguito correttamente o meno. Ciò perché, sotto questo profilo, ciò che rileva è che il paziente, a causa del deficit di informazione, non sia stato messo in condizione di assentire al trattamento sanitario con una volontà consapevole delle sue implicazioni, consumandosi, nei suoi confronti, una lesione di quella dignità che connota l'esistenza nei momenti cruciali della sofferenza, fisica e psichica. Importante svolta in campo di responsabilità medica è stata data la legge 8 novembre 2012, n. 189 che ha convertito il Decreto Legge Balduzzi, n. 158/2012. La cosiddetta "colpa lieve" dell'esercente una professione sanitaria ne risulta, in certo qual senso, depenalizzata. Infatti, il dato testuale dell'art. 3, 1° co., il sanitario che nello svolgimento della propria attività si attiene a linee guida e buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica non risponde penalmente per colpa lieve. Sulla responsabilità del medico e della struttura sanitaria, e della sua natura si tratterà esaustivamente nel corso dell'elaborato. In Italia, nonostante il problema sia sorto da tempo, e sia stato, come visto, oggetto di copiosa attività giurisprudenziale di merito e di legittimità, nonché dottrinaria, non si ha al momento, ancora un testo normativo che disciplini la materia in oggetto. L'iter normativo sul testamento biologico, in Italia ha inizio con il d.d.l. presentato al Senato (s.10) il 29 aprile del 2008 e dallo stesso approvato il 26 marzo 2009. Il disegno così come approvato è stato inviato alla Camera, che lo ha modificato il 12 luglio 2011, e da allora siamo stagnati sull'argomento, anche per la presenza di un governo cd. tecnico. Una timida ripresa, è stata impulsata dalla commissione permanente di igiene e sanità nell'ottobre del 2012. Pertanto, il giurista si deve attenere alle fonti a disposizione, e perciò, operando un raffronto di questi due testi, emerge l'allontanarsi del sistema positivo italiano - nonostante stia allineandosi all'Europa sotto molteplici aspetti - sul tema di «fine vita» non dimostrandosi ancora competitivo per la normativa europea. Si rimanda, indi alla trattazione finale per il lavoro comparatistico delle leggi in itinere. Il presente lavoro, tenterà di fornire una visione d'insieme quanto più completa possibile sulle cd. dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. La trattazione muoverà – ovviamente - dai dati normativi nazionali, primari e secondari, proseguendo poi verso l'analisi strutturale dell'istituto scansionando gli elementi costitutivi, quali il consenso, la forma, il diritto all'informazione ed i conseguenti risvolti applicativi, in particolar modo la figura dell'amministratore di sostegno, arrivando poi ai profili di responsabilità sia civile che penale; ma non tralasciando i profili comparatistici. Si presterà particolare attenzione, verso l'iter giurisprudenziale che ha contraddistinto la nascita nonché la giovane evoluzione dell'istituto, che ha prodotto la stesura dei due disegni di legge, che saranno oggetto di una valutazione giuridica, ma anche critica. Ed allora, la tematica del "fine vita" impone – necessariamente - una trattazione multilivello. L'analisi deve muovere dall'ordinamento positivo nazionale, dove l'evoluzione della materia è avvenuta attraverso l'introduzione, rectius creazione, dell'istituto del testamento biologico, ovvero più precisamente, delle dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. Questi ultimi interventi, rispondono anche e soprattutto all'esigenza di allineamento proveniente dall'Europa, impulsati dalla emanazioni delle fondamentali Dichiarazione Universale dei Diritti dell'uomo, Convenzione di Oviedo, Carta Europea dei diritti dell'uomo; tali fonti, seppur in modo differente sottolineano la centralità del Soggetto-Uomo e la conseguenziale importanza del processo autodeterminativo dello stesso. La normativa positiva nazionale, si sedimenta nella Costituzione agli artt. 2,3,31 e 32; e degradando nel quadro delle fonti, si pone a livello della legge ordinaria con il codice civile che all'art. 5 disciplina gli atti dispositivi del corpo. Dal punto di vista penalistico si incentrerà l'attenzione sulle fattispecie del suicidio assistito e l'omicidio del consenziente. Non possono trascurarsi per la trattazione i pareri del comitato di bioetico,i quali sono stati fondanti nella discussione dottrinaria e giurisprudenziale, né tanto meno il codice di deontologia medica; da ultimo in ambito di responsabilità medica la legge 189/2012. L'incipit dell'approfondimento è la normativa nazionale in riferimento ai diritti della personalità, i quali sono fortemente caratterizzati dalla non patrimonialità, dalla immanenza, nonché immaterialità al punto che non è più concepibile una visione dell'essere umano a prescindere da questi diritti. Non tutti i diritti della personalità, trovano una loro disciplina codicistica, ma una maggioranza di questi sono emersi e si sono imposti grazie all'opera di dottrina e giurisprudenza. La dottrina, però, è attualmente divisa tra chi considera il diritto della personalità come un monolitico diritto considerando l'uomo in ogni sua espressione; e tra chi sostiene che sussistano tanti diritti della personalità quanti la legge ne prevede. Diatriba dottrinaria che ha trovato il suo naturale epilogo con l'entrata in vigore della Carta Costituzionale, la quale espressamente all'art. 2 prevede che la Repubblica riconosce e garantisce i diritti inviolabili dell'uomo in funzione dello sviluppo della sua personalità chiarendo, che non debba intendersi ogni singolo diritto, bensi'qualsivoglia interesse proteso alla realizzazione della personalità del soggetto. La protezione di questi diritti, come supra individuato, si lega alla Carta Costituzionale negli artt. 2,3 31 e 32. I requisiti fondamentali di tali diritti sono l'assolutezza tutelata erga omnes, l'indisponibilità derivante dall'impossibilità del trasferimento dell'oggetto-persona, nonché l'imprescrittibilità. Tra questi diritti, assume una particolare rilevanza, il diritto all'integrità fisica, che tradizionalmente è associato al diritto alla salute di cui l'art.5 costituisce punto di riferimento nella normativa codicistica; ma successivamente alla Costituzione è stato necessario un nuovo inquadramento dell'articolo, in orbita alla nuova concezione di personalità e di salute cosi come costituzionalmente interpretati. Attualmente in Italia la tematica del "fine vita" ha trovato in due disegni di legge; il primo di questi "S10" approvato al Senato nel marzo 2009 ed inviato alla camera per ulteriore approvazione, nonostante innumerevoli modifiche, nel luglio 2011. Nonostante la presenza di questi due disegni di legge la via per giungere ad un testo normativo risulta essere ancora lunga ed impervia. Approntato l'inquadramento normativo generale, l'elaborato approfondirà questo nuovo istituto del testamento biologico; e già dalla nomenclatura però risulta giuridicamente inesatta, poichè il testamento così come disciplinato dall'art. 587 c.c. è un atto mortis causa destinato a produrre effetti per il tempo successivo alla morte, invece le disposizioni di fine vita producono il loro effetto prima della morte del soggetto. Pertanto, il termine risulta essere fortemente evocativo perché sottolinea un dato di fondamentale importanza cioè, l'ultrattività del volere che è un dato che unisce il testamento biologico al testamento come atto mortis causa. Ultra-attività del volere che deve avere effetto quando il soggetto non è più capace e non è più in grado di correggere, interpretare, rinnovare questa volontà; implicando in tal modo la sacralità di questo volere, l'esigenza di aumentare la soglia delle cautele procedimentali, perchè solo un volere consapevole e ponderato da parte del soggetto in ordine alle sue scelte esistenziale, è un volere autenticamente libero. Una delle prime definizioni di dichiarazioni anticipate di volontà si rinviene in un atto del comitato di bioetica del 2003, nel quale vengono definite come un documento con il quale il soggetto, dotato di piena capacità, esprime la sua volontà circa i trattamenti ai quali desidera o non desidera essere sottoposto, nel caso in cui nel decorso di una malattia o a causa di traumi improvvisi, non fosse in grado di esprimere il proprio consenso o il proprio dissenso informato. Per attuare una attenta disamina dell'istituto è necessario dividere le direttive a seconda che siano impartite nel corso del rapporto terapeutico oppure vengano date indipendentemente come espressione di una libera scelta. Nella prima eventualità rientrerebbe nel rapporto tra medico e paziente. Dottrina prevalente ritiene di dover inquadrare questo tipo di direttiva all'interno della più ampia categoria dell'atto giuridico, concetto nel quale può ricomprendersi qualsiasi comportamento umano che assuma rilevanza per il diritto in quanto ad esso l'ordine giuridico ricollega una modificazione ad uno stato di cose preesistente. Ulteriore ripartizione fatta all'interno di questa categoria è stara tra negozio giuridico inteso come atto di natura negoziale e atto giuridico in senso stretto, scevro della natura negoziale. L'istituto del negozio giuridico, non ha mai trovato una collocazione sistematica nel codice civile; il legislatore ha sempre inteso il termine atto come categoria per ricomprendervi anche il negozio. Alla luce di ciò secondo alcuni la nozione di atto giuridico è da ricostruirsi in negativo cioè si è in presenza di un atto giuridico quando non ravvisabile nell'atto i caratteri degli atti negoziali. Altra tesi invece basa la catalogazione in base alla finalità perseguita dall'atto asserendo che, quando l'atto è espressione del potere di autoregolamentazione dei privati per creare un assetto vincolante dei loro interessi esso avrà natura negoziale; diversamente invece l'atto è semplicemente il presupposto per degli effetti giuridici già predisposti . L'atto giuridico in senso stretto trova la sua naturale espressione in fattispecie ad effetti tipici. Alla luce di quanto detto può quindi affermarsi che l'elemento distintivo tra atto e negozio è da valutarsi a seguito di una valutazione stutturale-funzionale. Il negozio ha la struttura di volontà precettiva ed è preordinato funzionalente a disporre di una determinata situazione giuridica, nell'atto invece la volontà e la consapevolezza rilevano come requisiti del comportamento poichè gli effetti prescindono dal contenuto volitivo dell'atto e sono determinati dalla legge, è il carattere dispositivo, quindi, l'elemento di discrimen tra le due figure. Alla luce di quanto sopra, si ritiene che in caso di direttive intervenute nel corso del rapporto medico-paziente, si sia in presenza di un atto giuridico in senso stretto, come tali si ritengono gli atti umani volontari i cui effetti sono stabiliti dalla legge. Di converso, sono da ritenersi di natura negoziale le direttive anticipate assunte dal soggetto come libera scelta avulsa da qualsiasi iter medico già in corso, l'ipotesi quindi di un soggetto perfettamente sano, fisicamente e psichicamente, perfettamente capace di intendere e di volere che decide, quale debbano essere o meno i trattamenti a cui sottoporsi nel caso e nel momento in cui non fosse più capace di esprimere la propria volontà. In questa visione viene proiettata la concezione del diritto all'identità da intendersi quale integrazione della personalità, come riscoperta del legame del corpo nella sua eccezione fisica e psichica. Il diritto all'identità porta con sé il principio di integrità, come potestà decisionale unica ed esclusiva del soggetto sulla propria sfera esistenziale. La dichiarazione è un atto che necessità dell'alterità, difatti viene definito come quell'atto che ha come scopo il far conoscere qualcosa a terzi, presupposto per la sua sussistenza è uno o più destinatari, che possono essere anche determinati. La dottrina nell'analizzare l'istituto della dichiarazione, in sé, ha più volte ribadito le tesi per la quale in realtà essa sia composta da due elementi, quello espressivo in cui si formula, e quello emissivo in cui si forma giungendo a maturazione. L'emissione quindi costituisce l'indice di maturità della dichiarazione e segna il momento dal quale questa esiste. Possono quindi distinguersi in dichiarazioni indirizzate per le quali la conoscenza da parte del terzo è condizione necessaria perché l'atto possa sussistere, oppure in dichiarazioni recettizie per le quali la direzione verso un terzo è strumentale alla produzione degli effetti in capo ad esso. L'elemento centrale è ovviamente il consenso, che presuppone un processo informativo, quale modalità di comunicazione bidirezionale che accompagna e sostiene il percorso di cura. È il processo comunicativo attraverso il quale il medico (e l'operatore sanitario, limitatamente agli atti di sua specifica competenza) fornisce al paziente notizie sulla diagnosi, sulla prognosi, sulle prospettive terapeutiche e sulle verosimili conseguenze della terapia e/o della mancata terapia/atto sanitario, al fine di promuoverne una scelta pienamente autonoma e consapevole. Tale processo riguarda anche il minorenne, in forma adeguata all'età, l'interdetto giudiziale e l'incapace naturale, in forma proporzionata al loro livello di capacità, in modo che essi possano formarsi un'opinione sull'atto sanitario. Il consenso informato può definirsi come "esercizio del diritto del paziente all'autodeterminazione rispetto alle scelte diagnostico/terapeutiche proposte." La scelta viene attuata, al termine del processo informativo; tale procedimento che porta la persona assistita ad accettare l'atto sanitario, si articola essenzialmente in tre momenti, tra loro concatenati mediante ricorso ad una successione logica e cronologica. • Il primo momento consiste nella comunicazione al paziente di informazioni di rilevanza diagnostica e terapeutica. • Successivamente, deve sussistere la certezza che il paziente abbia capito il significato della suddetta comunicazione. • Infine, la decisione definitiva dell'interessato. Non si è in grado di acconsentire specificatamente, se non si dispone della informazione adeguata, senza la quale qualsiasi modulo di consenso sottoscritto risulta essere viziato e, conseguentemente, non valido sotto il profilo giuridico. Il consenso valido deve essere: informato, consapevole, personale, manifesto, specifico, preventivo, attuale e revocabile. Per soddisfare il requisito dell'informazione è necessario rispettare le caratteristiche della corretta informazione, la quale deve essere personalizzata, comprensibile, veritiera, obiettiva, esaustiva e non imposta. La personalizzazione, presuppone l'adeguatezza della stessa alla condizione fisica e psicologica, all'età ed alla capacità oltre che al substrato culturale e linguistico del paziente, nonché deve essere proporzionata alla tipologia della prestazione proposta. Per quanto possibile, va evitato il rischio di un involontario e non esplicito condizionamento, legato all'asimmetria informativa tra le figure del medico e del paziente, eventualmente accentuato dalla gravità della malattia e dalla complessità della terapia conseguente. L'informazione deve essere comprensibile, e cioè espressa con linguaggio semplice e chiaro, usando notizie e dati specialistici, evitando sigle o termini scientifici, attraverso anche l'utilizzo di schede illustrate o materiale video che consentano al paziente di comprendere compiutamente ciò che verrà effettuato, soprattutto in previsione di interventi particolarmente invasivi o demolitivi. Nel caso di paziente straniero, è necessario l'interprete nonché il materiale informativo tradotto, affinché venga correttamente e completamente compreso ciò che viene detto. L'informativa deve essere altresì veritiera, ovvero non deve creare false illusioni, ma prudente e accompagnata da ragionevole speranza nelle informazioni che hanno rilevanza tale da comportare gravi preoccupazioni o previsioni infauste. Il requisito dell'obiettività deve riscontrarsi su fonti validate o che godano di una legittimazione clinico - scientifica; oltre che indicativa delle effettive potenzialità di cura fornite dalla struttura che ospita il paziente e delle prestazioni tecnico-strutturali che l'ente è in grado di offrire permanentemente o in quel dato momento; fornendo notizie inerenti l'atto sanitario proposto nell'ambito del percorso di cura intrapreso e al soddisfacimento di ogni quesito specifico posto dal paziente. In particolar modo sulla natura e lo scopo principale; sulle probabilità di successo; sulle modalità di effettuazione; e sul sanitario che eseguirà la prestazione. Esaustivamente precise devono essere le conseguenze previste e la loro modalità di risoluzione; i rischi ragionevolmente prevedibili, le complicanze e la loro probabilità di verificarsi e di essere risolti da ulteriori trattamenti; eventuali possibilità di trattamenti alternativi, loro vantaggi e rischi; conseguenze del rifiuto alle prestazioni sanitarie. Ció detto, al paziente é riconosciuta la facoltà di non essere informato, delegando a terzi la ricezione delle informazioni, dal momento che il diritto all'informazione non necessariamente deve accompagnarsi all'obbligo di riceverla. Traccia però deve essere lasciata in forma scritta. In tal caso egli esprimerà comunque il consenso, subordinatamente all'informazione data a persona da lui delegata. Il consenso deve essere espresso da un soggetto che, ricevute correttamente e completamente le informazioni con le modalità descritte in precedenza, sia capace di intendere e di volere; e tale capacità di intendere non è valutabile separatamente dalla capacità di volere. Del diritto ad esprimere il consenso ne é titolare solo il paziente; l'informazione a terzi (compresi anche i familiari), è ammessa solitamente previo consenso esplicitamente espresso dal paziente. Il consenso espresso dai familiari è giuridicamente irrilevante. Per i minorenni, gli interdetti e per le persone sottoposte ad una amministrazione di sostegno riferita ad atti sanitari si rimanda successivamente proposte manifestatamente e, in particolar modo per le attività che esulano dalla routine. La manifestazione di volontà deve essere esplicita ed espressa inequivocabilmente, e preferibilmente in forma scritta. L'assenso deve essere riferito allo specifico atto sanitario proposto e prestato per un determinato trattamento, e non può peraltro legittimare il medico all'esecuzione di una scelta terapeutica diversa dal percorso di cura intrapreso, per natura od effetti, fatto salvo il sopraggiungere di una situazione di necessità ed urgenza che determini un pericolo grave per la salute o la vita del paziente. Il consenso deve essere prestato prima dell'atto proposto. L'intervallo di tempo tra la manifestazione del consenso e l'attuazione dell'atto sanitario non deve essere tale da far sorgere dubbi sulla persistenza della volontà del paziente; nel caso lo sia, è opportuno ottenere conferma del consenso già prestato, in prossimità della realizzazione dell'atto. Il requisito della attualità del consenso, racchiude i maggiori dubbi sull'ammissibilità delle d.a.t. ( dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento). Il paziente ha il diritto di revocare in qualsiasi momento il consenso prestato, eventualmente anche nell'immediatezza della procedura sanitaria che si sta ponendo in essere; la natura contrattuale del consenso determina che per essere giuridicamente valido esso debba inoltre rispondere ai requisiti "libero" e "relativo al bene disponibile" . Evidenziati i requisiiti del consenso, è necessario soffermarsi su quali soggetti possano essere esecutori di tale dichiarazioni;è emersa quindi, la figura del fiduciario; in un primo momento in sede dottrinale si era fatto riferimento all'istituto del mandato per trovare un istituto cui ricondurre il rapporto tra paziente e fiduciario: il mandante attraverso le istruzioni poteva rendere al fiduciario le proprio volontà in ordine ai trattamento di fine vita ed il mandatario può rendere queste dichiarazioni di volontà secondo uno schema tipico con effetti nella sfera giuridica del mandante, ma in realtà questa ricostruzione trova il suo limite nella sopravvenuta estinzione del mandato per incapacitò del osggetto che da l'incarico fiduciario,da qui allora l'attenzione di dottrina e giurisprudenza si è focalizzata sulla figura dell'amministratore di sostegnodisciplinato nel codice civile dagli artt. 404 e ss. Lo strumento dell'art. 408 c.c.(scelta dell'amministratore di sostegno), avrebbe, al di là della sedes materiae, secondo alcuni, introdotto nel nostro ordinamento l'istituto del testamento biologico; ed, allora, non resterebbe che concludere in conformità al dettato legislativo, che lo stesso debba rivestire la forma solenne dell'atto pubblico o della scrittura privata autenticata. Da qui il ruolo del notaio quale soggetto deputato ad apporre sulla scheda biologica il sigillo di "fedeltà". importante è Delibera del 23 giugno 2006 con la quale Il Consiglio Nazionale del Notariato, ritiene utile "in attesa di un'auspicabile iniziativa legislativa in materia ed al fine di garantire il medico nell'esercizio delle proprie responsabilità" – assicurare "la certezza della provenienza della dichiarazione dal suo autore, mediante intervento notarile e la reperibilità della medesima in un registro telematico nazionale". Considerato, quindi, che l'intervento notarile – proprio perché volto ad assicurare il valore aggiunto della certezza fornito dalla pubblica funzione di certificazione - comporta il rispetto delle modalità operative fissate dalla legge (repertorio, trattamento fiscale, ecc.), ma "che nel contempo è necessario individuare forme che non comportino costi significativi ed aggravi di formalità burocratiche per il cittadino e la collettività". Nel provvedimento di cui si tratta, emerge la volontà del notariato di contribuire a risolvere un'esigenza di grande rilevanza umana e sociale e la disponibilità a provvedere alla istituzione e conservazione del Registro Generale dei testamenti di vita, con costi a proprio carico, mediante le proprie strutture informatiche e telematiche. Un dato di rilievo è che, secondo il Consiglio, "alla luce della attuale normativa, il notaio, richiesto di autenticare la sottoscrizione di una dichiarazione relativa ad un testamento di vita", può "farlo, non ravvisandosi alcuna contrarietà a norme di legge". Propone, quindi, in assenza di un divieto imperativo in materia, di utilizzare un testo di dichiarazione sottoscritta dal solo disponente, contenente la delega ad un fiduciario, incaricato di manifestare ai medici curanti l'esistenza del testamento di vita. Questi argomenti appena trattati, il consenso, la sua forma e il legittimato a porre in essere le volontà espresse sono tutti argomenti che sono stati oggetti di analisi giurisprudenziale in particolar modo nei casi Welby ed Englaro, che congiuntamente al caso Schiavo saranno approfonditi nell'elaborato finale. Bisogna comunque dire che il caso Welby è fondamentale per analizzare la responsabilità che coinvolge la tematica delle dichiarazioni anticipate di trattamento. Difatti, per la prima volta si è incentrato il problema sulla eutanasia, ed il dottore che aveva "accompagnato alla morte" il soggetto, malato ormai da tempo e senza possibilità di guarigione o miglioramento alcuno, ma solo di peggioramento, accettandone la volontà di sospensione dei trattamenti salva vita, rispettando quindi il diritto al rifiuto dei trattamenti sanitari, facente parte dei diritti inviolabili della persona di cui all'art. 2 Cost, fu rinviato a giudizio con l'accusa ex 579 c.p. E' da sottolineare che il "dissenso "di Welby possedeva tutti i requisiti necessari desumibili dalla Costituzione e dai principi generali dell'ordinamento, affinché la manifestazione di volontà del avesse rilievo giuridico onde escludersi l'applicazione dell'art. 579 in forza della scriminante dell'art. 51 c.p. Il possibile rifiuto del malato deve essere esercitato con riferimento ad un «trattamento sanitario», potendo riguardare solo una condotta che ha come contenuto competenze di carattere medico e sempre all'interno di un rapporto di natura contrattuale a contenuto sanitario. Solo sul professionista e non su altri incombe, quindi, il dovere di osservare la volontà di segno negativo del paziente, in ragione della relazione instauratasi tra i due per l'espletamento di una condotta di natura sanitaria a contenuto concordato. Con la conseguenza che, se il professionista dovesse porre in essere una condotta direttamente causativa della morte del paziente per espressa volontà di quest'ultimo, risponderà ad un preciso dovere che discende dalla previsione dell'art. 32, comma 2 Cost., mentre la stessa condotta posta in essere da ogni altro soggetto non risponderà ad alcun dovere giuridicamente riconosciuto dall'ordinamento, non essendo stata esercitata all'interno di un rapporto terapeutico, nel quale solo nascono e si esercitano diritti e doveri specifici. Alla luce di queste premesse, può essere condivisa la soluzione proscioglitiva in ordine al reato di omicidio del consenziente. Il rifiuto di una terapia, anche se già iniziata, ove venga esercitato nell'ambito sopra descritto ed alle condizioni precedentemente illustrate, costituisce un diritto costituzionalmente garantito e già perfetto, rispetto al quale sul medico incombe, in ragione della professione esercitata e dei diritti e doveri scaturenti dal rapporto terapeutico instauratosi con il paziente, il dovere giuridico di consentirne l'esercizio. Con la conseguenza che, se il medico in ottemperanza a tale dovere, contribuisse a determinare la morte del paziente per l'interruzione di una terapia salvavita, egli non risponderebbe penalmente del delitto di omicidio del consenziente, in quanto avrebbe operato alla presenza di una causa di esclusione del reato e segnatamente quella prevista dall'art. 51 c.p. . La fonte del dovere per il medico, quindi, risiederebbe in prima istanza nella stessa norma costituzionale, che è di rango superiore rispetto alla legge penale, e l'operatività della scriminante nell'ipotesi sopra delineata è giustificata dalla necessità di superare la contraddizione dell'ordinamento giuridico il quale, da una parte, non può attribuire un diritto e, dall'altra, incriminarne il suo esercizio. Da ultimo, sull'argomento si è espressa nuovamente la Corte di Cassazione con la sentenza 20984/2012 la quale sembrerebbe affermare che l'intervento del medico è scriminato non solo nei casi di TSO (casi pacificamente scriminati) ma in tutti i casi in cui si incorra in uno stato di necessità ex art. 54 c.p. Il consenso informato ha come correlato la facoltà, non solo di scegliere tra le diverse possibilità di trattamento medico, ma anche, nell'eventualità, di rifiutare la terapia e di decidere consapevolmente di interromperla (n.b.: questa definizione di consenso informato è espressione di libertà positiva); e ciò in tutte le fasi della vita, anche in quella terminale. Secondo la definizione della Corte Costituzionale (Corte Cost. 438/2008) il consenso informato, inteso quale espressione della consapevole adesione al trattamento sanitario proposto dal medico, si configura quale vero e proprio diritto della persona e trova fondamento nei principi espressi nell'art. 2 Cost., che ne tutela e promuove i diritti fondamentali, e negli artt. 13 e 32 Cost., i quali stabiliscono rispettivamente che la libertà personale è inviolabile e che nessuno può essere obbligato a un determinato trattamento sanitario se non per disposizione di legge. La responsabilità del sanitario (e di riflesso della struttura per cui egli agisce) per violazione dell'obbligo del consenso informato discende: a) dalla condotta omissiva tenuta in relazione all'adempimento dell'obbligo di informazione in ordine alle prevedibili conseguenze del trattamento cui il paziente sia sottoposto; b) dal verificarsi - in conseguenza dell'esecuzione del trattamento stesso, e, quindi, in forza di un nesso di causalità con essa - di un aggravamento delle condizioni di salute del paziente. Non assume, invece, alcuna influenza, ai fini della sussistenza dell'illecito per violazione del consenso informato, se il trattamento sia stato eseguito correttamente o meno. Ciò perché, sotto questo profilo, ciò che rileva è che il paziente, a causa del deficit di informazione, non sia stato messo in condizione di assentire al trattamento sanitario con una volontà consapevole delle sue implicazioni, consumandosi, nei suoi confronti, una lesione di quella dignità che connota l'esistenza nei momenti cruciali della sofferenza, fisica e psichica. Importante svolta in campo di responsabilità medica è stata data la legge 8 novembre 2012, n. 189 che ha convertito il Decreto Legge Balduzzi, n. 158/2012. La cosiddetta "colpa lieve" dell'esercente una professione sanitaria ne risulta, in certo qual senso, depenalizzata. Infatti, il dato testuale dell'art. 3, 1° co., il sanitario che nello svolgimento della propria attività si attiene a linee guida e buone pratiche accreditate dalla comunità scientifica non risponde penalmente per colpa lieve. Sulla responsabilità del medico e della struttura sanitaria, e della sua natura si tratterà esaustivamente nel corso dell'elaborato. In Italia, nonostante il problema sia sorto da tempo, e sia stato, come visto, oggetto di copiosa attività giurisprudenziale di merito e di legittimità, nonché dottrinaria, non si ha al momento, ancora un testo normativo che disciplini la materia in oggetto. L'iter normativo sul testamento biologico, in Italia ha inizio con il d.d.l. presentato al Senato (s.10) il 29 aprile del 2008 e dallo stesso approvato il 26 marzo 2009. Il disegno così come approvato è stato inviato alla Camera, che lo ha modificato il 12 luglio 2011, e da allora siamo stagnati sull'argomento, anche per la presenza di un governo cd. tecnico. Una timida ripresa, è stata impulsata dalla commissione permanente di igiene e sanità nell'ottobre del 2012. Pertanto, il giurista si deve attenere alle fonti a disposizione, e perciò, operando un raffronto di questi due testi, emerge l'allontanarsi del sistema positivo italiano - nonostante stia allineandosi all'Europa sotto molteplici aspetti - sul tema di «fine vita» non dimostrandosi ancora competitivo per la normativa europea. Si rimanda, indi alla trattazione finale per il lavoro comparatistico delle leggi in itinere.

From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. ; Winner of the 2022 Friends of the Kreitzberg Library Award for Outstanding Research in the University Archives category, honorable mention. ; Tribulation, Triumph, and Tragedy: Norwich University's Iranian Program (1976-1979) Joseph C. Chatterton History 249- Historical Methods Dr. Bennett 3, December 2021 Word Count: 3159 1 January 29, 2002, just five months after the most devastating terrorist attacks in American history, in his first State of the Union since the beginning of War on Terror President George W. Bush branded Iran as a member of the so-called Axis of Evil along with the likes of North Korea and Saddam Hussian's Iraq. In one line in particular, President Bush decried the Islamic Republic and made it clear that in his role as Commander and Chief, he regarded Iran as one of America's greatest geopolitical foes stating, "Iran aggressively pursues these weapons and exports terror, while an unelected few repress the Iranian people's hope for freedom."1 President Bush's remarks are unsurprising. After all, as recently as May of 2018, prominent Iranian politicians congregated in the hallowed halls of their Parliament to burn American flags and chant "Death to America."2 From nuclear weapons to terrorism, the United States and Iran clash on nearly even front. Yet, it has not always been this way. As recently as 1979, Norwich University, the oldest Senior Military College in the United States, played host to nearly eighty Iranian Midshipmen. Although Norwich's Iranian program was short-lived, it was one of the most successful cultural exchanges in the university's history. In the face of tremendous adversity, Norwich overcame all obstacles and successfully academically, militarily, and socially integrated the Iranian Midshipmen into the Corps of Cadets and the greater Norwich community. In the fifty years since the birth of Iran's Islamic Republic, scholars, historians, and government officials have devoted the vast majority of their analysis on the dramatic collapse of the Shah's regime, the ensuing hostage crisis, and the profound implications it had on American foreign policy. While the significance of this is undeniable, far less research has been done into 1 George W Bush, "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. 2 "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625. 2 academic links which bound the two nations, and the effects that the regime's collapse had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Norwich's Iranian program was not the first of its kind, however it was the most successful. Similar programs were attempted at other military academies such as at The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) and the Citadel. However, both of these programs were plagued by difficulties. In 1976 Lieutenant Colonel Paul LaFond, the Deputy Commandant of Norwich's Corps of Cadets, visited VMI to observe VMI's Iranian program so that Norwich might draw lessons for the establishment of its own program. Following the trip Colonel LaFond compiled a detailed report. In the report, it becomes quickly evident that the VMI program consistently struggled to successfully integrate the Iranian students. Major flash point included the serving of Pork products during chow time and their "more relaxed idea of the honor code,"3 LaFond ends this memorandum with a section dedicated "Staff, Faculty and Cadre reaction to the Iranian Program." In this section it becomes evident that many prominent leaders of VMI had less than positive things to say about the program. One Cadet advisor remarked, "The Iranians have put a great strain on our system. The school has been weakened." he continued on dramatically stating, "If we had large numbers for very long it could destroy our system."4 Probably the gravest signal that VMI's Iran program was less than successful are the somber closing remarks of the schools highest ranking officials, the Commandant of Cadets: " You will have a severe problem. Are you ready to cope and is it worth it? There will be many problems with your own cadets."5 The first half of this quote is simple enough to analyze. Of course, there will be many general challenges with introducing a large contingent of foreign midshipmen into a military environment such as 3 Paul LaFond. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 4 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 5 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 3 VMI, yet it is the second part of this quote that really requires some unpacking. What exactly was the Commandant's intent when he stated, "There will be many problems with your own cadets."6 As mentioned previously VMI's Iranian program was notorious for its struggles to integrate the Iranian Midshipmen into their Corps of Cadets, one aspect of this often overlooked is the initial hostility between American Cadets and the Iranian Midshipmen. Earlier in the memorandum VMI's Commandant is quoted to have stated in subsection 5, Discipline and Control, "At first, the 'Old Cadets' harassed the Iranians, and were hard on them. A period of turbulence resulted," he goes on to articulate his point stating that he "cautions, to watch our martinets that they don't cause trouble and states that this type of cadet is particularly frustrated when working with Iranians."7 Although the wording in certain sections of this memorandum can be somewhat confusing for a twenty-first century perspective to comprehend, the general theme is clear, VMI's Iranian program was plagued with trials and tribulations, many of which remained unresolved at the time of its publication. In spite of this evident adversity, Norwich remained resolved to push forward and succeed where VMI failed. With this in mind one must question why Senior Military Colleges such as Norwich placed such an emphasis on creating relations with Iran? For thousands of years Iran has been a strategic regional power. Throughout antiquity the Persian Empire was one of the world's premier powers, and this prominence continued into the Middle Ages. In the 7th century CE, the nation played a vital role in helping to facilitate the spread of Islam from the Arabian peninsula to Central Asia.8 As time progressed the nation's strategic value only grew. During the age of European Imperialism, Iran held a vital role as a 6 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 7 Paul LaFond, Memorandum to Loring Hart. 8 Kathryn Babayan, "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 4 buffer between the British lion and the Russian bear.9 By 1879, Iran was a colony within the British Empire in all but name. The Iranian government was forced to grant monopolies on everything from "the construction of railways, canals and irrigation system,"10 to control of the nation's banking system.11 Yet the nation's greatest strategic value laid below its surface. In 1908, as oil was beginning to gradually replace coal as the key to industrialization, foreign interest in the country skyrocketed with the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company discovery of black gold beneath the waters of the Persian Gulf.12 Iran entered the Cold War in a very interesting position. Many of its institutions, and much wealth continued to be controlled by foreigners in London and by this point Washington. Understandably this angered many Iranians and many turned to socialist politicians like Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nassar, and in Iran's case Mohammad Mosaddegh. In the general election of 1951 Mosaddegh campaigned on the simple message that Iran must free itself from the British imperial yoke. He would win the Prime Ministership in a landslide, and upon assuming the highest office in the nation he set out to make good on his campaign promise. Symbolically on May Day in 1951, Mosaddegh announced the nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company. In October of that year he doubled down, expelling all British subjects from the nation. Yet the Western powers did not take kindly to being forcefully evicted from Iran, especially taking into consideration the ongoing Cold War, the nation's strategic geography, and its valuable resources. Thus, the British Intelligence service (MI6) in conjunction with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), began planning for regime change. In August of 1953 Operation Ajax (alternatively known as Operation Boot) successfully ousted the democratically 9 Chris Paine and Erica Schoenberger, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. 10 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 11 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 12 Paine, "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers. 1975. 5 elected Mosaddegh, and bestowed the on nation's monarch or Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi near absolute power.13 The Shah's Iran played a vital role in the United States' middle eastern policy. As described in his journal article, American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era, Dr. Mathew K. Shannon "The Shah's Iran provided to successive American administrations, with a toe hold in the Persian Gulf region … a bulwark against Soviet expansion… and guaranteed the westward flow of Iranian oil."14 With this in context it is understandable that the United States wished to do everything within its power to strengthen its strategic relationship with Iran. While on one hand this means providing Iran with military funds and equipment, it also means flexing the United States' soft power. The Oxford dictionary defines "soft power" as, "a way of dealing with other countries that involves using economic and cultural influence to persuade them to do things, rather than military power."15 In the 1970s the United States had many of the top universities in the world, as well as one of the most robust and modern educational systems. Thus, it seems only logical that the US utilizes its education system, as a bastion of strength. Dr. Joseph Nye, a well-established political scientist and the former Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs is quoted for stating, "The ideas and values that America exports in the minds of more than half a million foreign students who study every year in American universities and return to their home countries, tend to reach elites in power."16 Throughout the Cold War the United States would 13 Moyara de Moraes Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. 14 Matthew K. Shannon, "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. 15 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. 16 Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. 6 faithfully follow Dr. Nye's advice to further develop its relationship with the Shah's Iran. The previously mentioned Dr. Mathew Shannon notes the rapid and substantial growth of Iranian students in the United States stating, "The population grew from a mere five hundred in 1950, to upwards of fifty thousand in the late 1970, making them the largest national group of students in the United States."17 The significance of this cannot be understated. Upon graduating from American Universities these students returned to their homeland and played an active role in building the new modern Iran. It was on their shoulders that the "bulwark against Soviet expansion rested." It was the alumni of American universities that ran Iran's state oil company and made the plans for modernizing Iranian industry and infrastructure. These alumni would hold high positions in the nation's civil service, would serve as elected members of Iran's Majlis (Parliament), and crucial to Norwich as officers in the Iranian Military. While Iran benefited from this influx of a highly educated, professional class, the United States was able to stock the Iranian government with those sympathetic to the West. Norwich University first began accepting Iranian Midshipmen in the fall of 1976. President Loring Hart and his administration put a great deal of emphasis on naturalizing the Iranian Midshipmen to the University from the onset. Captain M. Ali Foroughizadeh an Iranian Imperial Navy officer stationed in Arlington, Virginia, would serve as the main point of contact between the University and the Iranian government, for much of the program's existence. The correspondences between Captain Foroughizadeh and President Hart provide unique insight into its early development. The process of integrating Iranian students into the Corps of Cadets and the greater University community did not begin in August with the traditional start of the school year, but rather in June of 1976. As detailed by William F. Beatty, the Executive Assistant to the 17 Shannon, American-Iranian Alliances, 662. 7 President, "Currently fifty-two Iranian midshipmen are undergoing an intensive English, Mathematics and Physical education study program at Norwich in preparation for their enrollment next September as members of the class of 1980."18 Clearly even from the onset of its program Norwich was taking the proactive? steps to fully integrate the Midshipmen firmly into the Corps. Although at times it can become easy to forget, at the end of day Norwich is not merely a remote outpost of the US military but is a university with a long and storied tradition of academic excellence. As such, the importance of academic integration for the Universities Iran students cannot be understated. One of the key takeaways from VMI's tumultuous Iranian program was that failure to integrate the Iranian students in the classroom could have disastrous consequences. Thus, Norwich's faculty and administration made every effort to thoroughly integrate the Iranian students academically into the University. Associate professor Dr. Hollis D. McBride of the Engineering Department described the climate in the classroom stating "Conflicts between Irani and Americans in class have been few." Dr. Hollis does briefly pause his praise to note that the Iranian students seemed more inclined to help each other than their fellow American students, and does advise that having fewer Iranians per class would "reduce their dependence on each other."19 Yet in spite of these challenges Dr. McBride makes it abundantly clear he believes that the presence of the Iranian midshipmen had a profound and positive impact on the education of all students of all nationalities. McBride's praise for the program goes as far as to state, "Never have I seen a class of students work as hard as both Irani and Americans." He goes on to state "I am convinced that the example of the Irani working 18 William F Beatty, Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 19 Hollis D McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 8 overcomes the more usual image of upperclassmen playing to encourage this premier academic effort I have witnessed in my ten years at Norwich."20 Great strides were also taken to properly integrate the Iranian midshipmen socially into the Norwich community. In one of his first memorandums regarding the arrival of Midshipmen, he encourages members of the staff to "host one or two Iranian students for an evening meal to socialize."21 The University also made a significant effort to integrate Iranian and American students within the barracks. The previously mentioned engineering professor, Dr. McBride makes a strong case for integration stating, "An American roommate is a plus, but even more important is an American roommate of the same major."22 The logic behind this is self-evident. Forcing American and Iranian students to live together in close quarters means they are far more likely to develop close cross-cultural bonds, which in turn are "beneficial to both the American and the Iranian."23 Having an American roommate also forced the Iranian Midshipmen to use English on a daily basis and forces them to not to rely solely on their fellow Iranians. Sports and extracurricular activities also played a role in assimilating the midshipmen into the campus community. Many of the Iranian midshipmen played soccer both competitively and recreationally for the school. President Hart remarks upon the Midshipmen in a memorandum he sent to Iranian Admiral Farzaneh regarding the filming of a promotional video stating, "we might arrange a game for the Iranian Cadets on the soccer team." 24 While it is easy to overlook such trivial events as American and Iranian athletes competing together, surely the connections and 20 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 21 Loring E Hart , Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 22 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 23 Hollis McBride, Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier. 24 Hart, Loring E, Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 9 comradery built on the playing field can overcome linguistic and cultural differences and help the Iranian students merge into the student body. Despite these successes, a shadow lurked over the entirety of the program. One with a limited knowledge of world history, might wonder why the program was so short lived if it was clearly so successful The simple answer: revolution. Despite the guise of modernization beneath Iran's surface, discontent was brewing against the Shah and his authoritarian regime. Chief among the dissenters' grievances were not only the brutal human rights violations committed by the secret police (SAVAK), but the perception of American imperialism, and backlash for the increasingly secular nature of Iranian society. By 1978, demonstrations against the Imperial government occurred across all the nation's major cities with riots targeting symbols of the West such as banks, cinemas, and restaurants.25 The nation's Shiite clergy also played a major role in the overthrow of the Imperial regime. With his health failing and the regime crumbling, the Shah and his family were forced to flee in exile in Egypt. Simultaneously the Ayatollah Khomeini, a leader of the Shiite clergy, and an outspoken critic of the government returned from exile just in time for revolutionary forces to capture Tehran.26 Meanwhile back in Northfield, President Hart's administration was doing everything within its power to look after the best interests of the Iranian Midshipmen. Initially it appeared that the situation was under control. As late as November 9th, 1979, the Institute of International Education wrote "Foreign students who are in this country to pursue an and who are lawfully engaged in that pursuit, properly enjoy the protection of the laws which allow them to enter the 25 Said Amir Arjomand, "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. 26 Said Amir, Arjomand,"The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." 10 country and permit them to remain."27 Five days later University Vice President James Galloway echoed similar sentiments, writing that the state department had advised him that "State and Defense were discussing Iranian students, but were oriented towards those Iranians holding student visas, not members of an organized program. Current guidance was the status quo, and to maintain a low profile."28 Unfortunately this good news would be short lived. November 4, 1979 saw the storming of the American embassy in Tehran and the capture of 52 American hostages, President Carter issued an executive order calling for all the review of all educational visas for Iranian students in the United States.29 The optimism that the program could survive evaporated Almost overnight. Less than a month later Vice President James Galloway was forced to send out a new memo with a far different tone. While the November addition spoke of maintaining the status quo, the updated version stated, "On the basis of official order from the Iranian government or the U.S government, the Norwich Naval Contingent is directed to terminate their school and depart or prepare to depart."30 Throughout the winter of 1980 the campus held its breath bracing for the inevitable. On April 7, this finally occurred when "The State Department severed diplomatic relations with Iran and ordered the deportation of "employees" and "officials of Iran by Friday April 11 at midnight."31 The next day on April 8, a glimmer of false hope set in, with 27 Hughes Jenkins, "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 28 James V Galloway, Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 29 Will Tiague, Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. 30 Harry A Buckley, Contingency Plan for the Iranian Crisis, 4 December 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 31 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. 11 the general feeling being that "the Iranian Cadets would be classified as students rather than as officials or employees, and would therefore be permitted to finish the semester."32 However, the next day such hopes would be shattered when the State department reversed its decision and labeled the Midshipmen as Officials of Iran. Two days later on April 10, President Hart briefed the Corps on the unfolding situation. In a testament to the successes of the program when Iranian Midshipmen " c/CPT Kazem Yahyapour bid farewell to the American students on behalf of the Iranians students, he received a standing ovation from the Corps. Faculty, and staff."33 On April 12, 1980 the Iranian program would officially die with the departure of 80 Iranian students and officials. The last communication upon touchdown in Tehran was simple and sober, "We received and are warm and ok."34 The Iranian program was over. Since that infamous date in 1980 the relation between the United States and the Islamic Republic of Iran have only grown worse. Today it would be unimaginable for Midshipmen from Iran to study at an American military college such as Norwich University. Yet only fifty years ago between 1976 and 1979 over 80 Iranian students were fully integrated, academically, socially, and militarily into the Norwich community. Although the program ended in tragedy, in a world where military cooperation continues to grow increasingly important, the story of success remains relevant and worth remembering. 32 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 33Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 34 Philip R Marsilius, Sequence of Events. 12 Bibliography Primary Sources Beatty, William F. Letter to CDR Abghari, 4 November 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Galloway, James V. Memorandum For Record, 14 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Distribution Lists I and II, 15 June 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Hart, Loring E. Memorandum to Vadm D. Farzaneh, 11 December 1978. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. LaFond, Paul. Memorandum to Loring Hart, 7 May 1976. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Marsilius, Philip R, Sequence of Events, 7-14 April 1980. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. McBride, Hollis D. Memorandum to Dr. Hart and Dr. Chevalier, 15 July 1977. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Jenkins, Hughes. "Educational Exchange Agencies Urge Care in Coping with Iranian Students in U.S, 9 November 1979. President Hart's Files on the Iranian Students, Norwich University Archives, Northfield Vt. Secondary Sources Arjomand, Said Amir. "The Causes and Significance of the Iranian Revolution." State, Culture, and Society 1, no. 3 (1985): 41–66. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20006816. This article provided valuable information about the events of Iran's Islamic Revolution. It discusses the initial protests and the peoples major grievances against the secret police, the west, and the increasing secular nature of society. Babayan, Kathryn. "The Safavid Synthesis: From Qizilbash Islam to Imamite Shi'ism." Iranian Studies 27, no. 1/4 (1994): 135–61. 13 This article provides information on the history of Islam in Iran. Initially it was used to help inllistrate how historically Iran has been very stratiegic, but it also serves to introduce Islam, which would prove to be a very important factor in the 1979 Revolution. Carol Atkinson, "Does Soft Power Matter? A Comparative Analysis of Student Exchange Programs 1980–2006" Foreign Policy Analysis 6 no. 1, (310) 2. This article helps to illustrate the significance of soft power, particularly the use of student exchange programs to project American power across the globe. Clearly this is very relevant to Norwich's Iranian exchange program, and helps to explain its significance and one of its purposes. Bush, George W. "2002 State of the Union ," National Archives and Records Administration (National Archives and Records Administration, January 29, 2002), https://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/stateoftheunion/2002/. Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. "Iranian Politicians Set Fire to US Flag in Parliament," BBC News (BBC), accessed November 4, 2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-middle-east-44055625 Used in the introduction to help establish the very hostile relationship that that United States currently has with the Islam Republic of Iran. Shannon, Matthew K. "American–Iranian Alliances: International Education, Modernization, and Human Rights during the Pahlavi Era" Diplomatic History 39, no. 4, (2015) 661. Provides valuable background information into the nature of the Iranian state, and the Iranian education system during the Shah's reign. Key to Norwich, this article mentions exchange programs particularly those with the United States. Moyara de Moraes, Ruehsen. "Operation 'Ajax' Revisited: Iran, 1953." Middle Eastern Studies 29, no. 3 (1993): 467–86. Discussed the Anglo-American coup which overthrew Iran's democratically elected government, and handed the Shah absolute power. Played a vital role in creating the Iranian government which Norwich cooperated with, it is also key to understand the underlying factors behind the 1979 Revolution. Paine, Chris, and Erica Schoenberger. "Iranian Nationalism and the Great Powers: 1872-1954." MERIP Reports, no. 37 (1975): 3–28. Helps to establish the early history of Iran, and its history of Anglo-American domination. 14 "Soft Power,"Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary. Provides a definition for soft power, to help illustrate its significance to the United States particularly in a strategic ally such as the Shah's Iran. Tiague, Will. Hostages of the Crisis: Iranian Students in Arkansas, 1979-1981. The Arkansas Quarterly 77, no. 2 (2018): 113-130. Provides context for the Iranian hostage crisis, President Carter's reaction, and the effects that it had on the vast number of Iranian students studying in the United States. Yarbrough, Tinsley E. Federal Alienage Doctrine and the Iranian Student Litigation. Human Rights Quarterly 4, no. 2 (1982): 243–60. Discusses the legal issues facing Iranian students facing deportation in the United States following the Islamic Revolution.

ERROR ANALYSIS OF SPOKEN RECOUNT TEXT MADE BY THE EIGHTH GRADERS OF BILINGUAL CLASS AT SMP NEGERI 1 BABAT Muhammad Anwar Habibi English Language Education, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University anwarhabibi@rocketmail.com Esti Kurniasih, S.Pd., M.Pd. English Language Education, Language and Arts Faculty, Surabaya State University Abstrak Kemampuan berbiara siswa merupakan kemampuan yang alami. Pada satu sisi, siswa mampu menggunakan ilmu kebahasaan mereka dengan berbciara. Pada sisi yang lain, celah dari ilmu kebahasaan yang rendah akan terlihat dari bahasa lisan mereka yang didefinisikan sebagai kesalahan siswa atau Error. Untuk itu, bahasa lisan siswa bisa dijadikan sebagi tolok ukur yang tepat dalam mengukur kemampuan berbahasa mereka. Analisa kesalahan berbahasa siswa adalah salah satu metode yang berarti untuk mengisi celah ilmu kebahasaan siswa. Selanjutnya melalui evaluasi kesalahan berbahasa yang suah mereka buat, mereka mampu meningkatkan kecakapan berbahasa mereka secara bertahap. Studi deskriptif kualitatif ini bertujuan untuk menganalisa dan menjelaskan sebab dari macam-macam error yang telah dibuat oleh subjek penelitian ini dalam teks lisan berbentuk recount. Peneliti menggunakan klasifikasi kesalahan yang diusulkan oleh Hendrickson (1983) dan sebab kesalahan dari James dalam Ellis (2005). Peneliti juga menggunakan teori analisa data kualitaif yang diusulkan oleh Ary et al (2010). Untuk memperoleh data, peneliti merekam dan menuliskan teks lisan siswa berbentuk recount. Dari keseluruhan teks lisan siswa berbentuk recount ditemukan banyak kesalahan yang pada umumnya terjadi pada morphology dan phonology. Peneliti juga menemukan kesalahan yang terjadi pada lexicon dan syntax namun jarang terjadi. Dari keseluruhan kesalahan dalam morphology kebanyakan terjadi pada tense markers dan plural markers. Misanalysis dalam tata bahasa dan kurangnya kesadaran siswa untuk menggunakan tata bahasa yang baik dan benar dalam bahasa lisan merupakan sebab utama dari kesalahan-kesalahan siswa dalam teks lisan berbentuk recount mereka. Kata Kunci: analisa kesalahan, ketrampilan berbicara, teks recount, kelas bilingual, siswa kelas 8. Abstract Students' spoken language is natural. On one hand, through the spoken language the students are going to be able to implement any language knowledge that they have learned. On the other hand, spoken language also provides the students' gaps concern with lack of language knowledge that is referred as an error. Therefore, the students' spoken language could be viewed as an exact object to measure their language ability. Analyzing the errors in learner's language is a significant method to fill the students' gaps. Then they are capable of enhancing their language aptitude through errors evaluation. This descriptive qualitative study is chiefly aimed to analyze the types and causes of errors that were made by the subject of this study on their spoken recount text. In this errors analysis of the students' spoken recount text, error classification by Hendrickson (1983) and causes of error by James in Ellis (2005) are implemented to analyze and describe the errors and their causes. The spoken language data bring the researcher into recording and transcribing the students' spoken recount text before analysis takes place to gain the data of this error analysis study. Theory of qualitative data proposed by Ary (2010) is implemented in analyzing the data of this study. The researcher found very many errors from the entire spoken recount texts. The errors are mostly occurred in morphology, then phonology. Lexicon and syntax are rarely occurred in the students' spoken recount text. Morphological errors mostly occur in tense and plural markers. Misanalysis of the structure rules and lack of consciousness of applying them in oral communication mostly caused those errors occurred. Key words: error analysis, speaking skill, recount text, bilingual class, eighth graders. INTRODUCTION The very heart of using foreign language is able to speak the foreign language (Luoma, 2004). English has been included into the Indonesian education curriculum and taught since Elementary School level and recently young learners are also introduced to English in early age such as in Preschool class. The spoken form has been regarded as the primary form of language (Vachek, 1973 in Hughes, 2002). In fact, oral or written language produced by learners (Ellis, 2005:4) has the same purpose that is as means of communication. In addition, the main point of producing a language is that the speakers or the writers can extend any information they want to share using the senses they have. Learning language and constructing learner strategies (Wenden et al, 1987) are executed by the children through the instruction of the teacher inside the classroom as the continuation of childhood developmental phase in constructing language. Language learners will be curious about the language they are learning (McKay, 2006), so they are willing to accept any feedback that will upgrade their language knowledge. Then they will get into the evaluation part of learning language and the students will be able to use words and phrases fluently without very much conscious thought (Harmer, 2007). It seems rather peculiar to evaluate the students' oral language by showing the errors they have made rather than the right one (Ellis, 1997). Students' oral language is produced by the students naturally as the language features they have learned. Showing the error then noticing the right one will help the students to revise the students' misunderstanding about a certain language feature then their language learning could develop gradually over the time. Yet, to show the students' errors should be extended by the teacher as wise as possible. Ellis (1997) defines the error as reflection of learner's knowledge and it occurs because the learner does not know the correct one. Lack of language knowledge such as pronunciation, accents, words use, vocabulary, and structure can be addressed to the students because of their error occurred. Therefore, they will learn this language knowledge gradually over the time. It means that the students will get their errors at the early moment of learning a new knowledge of a language lesson. Referring to the new lesson of the students in formal language learning level, recount and descriptive text are the new genres text for the 8th graders as in the Basic Competence of Junior High School students in speaking skill of the Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan (BSNP), 2006. Giving information and sharing an account of what happened is the definition of the recount as the typical genre of Derewianka, 1992 in McKay, 2006. Giving and sharing an account of what happened to each of the students would be a fair topic of this error analysis study. Because, they will tell what in their mind using the represent words, phrase, and sentence rather than describing something because, they are going to have opportunities to cheat their friends' words and it will limit their language knowledge. The spoken recount will refer to one of the genre texts for the 8th graders of Junior High School but it will be extended in the form of oral language not in written form. Based on the Basic Competence of Junior High School students in speaking skill of the BSNP, 2006 recount text is one of the genre texts that should be learned by the 8th graders as a new lesson because it is oriented in the first semester and they do not learn this text at the previous grade. Therefore, the new thing for the students will turn up the error of producing oral language. Therefore, they will be able to evaluate and revise their errors by knowing the errors they have made which are going to be the main data of this spoken recount text analysis study. The students will learn such text in the next semester. Thus, it is important to strengthen their language feature of recount text as oral language foundation. Different skill was analyzed in this study than others that differentiate the following error analysis study. Related to error analysis study, Prastiwi (2013) conducted a written error analysis of the eight graders on the problems of students' competence in writing recount text in terms of its content and organization. In addition, the result of this study is that the content and organization of recount composition written by the 8th graders was categorized into average level. Therefore, this error analysis study is different from others error analysis studies that are mostly conducted in analyzing written language of the students. This error analysis study is chiefly aimed to analyze the errors and their causes that are found in spoken recount text made by the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. The students or the error maker will obtain more luck from this error analysis study because they will know and realize the error they have made when they are learning a new material. Being shown the error they have made sometimes will be brought up next to their mind so that they will be aware of having the similar errors. They will be noticeable about the language features as well and it will possibly help the students to self-correct the errors they have made (Ellis, 1997). Teacher is another one who will obtain the luck from this study; the errors known will be the reflection of some aspects of the teacher that they could be attributed to. For example, the teaching method, practice frequency, pronunciation, production, etc. He or she will know the measurement of the speaking skill mastered by the students from the errors they have made. The teacher will know which material should be emphasized in language teaching activity to cover the errors of the students in speaking skill particularly in spoken recount and recount text. METHOD In this study, the researcher used descriptive qualitative research. The researcher tried to describe and explain the students' spoken recount error objectively and naturally as it existed. The data which are described by the researcher were taken from the students' spoken recount text made by the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. The data of this study are in the form of words. Therefore, the researcher applied qualitative method where qualitative data are in the form of words or picture rather than numbers and statistics (Ary, 2010). The steps underwent by the researcher are collecting the students' spoken recount data then transcribing them into written words. After that, the researcher organized and analyzed the error made by the students. Finally, the researcher extended the error analysis study of the spoken recount in the form of words as the result of this study. In addition, there was no any treatment given to the subjects of this study. The subjects of this study are the 8th graders of bilingual class at SMP Negeri 1 Babat and the researcher chose the A cluster. The researcher chose the 8th graders because they are learning recount text particularly in the first semester and will be continued to the next semester so this grade is the appropriate one to be the subjects of this study. Therefore, the researcher would like to know the errors that usually occur in students' speaking. Ellis (2005) stated that the primary data of oral analysis are the recording of talk. The transcripts of the recording are not the data, but rather a representation of the data. However, the transcript and the recordings should be used together during the analysis. Data of this study are the errors which are found in the students' speaking performance and the motives of the students for doing those errors. In analyzing the students' spoken recount text, the researcher used the theory of Hendrickson (1983). The data source of this error analysis study is the spoken recount text performance made by the bilingual class of the 8th graders at SMP Negeri 1 Babat and the representation of the primary data are the transcript of the spoken recount text recording. The research instruments in this study were used to gain the answer of the research questions. In this study, the researcher used two instruments. The primary instrument used in qualitative research is the researcher himself (Ary, 2010). In fact, the researcher conducted the research, collected data until analyzed the data of the study by himself. So the researcher is the primary instrument of this study that is used to answer the first and second research question. To support the primary instrument gained the data, the researcher used a recording as a tool of instrument because the form of the primary data is in the form of audio recording. Audio recording is now widely used to show the language use occur naturally (Ellis et al, 2005). There are three principle methods of collecting sample, they are: (1). Pencil and paper; (2). Audio recording; (3). Video recording (Ellis et al, 2005). In this study, the researcher used the audio recording because the data of this study are in the form of spoken data. Therefore, the first step done by the researcher was recording the spoken recount text made by the bilingual class of the 8th graders at SMP Negeri 1 Babat. After recording the students' spoken recount text, the researcher transcribed the recording into written transcription to ease the researcher in analyzing the students' spoken recount text to find the type of errors. The recording perhaps eases an analysis to go back to the oral performance repeatedly. It helps to ensure that the transcription is detailed and accurate (Ellis et al, 2005). The next step is analyzing the students' spoken recount text through their transcription. The theory of Hendrickson (1983) was used to classify the students' errors found in their spoken performance. By classifying the categories of errors, the researcher will be able to construct the open questionnaire that was used to know the motives of the students for doing those errors. Then the researcher described the data systematically to get the best understanding based on the research questions. There are some theories which define the stages of qualitative data analysis, for instance, Cresswell (2007), Marshall and Roshman (2006), Maxwell (2005), Wolcott (1994), and Ary (2010). Moreover, they have different stages that should be done by the qualitative researcher in analyzing data. In this study, the researcher applied the theory of qualitative data analysis by Ary et al (2010) that consists of familiarizing-organizing, coding-reducing, and interpreting-representing. Familiarizing and organizing is the first stage of analyzing data of this study. In this study, the researcher familiarized himself with the data (Ary, 2010). Listening repeatedly is one way to familiarize with the data because the data of this study are in the form of spoken data. To ease the researcher, he made the transcription of the recording. After being familiar with the data, the researcher organized the data so that the researcher is capable of analyzing the data through the next stage. The second stage is coding and reducing. Coding itself is not to sum but to break apart the data (Ary, 2010). In this stage, the researcher coded the students' spoken recount transcriptions to separate the data based on the coding. In addition, this was used to ease the researcher in analyzing the error of each student's spoken transcription. After being coded and analyzed in detail based on the theory used, the data were then coded in larger coding. The large code is the part where the students' spoken transcription put into three codes based on the content and the errors found. Excellent, good, and poor are the codes used to divide the data into large group and each group will be represented by certain data to be presented in the finding and discussion part. In this stage, unfortunately the researcher did not reduce any data that had been collected because the researcher intentionally analyzed all the students' spoken recount text transcription. The last stage is interpreting and representing. Ary (2010) stated that interpretation is about emerging the meaning, telling whatever it exists, providing an explanation and developing the reasonable explanations. To interpret the data, the researcher used the theory of error analysis as the set of rule so that the researcher is able to interpret them in detail. In addition, this interpretation will be understandable by the availability of the visual representation of the data. The researcher used the table to explain the errors found in detail and chart to show the percentage of the error frequencies or amount. RESULT AND DISCUSSION After recording the spoken recount text then the researcher transcribed them into words with normal orthography supported with codes that are used to represent the data representation as it is existed. In analyzing the data, the researcher implemented familiarizing-organizing and coding-reducing theory of qualitative data analysis by Ari et al (2010). In this chapter, the researcher implemented the interpreting-representing stage of this theory. The entire errors that are found by the researcher occurred in each error linguistic proposed by Hendrickson (1983). After classifying the errors, the researcher found that the local errors found mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax, and lexicon. While the global errors found by the researcher mostly occurred in lexicon, syntax, and morphology. In addition, the researcher did not find any global errors that occurred in phonology. Type of errors Number of local errors Number of global errors Lexicon 55 5 Syntax 63 2 Morphology 150 1 Phonology 95 - Total 363 8 Interlingual errors are caused by the mother tongue interference in learning either second or foreign language. This interference probably gives not only positive but also negative effects that is commonly called transfer. Ellis (1997) stated that facilitation given by the first language in learning second language is positive transfer. While negative transfer is the first language role as the source of errors. In this study, the researcher found so many negative transfer cases where most of the entire students' spoken recount texts were composed and spoken by applying the first language structure rather than the English structure. Interlingual errors in this study occurred in lexicon, syntax, morphology and phonology in particular as the speech of the language learner that contains the characteristic of transfer in its pronunciation and intonation pattern. The errors that were caused by interlingual are mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax and lexicon. To be exact, the entire errors found in spoken recount text made by the subject of this study are assumed as interlingual errors. As Ellis (1997) stated that transfer is common in second language learners' speech. The second major in explaining errors is intralingual. This major reflects the universal process of learning strategy applied by the learners (Ellis, 1997). The intralingual consists of false analogy, misanalysis, incomplete rule application, exploiting redundancy, overlooking co-occurrence restriction, and system-simplification (James, 1998 in Ellis, 1997). Each error made by the students may have more than one cause (Tarone, 2009). Therefore, the researcher found some errors that have more than one cause that will increase the number of cause of error than the errors itself. The researcher found fewer errors that are caused by the intralingual errors than others that are caused by interlingual. These because of the phonological errors are completely caused by interlingual. An error made by the students that is caused by the system-simplification is rarely occurred among the whole of errors. The cause of this error occurs is when the students simplified the rule of the system in English to communicate rather than use the complete one. In false analogy or a kind of overgeneralization error that are caused by the students' false analogy is higher than system simplification. This false analogy mostly occurs in incorrect chosen words where the speaker or the subject thought it was correct. For example, the subject prefers to use long to show the distance rather than far. Literally, those words have different meaning, but the subject's analogy call it same or similar. The subjects also overgeneralized forms that they have found to be easy to learn and process (Ellis, 1997). The use of 'eated' in the place of 'ate', for instance. The errors of overlooking co-occurrence are in same level as the false analogy errors. The errors caused by overlooking occur in inappropriate words chosen who have similar meaning with others but have different collocation. For example, one of the subjects used 'fourteen p.m.' in place of 'two p.m.'. The researcher found higher errors that are caused by incomplete rule application than the previous ones. Incomplete rule application occurs in inappropriate rules applied by the students. They prefer to restructure the grammatical systems with their own as Ellis (1997) stated that restructuring grammatical rules is prevalent in second language acquisition. Word order errors are mostly caused by the incomplete rule application where the students mentioned the part of speech component of a sentence, but they arranged it in the wrong arrangement that trespassing the grammatical rules of English language in particular. From the entire errors caused by incomplete rule application are mostly occurred in word order. Errors that are caused by exploiting redundancy often occurred in students' spoken recount text. James in Ellis (1997) stated that exploiting redundancy is leaving the grammatical features that do not contribute to the meaning of an utterance, for example, omitting –s in verbs of third person singular. The same case also occurs in plural markers and possessive adjectives errors where most of the students leave the –s in plural markers and –'s in possessive adjective. Learners find difficulties of speaking in full sentences so they often leave the words. In second language acquisition, this case is called propositional simplification that happens in the early second language learner speech (Ellis, 1997). Most of errors found in students' spoken recount text are caused by misanalysis. The errors that are caused by misanalysis mostly occurred in verbs and tense markers. The presence, absence, and inappropriateness of verbs are the consideration of the verb errors that are caused by misanalysis. While inappropriate form of verbs is the consideration of the tense marker errors, for example, the use of present participle verb in past tense verb. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Conclusion The researcher found that the entire bilingual students made errors in their spoken recount text. From entire spoken recount texts made by each student of bilingual class, the errors are mostly occurred in morphology, phonology, syntax, and lexicon. The errors of lexicon are mostly occurred in verbs, noun, and adverb. And errors of adjective are rarely occurred. Therefore, from the whole errors of lexicon are mostly occurred in preposition, possessive adjective, articles, word order. Moreover, errors in syntactic class, modals, conjunction, and demonstrative adjective are rarely occurred. The errors of phonology occurred in mispronunciation entirely. Moreover, most of errors found by the researcher occurred in morphology and tense markers are dominants than plural and negative markers. The causes of the errors made by the students were concerned in the second research question of this study. The researcher found that errors made by the bilingual students are dominantly caused by the interlingual errors or the mother tongue interference. The researcher also found fewer errors that are caused by the intralingual errors than interlingual. System simplification rarely caused the production of errors found in intralingual. False analogy and overlooking co-occurrence caused errors production more than system simplification. In addition, the entire errors are mostly caused by misanalysis, exploiting redundancy, and incomplete rule application. Based on the result of this error analysis on the spoken recount text made by the bilingual students, the researcher concluded that the students' speaking ability is weak. It is reflected from the number of errors found by the researcher. On one hand, the advanced number of errors that is caused by the interlingual errors is possible because English language in the students' point of view is a foreign language that is implemented as the medium language in teaching and learning activity in bilingual class. Moreover, they should be aware of the interlingual errors so that they are not in fossilization (Ellis, 1997). In fact, the descending of students' consciousness and awareness in implementing grammatical rules in spoken language to turn up the readers' comprehension toward the content of the spoken recount text affected the errors production in their spoken language. Suggestions After conducting an error analysis on the students' spoken recount text and resulting the finding as above, the researcher suggests not only the teacher but also the students. In fact, the students made very many errors in their spoken recount then the teacher should evaluate the errors found so that the students are able to learn from their errors. From the teacher's evaluation, the students will be able to develop their language capability gradually, especially in speaking ability. The teacher should also emphasize the material where the errors occurred, it could be in the form of review or discussion. Moreover, the teacher should motivate the students to be aware of the grammar rules in speaking and to have self-consciousness in practicing English. Meanwhile, the researcher suggests the students to be able to learn the errors that they have made so that they could enhance their own language ability gradually. Then they also should raise their awareness and consciousness in implementing grammar rules in communication as well to turn up the readers' comprehension, on behalf of bilingual class tittle that requires them so that they are able to use English and Bahasa as means of oral and written communication. REFERENCES Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., & Sorensen, C. K. (2010). Introduction to Research inEducation (8 ed.). Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Beeby, C. E. (1979). Indonesian Education, an Experiment in Assessment. Willington: Oxford University Press. Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the Spoken Language. New York: Cambridge University Press. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4 ed.). White Plains: Longman. Ellis, R. (1997). Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition (2 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Ellis, R., & Barkhuizen, G. (2005). Analysing Learner Language. Chennai: Oxford University Press. Harashima, H. D. (2006). An Error Analysis of the Speech of an Experienced Japanase Learner of English. (6), 37-58. Harmer, J. (2007a). How to Teach English. Harlow: Pearson. Harmer, J. (2007b). The Practice of English Language Teaching (4 ed.). Harlow: Pearson. Hendrickson, J. (1983). Error Analysis and Error Correction in Language Teaching. Tanglin: Seamo Regional Language Center. Hughes, R. (2002). Teaching and Researching Speaking. Harlow: Pearson Education. James, C. (1998). Errors in Language Learning and Use Exploring Error Analysis. Harlow: Longman. Kemendiknas. (2006). Standar Isi Untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Jakarta: Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan. Luoma, S. (2004). Assessing Speaking. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McKay, P. (2006). Assessing Young Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prastiwi, A. (2013). A Study of Content and Organization Produced by the Eight Grade Students of SMP Negeri 1 Kudu Jombang in Writing Recount Text. Bachelor Degree, State University of Surabaya, Surabaya. Ramli, D. (2013). An Analysis on Students' Errors in Writing Recount Text. Research Journal. Richard, J. C. (1974). Error Analysis: perspective on second langauge acquisition. London: Longman. Santrock, W.J. (2008). Psikologi Pendidikan (2 ed.). Jakarta: Kencana. Schrampfer, A. B. (1991). Undertsanding and Using English Grammar (3 ed.). New York: Pearson Education. Secretariat, L. (2012). Engaging in and Exploring Recount Writing. Adelaide: Government of South Australia. Sobur, Alex. (2011). Psikologi Umum Dalam Lintasan Sejarah. Bandung: Pustaka Setia. Tarone, E., Swierzbin, B. (2009). Exploring Learner Language Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wenden, A., & Rubin, J. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International. Zakiah, N. (2012). Grammatical Error Analysis in Recount Text Made by the Eight Graders of SMP Negeri 1 Mojosari. Bachelor Degree, State University of Surabaya, Surabaya.