Considered as an abuse of power by political elites, political corruption is typically perceived as a normal phenomenon in the sense of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim both because of its sustainability and its useful role in the development of societies. Therefore, that crime, within the meaning of Durkheim, cannot be regarded as a social condition. If such a position was acceptable in the 19th century, it is not the case today with the rise of virology. The article therefore proposes to introduce a new approach to political corruption through the prism of biology and to conceptualise it in the form of a virus, or a normal viral phenomenon infecting democracy through the integrity of elected representatives. As a consequence of this conceptualisation, the fight against corruption is seen as an immune response and attempts to evaluate prevention and control policies. ; Considered as an abuse of power of the elected representatives, political corruption is classically seen as a normal phenomenon – as the French sociologist Émile Durkheim said – because of its sustainability and its useful function in the development of the society. Therefore, that crime couldn't be understood as a social pathology. If this position was acceptable at the 19th century, today, the evolution of the virology can change our view of corruption. The article suggests a new concept of political corruption as a political virus infecting the democracy through the elected official's integrity. This conceptualization enables a new vision of the prevention and the control of corruption as an immunological response and tries to estimate the efficiency of the policy against corruption. ; Considered as an abuse of power by political elites, political corruption is typically perceived as a normal phenomenon in the sense of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim both because of its sustainability and its useful role in the development of societies. Therefore, that crime, within the meaning of Durkheim, cannot be regarded as a social condition. ...
International audience ; Abstract. If they work as expected, the strict containment measures enforced to stop the French Covid-19 epidemic will leave a large proportion of the population "naive" about the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In these conditions, how can we prevent the epidemic from rebounding, at a time when this restrictive policy will soon become untenable economically and socially? Based on the figures, now well known, of the lethality of covid-19 according to age classes, I suggest that a gradual release of the containment be instituted, which will keep retirees in isolation (the 65+ age class), whose risk is maximal and the impact on economic production the lowest. This scenario might be applicable to most European countries that enforce mandatory retirement ages for most of workers. ; Les mesures strictes de confinement destinées à stopper l'épidémie française de Covid-19, si elles fonctionnent comme attendu, vont laisser une grande proportion de la population « naïve » vis-à-vis du virus SARS-CoV-2. Dans ces conditions, comment empêcher l'épidémie de rebondir, au moment où cette politique restrictive va devenir intenable au plan économique comme au plan social ? En s'appuyant sur les chiffres, maintenant bien connus, de la léta-lité du Covid-19 en fonction des classes d'âge, je suggère qu'un déconfinement progressif soit institué, qui maintiendrait à l'isolement les retraités, dans la classe d'âge des + 65 ans, dont le risque est maximal et l'impact sur la production économique le plus faible. Mots clés : Covid-19, déconfinement, reprise économique, létalité liée à l'âge
International audience ; Abstract. If they work as expected, the strict containment measures enforced to stop the French Covid-19 epidemic will leave a large proportion of the population "naive" about the SARS-CoV-2 virus. In these conditions, how can we prevent the epidemic from rebounding, at a time when this restrictive policy will soon become untenable economically and socially? Based on the figures, now well known, of the lethality of covid-19 according to age classes, I suggest that a gradual release of the containment be instituted, which will keep retirees in isolation (the 65+ age class), whose risk is maximal and the impact on economic production the lowest. This scenario might be applicable to most European countries that enforce mandatory retirement ages for most of workers. ; Les mesures strictes de confinement destinées à stopper l'épidémie française de Covid-19, si elles fonctionnent comme attendu, vont laisser une grande proportion de la population « naïve » vis-à-vis du virus SARS-CoV-2. Dans ces conditions, comment empêcher l'épidémie de rebondir, au moment où cette politique restrictive va devenir intenable au plan économique comme au plan social ? En s'appuyant sur les chiffres, maintenant bien connus, de la léta-lité du Covid-19 en fonction des classes d'âge, je suggère qu'un déconfinement progressif soit institué, qui maintiendrait à l'isolement les retraités, dans la classe d'âge des + 65 ans, dont le risque est maximal et l'impact sur la production économique le plus faible. Mots clés : Covid-19, déconfinement, reprise économique, létalité liée à l'âge
Background: An estimated 257 million people are chronically infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) worldwide. Mother-to-child transmission accounts for the majority of new chronic HBV carriers, especially in Asia. HBV can be transmitted in utero, during delivery or during infancy and later. About 80–90% of infants infected at birth will develop a chronic HBV infection, and will have a high risk of developing serious complications including liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and liver-related death during adult age. We aimed at assessing the percentage of infants successfully immunized in two major hospitals in Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) where HB immune globulin (HBIg) is not available. Methods: We studied a prospective cohort of chronically HBV infected pregnant women and their infants until 6 months post-partum from January 2015 to March 2017. All infants received the HB vaccine at birth and 6, 10 and 14 weeks thereafter, and their HBV status was assessed at 6 months of age. HBV surface gene sequencing was performed in infected mother-infant pairs.Results: Of 153 mothers with HB surface antigen (HBsAg), 60 (39%) had detectable serum HBe antigen (HBeAg). HBeAg positive pregnant women were younger than those negative (median age 26 versus 28 years; p=0.02) and had a significantly higher HBV viral load at delivery (median 8.0 versus 4.0 log10 IU/mL, p 8.5 log10 IU/mL. However, only four (3.3%, 95% CI 0.5% to 7.0 %) had a virus strain closely related to their mother's strain. HBV surface gene mutations were detected in 4 of the 5 infected infants (G145G/R, G145G/A, M133T, M133I). Anti-HBs antibody level was above 10 IU/L in 105 (88%) infants at 6 months of age. Conclusions: Mother-to-child transmission occurred less frequently than expected without the use of HBIg. Adding HBIg and/or maternal antiviral prophylaxis may have prevented some of these infections. The observation of unsatisfactory levels of anti-HBs antibodies in 9% of the uninfected infants at 6 months highlights the need for improvement of the universal immunization procedures ; Contexte : Environ 257 millions de personnes dans le monde sont infectées de manière chronique par le virus de l'hépatite B (VHB). La transmission mère-enfant représente la majorité des nouveaux porteurs chroniques du VHB, en particulier en Asie. Le VHB peut être transmis in utero, lors de l'accouchement ou pendant la petite enfance voire plus tard. Environ 80 à 90% des nourrissons infectés à la naissance développent une infection chronique par le VHB avec le risque élevé de développer de graves complications, notamment une fibrose du foie, une cirrhose, un carcinome hépatocellulaire jusqu'à un décès lié au foie à l'âge adulte. Nous avons évalué la proportion des enfants immunisés avec succès dans deux grands hôpitaux de Vientiane, en République démocratique populaire lao, où l'immunoglobuline HB (HBIg) n'est pas disponible. Méthodes : Nous avons étudié une cohorte prospective de femmes enceintes infectées par le VHB et de leurs enfants jusqu'à six mois après la naissance de janvier 2015 à mars 2017. Tous les nourrissons ont reçu le vaccin anti-HB à la naissance et six, 10 et 14 semaines après la naissance. Le statut d'infection par le VHB chez l'enfant a été évalué à l'âge de 6 mois. Le séquençage du gène de surface du VHB a été effectué chez des couples mère-enfant infectés. Résultats : Sur 153 mères ayant été dépistées positives pour l'antigène de surface HB (AgHBs), 60 (39%) avaient l'antigène HBe (AgHBe) positif. Les femmes enceintes ayant AgHBe-positif étaient plus jeunes que les femmes ayant d'AgHBe négatif ((âge médian 26 versus 28 ans; p = 0,02). et avaient une charge virale du VHB significativement plus élevée à l'accouchement (médiane 8,0 versus 4,0 log10 UI / mL, p 8,5 log10 UI / mL. Cependant, seulement quatre enfants (3,3%, IC à 95%, 0,5% à 7,0%) avaient une souche virale étroitement apparentée à celle de leur mère. Des mutations du gène de surface du VHB (G145G/R, G145G/A, M133T, M133I) ont été détectées chez 4 des 5 enfants infectés. Le taux d'anticorps anti-HBs était supérieur à 10 UI / L chez 105 nourrissons (88%) à l'âge de 6 mois. Conclusions : La transmission de la mère à l'enfant s'est produite moins souvent que ce que nous avions prévu en absence de l'utilisation de HBIg. L'ajout d'une prophylaxie par HBIg et / ou antivirale maternelle aurait pu prévenir certaines de ces infections. L'observation du taux d'anticorps anti-HBs non satisfait chez 9% des enfants non infectés à 6 mois souligne la nécessité d'améliorer les procédures d'immunisation universelles
Background: An estimated 257 million people are chronically infected with the hepatitis B virus (HBV) worldwide. Mother-to-child transmission accounts for the majority of new chronic HBV carriers, especially in Asia. HBV can be transmitted in utero, during delivery or during infancy and later. About 80–90% of infants infected at birth will develop a chronic HBV infection, and will have a high risk of developing serious complications including liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and liver-related death during adult age. We aimed at assessing the percentage of infants successfully immunized in two major hospitals in Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) where HB immune globulin (HBIg) is not available. Methods: We studied a prospective cohort of chronically HBV infected pregnant women and their infants until 6 months post-partum from January 2015 to March 2017. All infants received the HB vaccine at birth and 6, 10 and 14 weeks thereafter, and their HBV status was assessed at 6 months of age. HBV surface gene sequencing was performed in infected mother-infant pairs.Results: Of 153 mothers with HB surface antigen (HBsAg), 60 (39%) had detectable serum HBe antigen (HBeAg). HBeAg positive pregnant women were younger than those negative (median age 26 versus 28 years; p=0.02) and had a significantly higher HBV viral load at delivery (median 8.0 versus 4.0 log10 IU/mL, p <0.001). A total of 141 infants including a pair of twins were included in the study and information at the time of vaccine administration after birth was available for 112 newborns. Of these, 110 (98%) received the HepB-BD within 24 hours after birth. One newborn received the vaccine 26 hours after birth because the vaccine was not available at the delivery room, and another newborn 3 days after birth due to fetal distress, which was erroneously considered to be a vaccine contra-indication. Among the 120 infants assessed at 6 months of age, 5 (4%) were positive for HBsAg and had a detectable HBV viral load by ...
National audience ; ACHILLE URBAIN (1884-1957) - a forgotten pastorian follower - Pasteur Institute and Pastorians played a major role in Achille Urbain's career. He joined the army in 1903, graduated at the Veterinary School of Lyon in 1906 and joined the Military Laboratory of Veterinary Research in 1920. He completed his training in Besredka's service at Pasteur Institute and dedicated himself to microbiology - in relation with animal pathology -. He entered the National Museum of Natural History in 1931 and in 1934 became the first director of the Zoo of Vincennes and the first Professor of "wild animals ethology". From 1942 to 1949 he managed the Museum where he carried out his research in microbiology. The study of Urbain's work in the field of Pastorian disciplines explains why he is now unknown : he essentially remained a scientific collaborator and did not involve himself in fundamental research. Moreover, he remained a "classical" bacteriologist whereas virology and bio-molecular revolution was coming. ; L'Institut Pasteur et les pastoriens ont joué un rôle capital dans la carrière d'Achille Urbain. Engagé dans l'armée en 1903, diplômé de l'École Vétérinaire de Lyon en 1906, il rejoint le Laboratoire Militaire de Recherches Vétérinaires en 1920. Il complète sa formation dans le service de Besredka à l'Institut Pasteur et se consacre à la microbiologie - en lien avec la pathologie animale -. Il entre en 1931 au Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, devenant, en 1934, le premier directeur du Zoo de Vincennes et le premier professeur d'" Éthologie des animaux sauvages ". De 1942 à 1949 il dirige le Muséum, où il poursuit ses recherches en microbiologie. L'étude des travaux d'Urbain dans le domaine des disciplines pastoriennes explique pourquoi il est aujourd'hui méconnu : il reste pour l'essentiel un collaborateur scientifique et ne s'engage pas dans une recherche fondamentale. De plus, il demeure un bactériologiste " classique ", alors que s'annonce la révolution virologique et biomoléculaire.
National audience ; ACHILLE URBAIN (1884-1957) - a forgotten pastorian follower - Pasteur Institute and Pastorians played a major role in Achille Urbain's career. He joined the army in 1903, graduated at the Veterinary School of Lyon in 1906 and joined the Military Laboratory of Veterinary Research in 1920. He completed his training in Besredka's service at Pasteur Institute and dedicated himself to microbiology - in relation with animal pathology -. He entered the National Museum of Natural History in 1931 and in 1934 became the first director of the Zoo of Vincennes and the first Professor of "wild animals ethology". From 1942 to 1949 he managed the Museum where he carried out his research in microbiology. The study of Urbain's work in the field of Pastorian disciplines explains why he is now unknown : he essentially remained a scientific collaborator and did not involve himself in fundamental research. Moreover, he remained a "classical" bacteriologist whereas virology and bio-molecular revolution was coming. ; L'Institut Pasteur et les pastoriens ont joué un rôle capital dans la carrière d'Achille Urbain. Engagé dans l'armée en 1903, diplômé de l'École Vétérinaire de Lyon en 1906, il rejoint le Laboratoire Militaire de Recherches Vétérinaires en 1920. Il complète sa formation dans le service de Besredka à l'Institut Pasteur et se consacre à la microbiologie - en lien avec la pathologie animale -. Il entre en 1931 au Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, devenant, en 1934, le premier directeur du Zoo de Vincennes et le premier professeur d'" Éthologie des animaux sauvages ". De 1942 à 1949 il dirige le Muséum, où il poursuit ses recherches en microbiologie. L'étude des travaux d'Urbain dans le domaine des disciplines pastoriennes explique pourquoi il est aujourd'hui méconnu : il reste pour l'essentiel un collaborateur scientifique et ne s'engage pas dans une recherche fondamentale. De plus, il demeure un bactériologiste " classique ", alors que s'annonce la révolution virologique et biomoléculaire.
International audience ; Uniting Central Asia to the Russian Empire during the colonization process had important consequences on medical practices and their attributes. During the 19th century, medical pluralism which prevailed in Central Asia was largely dismissed for a more and more convincing evidence of modern rationalism and of the superiority of Western medicine and its associated sciences (bacteriology, virology, etc.). In contrast with the official humanistic and civilizing mission of Russia, the Russian administrators quickly proceeded to spatial segregation of the natives and the colonizers. This segregation of housing quarters was by and large motivated by the fear of contagiousness in a difficult sanitary context of major epidemics (e.g. cholera, smallpox), and in reaction to a traditional Muslim population which had very different diseases representations. In the colonial logic of the time, reinforcing the intervention of the state, which occurred at the time of the development of the germ theory of diseases by Louis Pasteur, at the end of the 19th century, and of associated new disciplines (e.g.;. tropical medicine), manifested itself as a key element of a new phase for managing the relationships between native populations and the colonial administration, and for managing disease epidemics. This article aims at shedding light on the Russian colonization process in Turkistan, by comparing its experience with that of other colonial experiences in the world. Modern medicine and health policies appear as instruments of political legitimization of the colonial power. They offer a wide array of comparative studies and analysis of political systems of domination and of the rationale for health policies, within the framework of "bio-power" concept proposed by Foucault. ; Le rattachement de l'Asie centrale à l'Empire russe au moment de la colonisation a eu d'importantes conséquences sur les pratiques médicales et leurs assignations. Durant le XIXe siècle, le pluralisme médical a été destitué au profit ...
Background as of March 2019As a result of the health monitoring carried out by the members of ANSES's Expert Committee and our ANSES employees, we became aware of an alert concerning an emerging tomato virus: tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV).Tomato brown rugose fruit virus is an emerging tobamovirus first reported in 2014 in Israel and 2015 in Jordan on greenhouse tomatoes. In 2018, it was also reported in Mexico (where its eradication is under way), and in the United States where it was eradicated in the same year. Within the European Union (EU), it was reported in Germany in 2018 (North Rhine-Westphalia where its eradication is under way) and in Italy (Sicily) in early 2019. This virus was also the subject of an alert in the Bulletin de Santé du Végétal (BSV) for the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) region in December 2018. It was added to the alert list of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) in January 2019 and was the subject of an alert sheet issued by ANSES's Laboratory for Plant Health (LSV_2019_03_0027).The main host plants of ToBRFV are tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and pepper (Capsicum annuum). The damage observed on greenhouse tomato plants includes chlorosis, mosaic and mottling on the leaves and necrotic spots on peduncles, calyces and flower stalks. Fruits show yellowor brown spots with characteristic rugose symptoms, and may be deformed and ripen irregularly, making them non-marketable. The incidence of the disease varies between 10 and 100% of fruit depending on the site. Similar symptoms have also been observed on Capsicum annuum fruits inMexico. Viruses belonging to the genus Tobamovirus have a particularly effective means of spread. Transmission is mechanical, through simple direct contact between plants or via hands, work tools, clothing, pollinating insects, birds or irrigation water. Seeds can also transmit tobamoviruses. Lastly, these viruses are highly stable and can survive for several months on inert media without any loss of infectivity. These ...
Background as of March 2019As a result of the health monitoring carried out by the members of ANSES's Expert Committee and our ANSES employees, we became aware of an alert concerning an emerging tomato virus: tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV).Tomato brown rugose fruit virus is an emerging tobamovirus first reported in 2014 in Israel and 2015 in Jordan on greenhouse tomatoes. In 2018, it was also reported in Mexico (where its eradication is under way), and in the United States where it was eradicated in the same year. Within the European Union (EU), it was reported in Germany in 2018 (North Rhine-Westphalia where its eradication is under way) and in Italy (Sicily) in early 2019. This virus was also the subject of an alert in the Bulletin de Santé du Végétal (BSV) for the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) region in December 2018. It was added to the alert list of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) in January 2019 and was the subject of an alert sheet issued by ANSES's Laboratory for Plant Health (LSV_2019_03_0027).The main host plants of ToBRFV are tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and pepper (Capsicum annuum). The damage observed on greenhouse tomato plants includes chlorosis, mosaic and mottling on the leaves and necrotic spots on peduncles, calyces and flower stalks. Fruits show yellowor brown spots with characteristic rugose symptoms, and may be deformed and ripen irregularly, making them non-marketable. The incidence of the disease varies between 10 and 100% of fruit depending on the site. Similar symptoms have also been observed on Capsicum annuum fruits inMexico. Viruses belonging to the genus Tobamovirus have a particularly effective means of spread. Transmission is mechanical, through simple direct contact between plants or via hands, work tools, clothing, pollinating insects, birds or irrigation water. Seeds can also transmit tobamoviruses. Lastly, these viruses are highly stable and can survive for several months on inert media without any loss of infectivity. These ...
Background as of March 2019As a result of the health monitoring carried out by the members of ANSES's Expert Committee and our ANSES employees, we became aware of an alert concerning an emerging tomato virus: tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV).Tomato brown rugose fruit virus is an emerging tobamovirus first reported in 2014 in Israel and 2015 in Jordan on greenhouse tomatoes. In 2018, it was also reported in Mexico (where its eradication is under way), and in the United States where it was eradicated in the same year. Within the European Union (EU), it was reported in Germany in 2018 (North Rhine-Westphalia where its eradication is under way) and in Italy (Sicily) in early 2019. This virus was also the subject of an alert in the Bulletin de Santé du Végétal (BSV) for the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) region in December 2018. It was added to the alert list of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO) in January 2019 and was the subject of an alert sheet issued by ANSES's Laboratory for Plant Health (LSV_2019_03_0027).The main host plants of ToBRFV are tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and pepper (Capsicum annuum). The damage observed on greenhouse tomato plants includes chlorosis, mosaic and mottling on the leaves and necrotic spots on peduncles, calyces and flower stalks. Fruits show yellowor brown spots with characteristic rugose symptoms, and may be deformed and ripen irregularly, making them non-marketable. The incidence of the disease varies between 10 and 100% of fruit depending on the site. Similar symptoms have also been observed on Capsicum annuum fruits inMexico. Viruses belonging to the genus Tobamovirus have a particularly effective means of spread. Transmission is mechanical, through simple direct contact between plants or via hands, work tools, clothing, pollinating insects, birds or irrigation water. Seeds can also transmit tobamoviruses. Lastly, these viruses are highly stable and can survive for several months on inert media without any loss of infectivity. These epidemiological characteristics make tobamoviruses a formidable threat to highdensity crops such as those grown in greenhouses.The long-lasting resistance carried by the Tm-2 and Tm-2 2 genes deployed in tomato varieties in production since the 1970s has led to a considerable reduction in the negative impacts associated with other tobamoviruses (tomato mosaic virus and tobacco mosaic virus). However, these genes are ineffective against ToBRFV. The lack of resistance in tomatoes therefore particularly jeopardises this production sector, which has so far been spared.1.2 Purpose of the requestIn view of the importance of the greenhouse tomato production sector in France, the high infectivity of this virus and the susceptibility of the tomato, the succession of reports at production sites on several continents and especially within the EU, and the lack of regulatory measures against thisvirus, which could lead to certain high risk pathways, you are asked to carry out an express risk assessment of ToBRFV in order to:(i) assess the probability of introduction and spread of ToBRFV and the scale of the potential economic impacts in metropolitan France, (ii) propose possible management measures in the event of an unacceptable risk to the production sector. ; Contexte en mars 2019Grâce à la veille sanitaire réalisée par les membres du Comité d'Experts Spécialisé de l'Anses et nos agents Anses, une alerte nous est parvenue concernant un virus émergent de la tomate : le Tomato brown rugose fruit virus (ToBRFV).Le Tomato brown rugose fruit virus est un tobamovirus émergent dont les premiers signalements datent de 2014 en Israël et de 2015 en Jordanie sur des tomates produites sous serre. En 2018, il a été également signalé au Mexique (où il est en cours d'éradication) et aux Etats-Unis où il a étééradiqué la même année. Au sein de l'Union européenne (UE), il a été signalé en Allemagne en 2018 (Rhénanie-du-Nord-Westphalie, où il est en cours d'éradication) et en Italie (Sicile) début 2019.Ce virus a fait également l'objet d'une alerte dans le bulletin de santé du végétal (BSV) – ProvenceAlpes-Côte d'Azur (PACA) en décembre 2018. Il a été ajouté à la liste d'alerte de l'OEPP (Organisation Européenne et Méditerranéenne pour la Protection des Plantes) en janvier 2019 et ila fait l'objet d'une fiche d'alerte émise par le Laboratoire de la Santé des Végétaux (LSV_2019_03_0027).Les plantes hôtes principales du ToBRFV sont la tomate (Solanum lycopersicum) et le piment (Capsicum annuum). Les dégâts observés sur tomate en production sous serre incluent des chloroses, des mosaïques et des marbrures sur les feuilles, ainsi que des taches nécrotiques sur les pédoncules, calices et pédoncules floraux. Les fruits présentent des taches jaunes ou brunes, avec des symptômes de rugosité caractéristiques, et peuvent être déformés et avoir une maturation irrégulière, et ainsi devenir non commercialisables. L'incidence de la maladie varie entre 10 et 100%de fruits atteints selon les sites. Des symptômes similaires ont également été observés sur les fruits de Capsicum annuum au Mexique.Le mode de dissémination des virus appartenant au genre Tobamovirus est particulièrement efficace. La transmission est mécanique par simple contact direct entre les plantes ou via les mains, les outils de travail, les vêtements, les insectes pollinisateurs, les oiseaux et l'eau d'irrigation. Lessemences peuvent également transmettre les tobamovirus. Enfin, ces virus sont très stables : ils peuvent en effet survivre plusieurs mois sur des supports inertes sans perte de pouvoir infectieux. Ces caractéristiques épidémiologiques rendent les tobamovirus redoutables dans les cultures à haute densité de plantation comme les cultures conduites sous serre.La résistance durable portée par les gènes Tm-2 et Tm-22 et déployée dans les variétés de tomates de production depuis les années 1970 a permis une réduction considérable des impacts négatifs liés à d'autres tobamovirus (tomato mosaic virus et tobacco mosaic virus principalement). Or, ces gènes sont inefficaces contre le ToBRFV. L'absence de résistance chez la tomate met donc particulièrement en péril cette filière de production jusque-là épargnée.Objet de la saisine : Compte tenu de l'importance de la filière de production de tomates sous serre en France, du fort caractère infectieux de ce virus et de la sensibilité de la tomate, de la succession des signalements dans des sites de production sur plusieurs continents et plus particulièrement au sein de l'UE et de l'absence de mesure réglementaire vis-à-vis de ce virus qui pourrait engendrer des filières d'entrée à risque, il vous est demandé de réaliser une évaluation de risque simplifiée du ToBRFV afin de : (i) évaluer la probabilité d'introduction et de dissémination du ToBRFV et l'ampleur des impacts économiques potentiels sur le territoire français métropolitain,(ii) proposer des options de mesures de gestion en cas de risque inacceptable pour la filière de production.
Parasite evolution is a major public health issue. The aim of this thesis is to understand micro-parasite virulence evolution through a theoretical approach based on within-host models linked to an epidemiological framework (also called embedded models). The host's immune response exerts a major selection pressure on parasite virulence. In parasitology, most within-host models incorporate the immune system as a dynamical system, but in these models, the outcome of the infection generally is an a priori assumption. Nevertheless, these models offer new perspectives to study virulence evolution. Most studies assume that a parasite cannot increase its transmission rate without causing more harm to its host. However, the existence of such a trade-off relationship between transmission and virulence has been challenged. Using an embedded model, we study how a trade-off can emerge and what its characteristics are. Applying this framework to the case of vector-borne parasites, we work out how specific aspects of the parasites and interaction with its host affect the trade-off. Finally, we investigate the consequences of multiple infections on virulence evolution. The results of our study have public health implications as our models allow to predict possible consequences of anti-parasite treatments on virulence evolution. We suggest it would be reasonable to take these effects into account when elaborating public health policies to avoid an "arms race" between hosts and parasites. ; L'évolution des parasites est un enjeu sanitaire majeur, qui a souvent été négligé. L'objet de cette thèse est de comprendre l'évolution de la virulence des micro-parasites grâce à une approche théorique basée sur des modèles intra-hôtes intégrés dans une dimension épidémiologique, aussi appelés modèles emboîtés. La réponse immunitaire de l'hôte exerce une pression de sélection majeure sur la virulence des parasites. En parasitologie, la plupart des modèles incluent le système immunitaire en tant que système dynamique mais dans ces modèles le résultat de l'infection est souvent une hypothèse a priori. Ces modèles ouvrent toutefois de nouvelles perspectives pour l'étude de l'évolution de la virulence.La plupart des études supposent qu'un parasite ne peut augmenter son taux de transmission sans nuire davantage à son hôte. Pourtant, l'existence d'une telle relation de compromis évolutif entre transmission et virulence est toujours remise en cause. Grâce à un modèle emboîté, nous étudions à quelles conditions un compromis évolutif peut émerger et quelles sont alors ses caractéristiques. En appliquant cette approche aux parasites à vecteur, nous montrons comment les aspects spécifiques du parasite et de son interaction avec l'hôte affectent le compromis. Finalement, nous étudions les conséquences des infections multiples sur l'évolution de la virulence.Les résultats de notre travail ont des implications sanitaires car nos modèles permettent de prévoir l'effet potentiel de traitements anti-parasitaires sur l'évolution de la virulence. Il serait judicieux de prendre en compte ces effets dans l'élaboration de politiques de santé afin d'éviter une « course aux armements » entre hôtes et parasites.
