Suchergebnisse

Soziale Prozesse in modernen Gesellschaften lassen sich offensichtlich immer seltener präzise steuern. Politikwissenschaft möchte nun in Form von Ansätzen, Konzepten, Modellen oder Theorien mögliche Lösungen bzw. Beschreibungen und Erklärungen hierfür anbieten. Zunächst wird in dieser Arbeit im Fundus der Disziplin nach vorhandenen Vorschlägen gesucht und diese auf ihre Tauglichkeit hin überprüft. Als erstes werden Rationalitätskonzepte ("Planung") diskutiert. Diese visieren eine rationale, logisch stringente Entscheidungsvorbereitung an, scheitern damit zumeist jedoch an der "Realität". Weiter geht es mit Staats- und Gesellschaftstheorien. Moderne Staatstheorien befassen sich vorrangig mit kooperativen Elementen, fokussieren sich aber nach wie vor auf den "Staat", wobei dieser Begriff meist unpräzise verwendet wird. Gesellschaftstheorien beschäftigen sich hingegen mit dem Wirkgeflecht z.B. zwischen Politik und anvisiertem Sozialsystem; Steuerungsleistungen rücken dabei jedoch eher in den Hintergrund. Es folgen systemtheoretische Konzepte, genauer David Eastons bekanntes Systemmodell, Werner Janns "Policy-Making-Modell" und Richard Münchs "Interpenetrationskonzept". Hauptkritikpunkt war jedoch, dass in modernen Gesellschaften nur selten offene Systeme existieren. Daran anschließend werden mit dem Policy-Cycle, dem akteurzentrierten Institutionalismus und Konzepten aus dem Bereich der Netzwerkanalyse bzw. -theorie Konzepte aus dem Bereich der Policy-Analyse vorgestellt; steuerungstheoretische Überlegungen liegen hier jedoch eher randständig vor. Governance-Konzepte möchten neben klassischen hierarchischen oder marktförmigen Steuerungsversuchen alternative Varianten, etwa Verhandlungslösungen oder Kooperationen, in den Blickpunkt rücken. Allerdings sind diese theoretisch meist defizitär konstruiert, sodass beispielsweise Wirkmechanismen kaum modelltheoretisch dargestellt werden. Alternativ wird die Autopoiesetheorie empfohlen. Ihre naturwissenschaftlichen Wurzeln zwingen zunächst zu Überlegungen bezüglich des Theorientransfers und der prinzipiellen Form sozialwissenschaftlicher Theorien. Sie wird mit Hilfe des wissenschaftstheoretischen Strukturalismus übertragen, der sich mit der Struktur von Theorien bzw. der Verknüpfbarkeit verschiedener Theorieelemente befasst. Postuliert wird, dass die biologische Autopoiesetheorie als Basis-Theorieelement, die sozialwissenschaftliche Interpretation von Humberto Maturana und Francisco Varela nebst steuerungstheoretischen Ableitungen und eine Verknüpfung des Ansatzes kreativer Netzwerke mit dem Framing-Konzept Hartmut Essers als Modelle der Theorie verwendet werden können und hierdurch die Makro- mit der Mikroebene verknüpft wird. Im weiteren Fortgang wird die Theorie der Autopoiese durch Rationale Rekonstruktion präzisiert und axiomatisiert, sozialwissenschaftlich interpretiert, diese Variante ebenfalls axiomatisiert und daraus insgesamt vier steuerungstheoretische Schlüsse gezogen. Die Steuerungskonzepte werden in einer zweidimensionalen Typologie verortet, die unterscheidet, ob erstens sich die Konzepte ausschließlich auf der Makro- oder zugleich auch auf der Mikroebene bewegen und zweitens ob es sich bei den zu steuernden Systemen um allonome oder autonome Systeme handelt. Die Makroebene der vier Steuerungskonzepte wird mit den bereits vorliegenden Konzepten Peter M. Hejls ("kritische Inputs" und "Systeme zweiter Ordnung") ausgefüllt, jedoch beide wegen ihrer Makrolastigkeit verworfen. Allonome Systeme mit autopoietisch modellierten Akteuren auf der Mikroebene können per Perturbation gesteuert werden; Steuerungsbarrieren ergeben sich erst auf der Mikroebene. Letztens werden kreative Policy-Netze empfohlen: Diese respektieren die Autonomie sozialer Systeme und die Autopoiesen der Individuen. Im Folgekapitel werden geläufige autopoietisch fundierte Steuerungskonzepte vorgestellt und kritisch diskutiert, wie z.B. von Niklas Luhmann ("Soziale Systeme"), Gunther Teubner ("Recht als autopoietisches System"), Karl-Heinz Ladeur ("strategisches Recht"), Manfred Glagow ("Selbststeuerungskonzepte"), Helmut Willke ("Kontextsteuerung" und "Supervision") und der Autorengruppe um Axel Görlitz, Ulrich Druwe und Hans-Peter Burth ("Mediales Recht"). Diese Konzepte werden allesamt als inadäquat verworfen; da sie meist auf einen angemessenen Transfer verzichten oder die Ursprungstheorie nur unzureichend wiedergeben. Zur Überwindung dieser Defizite wird eine eigene Konzeption vorgeschlagen, die die Autopoiesetheorie in ihrer sozialwissenschaftlichen Variante mit dem Ansatz kreativer Netzwerke und Hartmut Essers Framing-Konzept verknüpft, sodass am Ende - gemäß dem wissenschaftstheoretischen Strukturalismus - ein (Steuerungs-) Modell des Basis-Theorieelements "Autopoiesetheorie" steht. ; The starting point of this work is based on the diagnosis that political steering of social processes in modern societies gets increasingly difficult due to a multitude of reasons. It's the business of political sciences to deal with this problem and to offer descriptions or even explanations. In order to solve this problem, it is advisable to search for already existing proposals in the archive of the discipline and to test them regarding their suitability. At first rationality concepts ("planning") are discussed. Such concepts aim for a rational, logically stringent preparation of decisions. But confronted with reality they mostly fail. After that a potential concept is searched for in the context of state- and social theories. Modern state theories primarily deal with cooperative elements. But still "the state" stays in the focus of examination, even if it is often unclear, what it actually means. Social theory, in contrast, copes with the area in which the political system is confronted with the focused social system, but steering performances often take a back seat here. Then systems-theoretical steering concepts are discussed, namely David Easton's well-known systemic model, Werner Jann's "Policy-Making-Modell" and Richard Münchs "Interpenetrationskonzept". But these concepts of open systems do not fit to modern societies with their closed systems. After that concepts from the domain of Policy-Analysis are presented, e.g. the policy-cycle, Fritz W. Scharpf's and Renate Mayntz' "Akteurzentrierter Institutionalismus" and finally concepts of the network analysis and, respectively, network theory. In sum it is shown that steering-theoretical thoughts are here very rare. Last, contemporary "governance"-concepts want to focus on alternate steering variants beside classic hierarchical or market-like arrangements, for example bargaining solutions or cooperation. However, it is also shown that governance-concepts do not offer sophisticated theoretical constructions, which means that causal connections are hardly presented. As an alternative for solving the research questions the theory of autopoietic systems is recommended. As it originates from natural sciences, some reflections about the transfer method and how socio-scientific explanations generally have to look like are made. In the following the methodical guided transfer is performed with the structuralist theory-concept. It deals with the structure of theories and with the connectivity of statements of different theory elements. It is postulated that it would be possible to use the biological theory of autopoiesis as a basic theory element, Humberto Maturana's and Francesco Varela's socioscientific interpretation along with steering-theoretical deductions and a connection of the approach of creative networks with Hartmut Esser's framing-concept as a model of the base-theory. Thereby is the social macro- with the microlevel connected. In the course of the work the theory of autopoiesis is specified by a rational reconstruction and axiomatized. After that it is interpreted socio-scientifically and again axiomatized; in addition to that four steering-theoretical conclusions are deducted (macro-level vs. macro-micro-connection and autonomous vs. allonomous systems). First, with the help of "critical inputs" autonomous social systems can be steered by ignoring the micro-level. Second, allonomous social systems can be regulated by "second order systems", also by ignoring the micro-level. These systems have to be allonomous, because otherwise a new barrier for the steering processes would exist. These two variants have been developed by Peter M. Hejl. As they examine only the macro-level, both of them are refused. Third, regarding allonomous systems with autopoietic modelled actors, it could be possible to steer them hierarchically by perturbating the actors. Steering barriers would just exist on the micro-level. The autopoiesis of the individuals would prohibit direct commands. As a fourth variant creative policy-networks are identified: They respect the autonomy of social systems and the autopoiesis of individuals. In the following autopoietic based steering concepts that are commonly used are presented and critically discussed, e.g. those composed by Niklas Luhmann ("social systems") or Axel Görlitz, Ulrich Druwe und Hans-Peter Burth ("medial law"). Because of methodological reasons and with regard to the content they are all refused. In order to eliminate such deficits another conception is proposed, which combines the theory of autopoiesis and, respectively, its socio-scientific variant with the approach of creative networks and Harmut Esser's framing-concept.

Contents: Preface: Older Men Learning in the Community – European Snapshots; Chapter 1: Introduction - Marvin Formosa, António Fragoso, Sabina Jelenc Krašovec, and Tiina Tambaum; Chapter 2: Older Men as Learners in the Community: Theoretical Issues - Marvin Formosa, António Fragoso, and Sabina Jelenc Krašovec; Chapter 3: Passing on Skills and Knowledge as Part of Learning for Older Men: Readiness and Obstacles among Older Men in the Municipality of Tartu - Tiina Tambaum and Helina Kuusk; Chapter 4: Older Men Learning Through Religious and Political Membership: Case Studies from Malta - Roberta Chetcuti Galea and Rosette Farrugia-Bonello; Chapter 5: Learning in Informal Spaces in the Community: A Case Study from Southern Portugal - Rute Ricardo, Nélia Tavares, Aurora Coelho, Hugo Lopes, and António Fragoso; Chapter 6: Older Men Learning in Urban and Rural Municipalities in Slovenia - Sabina Jelenc Krašovec, Marko Radovan, Špela Močilnikar, and Sabina Šegula; Chapter 7: Discussion and Conclusion - António Fragoso and Marvin Formosa; About the authors; Index of Authors; Subject Index. ; Preface: Older Men Learning in the Community – European Snapshots I am truly delighted to be asked to contribute this preface to what I regard as a very important and timely European contribution to the broad field of research on older men's learning in community settings. As an oft-quoted source in the field, it has seriously concerned me that more colleagues were not working in the field internationally to provide the critically important refutation, qualification, or validation of what many older men were reporting, and that my research was turning up in Australia half a world away. As Australian community men's sheds have taken root in culturally similar fertile ground in Ireland and the UK, I have wondered if things will turn out to be similar or different in the possible application of the same principles in more diverse and different cultural contexts in mainland Europe. This research provides some of the answers to this and many other important questions about men learning later in life. This set of excellently edited and carefully researched case studies by highly regarded researchers from Estonia, Malta, Portugal, and Slovenia, which they have modestly called 'snapshots,' is in fact a very important advance. By absolute coincidence, in our 'Discussion and Conclusion' (Chapter 16) in Men Learning through Life (Golding, Mark, and Foley (2014, p. 252), we also remarked that our seven 'national chapters are at best a partial snapshot and are far from representative of men's learning worldwide'. This work significantly widens the lens, both culturally and theoretically. The great value in this European book, excellently theorised and written in English, lies in part in the diverse backgrounds and theoretical depth of the 13 researchers who contribute chapters from countries whose national languages are not English. I first met and was enthused by the passion and expertise of Sabina Krašovec (from Slovenia) and António Fragoso (from Portugal) and other researchers from nations whose first language is not English at the 2009 ESREA (European Society for Research on the Education of Adults 'Education and Learning of Older Adults' (ELOA)) network meeting in Munich, Germany. I remain humbled by their linguistic dexterity, something most people like me, born in Australia (with the exception of Aboriginal Australians), do not share. Doing field research, writing, and assembling this painstakingly carefully researched book in English across four widely separated European nations, languages, and cultures is a notable achievement. Having access to literature and older men's cultural insights in at least five main languages (Slovenian, Portuguese, Estonian, and Maltese/English) expands our collective, recent 'snapshots' of men's learning to a very diverse and fascinating three dimensional, coloured picture. Veronica McGivney, a pioneer in the field on men's learning in England from two decades ago, remarked (in the preface of our Men Learning through Life) that this relatively unexplored field of research was a theoretical minefield, mainly because it raises questions about existing gender biases, not only in adult education practice, but also in terms of what constitutes an acceptable set of theoretical perspectives to bring to this much neglected field. It is gratifying, in a world increasingly plagued by narrowing, increasingly instrumental, neoliberal views about the highly desirable, emancipatory ideal of lifelong and lifewide learning, to find researchers bold enough to collectively declare at the outset that 'the neglect of masculinities in older adult learning can never be overstated.' ELOA ambitiously aims on its website 'to bring together research activities in this field [of older learning] on a European scale and to establish a regular interchange of researchers who work on these topics. By continuous exchange via internet and periodical network meetings the European collaboration in this field of educational research should be strengthened and common research projects and publications should be initiated.' 5 This research and book ably meet this laudable aim. The range of European contexts in which learning is examined in this book's national chapters and case studies further broaden the scope and cultural reach of research in this relatively new, interdisciplinary field. The Estonian and Slovenian examination of sharing knowledge, skills, and learning by older rural men has important resonances with some of our Australian research. The examination of politics and religion as vehicles for older men's learning in Malta breaks new and important ground, as does the nuanced examination of informal learning by older men in informal spaces in southern Portugal. The strongly stated theoretical issues and the carefully nuanced findings neatly bookend the volume that I highly recommend to those researchers, policy makers, professional and practitioners worldwide who interact with older men. I hope others take up the challenge of extending this thinking, research, and action into Asia, Africa, and the Americas, as well as into the diverse, other cultural 'nooks and crannies' across Europe. Finally, I am delighted, not because this gives recognition to the researchers, though this is warmly welcomed, but because excellent research like this can and does make a positive difference in the way we think about and treat older men. Research, in turn, can make huge differences in people's lives, as demonstrated by the men's sheds movement. There is a case for expanding this European snapshot of learning by older men in this volume to other groups similarly disadvantaged in accessing learning: by history, life circumstances, gender, income, language, culture, religion, or disability. It is a sobering reminder that we have to be very careful as academics, professionals, and practitioners not to get trapped into the dominant and potentially patronising discourse of clients, customers, patients, or students, particularly from ageist and deficit models of service provision which deny people agency. Older men are people with much knowledge and wisdom to share. Even from a narrow, economic-rationalist perspective, it makes sense to help all people to keep learning and looking after themselves, their families, children, and grandchildren for as long as they can. Professor Barry Golding, 2 April 2014 Faculty of Education and Arts, Federation University Australia Ballarat, Australia www.barrygoanna.com b.golding@federation.edu.au ; N/A

El objetivo general del proyecto se podría resumir en el desarrollo, adaptación y puesta a punto de sistemas tecnológicos para la gestión de infraestructuras lineales y carreteras. El sistema que se pretende diseñar integrará diferentes dispositivos empleados habitualmente para otras aplicaciones, de forma que puedan proporcionar información para las actividades relacionadas con la inspección, gestión y mantenimiento de estas infraestructuras. Los sistemas actuales de toma de datos en campo y toma de decisiones en oficina para la inspección, análisis y gestión de infraestructuras lineales, adolecen de la utilización de desarrollos tecnológicos alcanzados en los últimos tiempos en otras áreas del conocimiento. La dependencia respecto al personal técnico que realiza las tareas de inspección, basada en su experiencia e intuición, todavía es muy importante a pesar de los avances tecnológicos existentes. En este proyecto se pretenden introducir las últimas tecnologías para la adquisición de información cualitativa y cuantitativa visible sobre el terreno y no visible bajo el terreno, tradicionalmente aplicadas en otros ámbitos, como elementos soporte para la gestión de un elemento clave como son las infraestructuras lineales de un país. El sistema se basará en el uso combinado de las técnicas siguientes: - Fotogrametría terrestre sobre imágenes de diferentes zonas del espectro electromagnético. - Láser escáner terrestre. - Análisis multiespectral en base a sensores ópticos (termografía, infrarrojo cercano). - GPS. - Captura y tratamiento digital de imágenes en soporte video. Estas técnicas proporcionarán información complementaria a la que se recoge actualmente, mediante los sistemas y dispositivos ya desarrollados y en funcionamiento para la inspección de carreteras, utilizando otros métodos que permiten, por ejemplo, determinar características del pavimento como, textura, fricción, regularidad superficial, tamaño de las fisuras, perfiles transversales, roderas, capacidad estructural, etc. Se buscará tanto la automatización y estandarización de la toma de datos, como la toma de decisiones. La información cualitativa y cuantitativa procesada convenientemente e integrada en un sistema experto de gestión, será el soporte para la toma de decisiones respecto a las actuaciones de mantenimiento y conservación a llevar a cabo, en un escenario donde los recursos económicos son escasos siendo necesario priorizar su inversión, así como respecto a las cuestiones relacionadas con la seguridad viaria de los usuarios. Serán objetivo de este proyecto los siguientes tipos de infraestructuras asociados a las carreteras y obras lineales: puentes, túneles, pavimentos, capas de rodadura y viaductos. ; O obxectivo xeral do proxecto poderiase resumir no desenrolo, adaptación e posta a punto de sistemas tecnolóxicos para a xestión de infraestructuras lineais e estradas. O sistema que se pretende deseñar integrará diferentes dispositivos empregados habitualmente para outras aplicacións, de modo que poidan proporcionar información para as actividades relacionadas coa inspección, xestión e mantemento das infraestructuras. Os sistemas actuais de toma de datos no campo e toma de decisión na oficina para a inspección, análise e xestión de infraestructuras lineais, carecen do emprego de desenrolos tecnolóxicos alcanzados nos últimos tempos noutras áreas do coñecemento. A dependencia respecto ó persoal técnico que realiza as tarefas de inspección, baseada na súa experiencia e intuición, aínda é moi importante a pesar dos avances tecnolóxicos existentes. Neste proxecto preténdese introducir as últimas tecnoloxías para a adquisición de información cualitativa e cuantitiva visible sobre o terreo e non visible baixo éste, tradicionalmente aplicadas noutros ámbitos, como elementos soporte para a xestión dun elemento clave como son as infraestructuras lineais dun país. O sistema basearase no uso combinado das seguintes técnicas: - Fotogrametría terrestre sobre imaxes de diferentes zonas do espectro electromagnético. - Láser escáner terrestre. - Análise multiespectral en base a sensores ópticos (termografía, infravermello cercano). - GPS. - Captura e tratamento dixital de imaxes en soporte video. Estas técnicas proporcionarán información complementaria á que se recolle na actualidade, mediante os sistemas e dispositivos xa desenvolvidos e en funcionamiento para a inspección de estradas, utilizando outros métodos que permiten, por exemplo, determinar características do pavimento como, textura, fricción, regularidade superficial, tamaño das fisuras, perfiles transversais, rodeiras, capacidade estructural, etc. Buscaráse tanto a automatización e estandarización da toma de datos, como a toma de decisións. A información cualitativa e cuantitativa procesada convenientemente e integrada nun sistema experto de xestión, será o soporte para a toma de decisións respeto ás actuacións de mantemento e conservación a levar a cabo, nun escenario onde os recursos económicos son escasos sendo necesario priorizar a súa inversión, así coma respeto ás cuestiones relacionadas coa seguridad viaria dos usuarios. Serán obxectivo deste proxecto os seguintes tipos de infraestructuras asociados ás estradas e obras lineais: pontes, túneis, pavimentos, capas de rodado e viaductos. ; The vast and inaccessible landscape made travel difficult in previous centuries and consequently, new links between people and places needed to be built. A well-developed network of routes —by air, water, rail and road— connected every country as never before. Nowadays, transport continues to be one of the most significant agents of change and transport infrastructures keep playing a significant role in every country's economic growth and competitiveness. Infrastructure has been a national priority in Spain. Since 2010, however, spending on infrastructure has been cut by a third, to just 1.4 percent of its gross domestic product. The successive years of budget reductions have shifted the government's infrastructure investment priorities to maintenance and rehabilitation works. The current infrastructure inspections have limitations derived from its manual approach. Firstly, it involves a large number of manual measurements, which are time-consuming and error-prone. Secondly, the assessment of the infrastructure condition is either visual or manually done and hence is subject to inspector's experiences. Thirdly, the accuracy of the geometric information gathered is still questionable and limited to non-technified, standardized procedures. This dissertation introduces nondestructive geomatic techniques for accurate geometric data collection in order to help civil inspectors and surveyors to improve their existing decision-making skills and overcome their problems, which are at present tackled in a qualitative and manual manner. In particular, a considerable range of my research findings are built around land-based mobile laser scanning (MLS) technology, and to a lesser extent on static LiDAR, both enabling collections of dense 3D point clouds with cm and mm-accuracy, respectively. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is used in a certain degree to characterize and evaluate the internal construction materials. This research addresses the abovementioned limitations by providing automatic or semiautomatic support for the process of extracting geometric features and quantitative attributes from 3D point clouds, such as the area of material pathologies in a road overpass or the punctual thickness of a specific pavement layer. Examples of some 3D data processing algorithms were implemented to five case studies within the civil engineering domain. Therefore, the scope of this research is primarily limited to pavements, overpasses and underpasses, tunnels and bridges. Through such automation, it is reasonable to expect the processing of larger amount of data in shorter periods of time and multiple efficiency improvements.

Rapid population growth in West Africa has led to expansion in croplands due to the need to grow more food to meet the rising food demand of the burgeoning population. These expansions negatively impact the sub-region's ecosystem, with implications for water and soil quality, biodiversity and climate. In order to appropriately monitor the changes in croplands and assess its impact on the ecosystem and other environmental processes, accurate and up-to-date information on agricultural land use is required. But agricultural land use mapping (i.e. mapping the spatial distribution of crops and croplands) in West Africa has been challenging due to the unavailability of adequate satellite images (as a result of excessive cloud cover), small agricultural fields and a heterogeneous landscape. This study, therefore, investigated the possibilities of improving agricultural land use mapping by utilizing optical satellite images with higher spatial and temporal resolution as well as images from Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) systems which are near-independent of weather conditions. The study was conducted at both watershed and regional scales. At watershed scale, classification of different crop types in three watersheds in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Benin was conducted using multi-temporal: (1) only optical images (RapidEye) and (2) optical plus dual polarimetric (VV/VH) SAR images (TerraSAR-X). In addition, inter-annual or short term (2-3 years) changes in cropland area in the past ten years were investigated using historical Landsat images. Results obtained indicate that the use of only optical images to map different crop types in West Africa can achieve moderate classification accuracies (57% to 71%). Overlaps between the cropping calendars of most crops types and certain inter-croppings pose a challenge to optical images in achieving an adequate separation between those crop classes. Integration of SAR images, however, can improve classification accuracies by between 8 and 15%, depending on the number of available images and their acquisition dates. The sensitivity of SAR systems to different crop canopy architectures and land surface characteristics improved the separation between certain crop types. The VV polarization of TerraSAR-X was found to better discrimination between crop types than the VH. Images acquired between August and October were found to be very useful for crop mapping in the sub-region due to structural differences in some crop types during this period. At the regional scale, inter-annual or short term changes in cropland area in the Sudanian Savanna agro-ecological zone in West Africa were assessed by upscaling historical cropland information derived at the watershed scale (using Landsat imagery) unto a coarse spatial resolution, but geographically large, satellite imagery (MODIS) using regression based modeling. The possibility of using such regional scale cropland information to improve government-derived agricultural statistics was investigated by comparing extracted cropland area from the fractional cover maps with district-level agricultural statistics from Ghana The accuracy of the fractional cover maps (MAE between 14.2% and 19.1%) indicate that the heterogeneous agricultural landscape of West Africa can be suitably represented at the regional or continental scales by estimating fractional cropland cover on low resolution Analysis of the results revealed that cropland area in the Sudanian Savanna zone has experienced inter-annual or short term fluctuations in the past ten years due to a variety of factors including climate factors (e.g. floods and droughts), declining soil fertility, population increases and agricultural policies such as fertilizer subsidies. Comparison of extracted cropland area from the fractional cover maps with government's agricultural statistics (MoFA) for seventeen districts (second administrative units) in Ghana revealed high inconsistencies in the government statistics, and highlighted the potential of satellite derived cropland information at regional scales to improve national/sub-national agricultural statistics in West Africa. The results obtained in this study is promising for West Africa, considering the recent launch of optical (Landsat 8) and SAR sensors (Sentinel-1) that will provide free data for crop mapping in the sub-region. This will improve chances of obtaining adequate satellite images acquired during the cropping season for agricultural land use mapping and bolster opportunities of operationalizing agricultural land use mapping in West Africa. This can benefit a wide range of biophysical and economic models and improve decision making based on their results. ; Das schnelle Bevölkerungswachstum im Westen Afrikas hat, durch das erhöhte Bedürfnis nach Lebensmittel der expandierenden Bevölkerung, zu einer steigenden Lebensmittelnachfrage und damit zur Ausweitung von Ackerland geführt. Diese Expansionen haben negative Einflüsse auf das Ökosystem der Subregion, die Konsequenzen für Wasser- und Bodenqualität, sowie für Biodiversität und das Klima nach sich ziehen. Um die Veränderungen der Ackerflächen überwachen und die Folgen für das Ökosystem und anderer Umweltprozesse richtig abschätzen zu können, werden genaue und aktuelle Informationen über die landwirtschaftliche Nutzung benötigt. Das kartographieren landwirtschaftlicher Flächennutzung (z.B. das Abbilden der räumlichen Verteilung von Feldfrüchten und Ackerflächen) in Westafrika wurde durch die mangelhafte Verfügbarkeit geeigneter Satellitendaten (durch das Auftreten massiver Wolkenbedeckung), der geringen Größe der landwirtschaftlichen Flächen, sowie der heterogenen Landschaft, erschwert. Aus diesen Gründen untersucht diese Studie das Potential landwirtschaftlich genutzte Flächen, durch die Nutzung von optischen Satellitensystemen mit höherer geometrischer und temporaler Auflösung und Aufnahmen des Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) als ein nahezu wetterunabhängiges System, aufzunehmen. Diese Studie wurde sowohl auf der Skala von Wassereinzugsgebieten als auch von Regionen erstellt (Agrarökologische Zone in der sudanesischen Savanne). Auf der Skala der Wassereinzugsgebiete wurden Klassifikationen verschiedener Feldfrüchte in drei Einzugsgebieten in Ghana, Burkina Faso und Benin, mithilfe multitemporaler Abbildungen, bestehend aus entweder (1) nur optischer Abbildungen (Rapideye) oder (2) optischer und dual polarimetric (VV/VH) SAR Aufnahmen (TerraSAR-X), durchgeführt. Zusätzlich wurden interannuelle oder kurzzeitige (2-3 Jahre) Veränderungen in der Ausdehnung von Ackerflächen über die vergangenen zehn Jahre hinweg mittels historischer Landsataufnahmen untersucht. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das Kartographieren verschiedener Feldfrüchte in Westafrika durch nur optische Abbildungen eine moderate Klassifikationsgenauigkeit von 57% bis 71% widergibt. Überlappungen zwischen dem Anbauplan der meisten Feldfrüchte und dem Zwischenfruchtanbau stellen eine Herausforderung für optische Abbildungen dar, um eine angemessene Unterscheidung der Feldfrüchte zu erreichen. Die Hinzunahme von SAR Aufnahmen kann die Klassifikationsgenauigkeit, abhängig von der Anzahl verfügbarer Szenen und deren Aufnahmedatum, jedoch um 8% bis 15% erhöhen. Die Empfindlichkeit der SAR Systeme gegenüber unterschiedlichem Aufbau der Fläche von Feldfrüchten und der Charakteristika der Landoberfläche verbesserten die Trennbarkeit unterschiedlicher Feldfrüchte. Wie sich herausstellte hat die VV Polarisation von TerraSAR-X eine bessere Trennung der Feldfrüchte bewirkt als die VH Polarisation. Außerdem zeigt sich, dass Aufnahmen zwischen August und Oktober sehr nützlich zur Abbildung von Feldfrüchten in der Subregion sind, da in dieser Zeit strukturelle Unterschiede einiger Feldfrüchte beobachtet werden können. Auf regionalem Maßstab wurden interanuelle oder kurzzeitige Veränderungen der Ackerflächen in der agrarökologischen Zone der sudanesischen Savanne in Westafrika durch das hochskalieren historischer Informationen zu den Ackerflächen auf der Skala der Wassereinzugsgebiete (aus Landsat Aufnahmen) auf eine gröbere Auflösung, aber geographisch weite Satellitenszene (MODIS), unter Zuhilfenahme eines auf Regression basierenden Modells, berechnet. Die Möglichkeit regionalskalierte Informationen zu Ackerflächen zu nutzen um staatlich erstellte landwirtschaftliche Statistiken zu verbessern wurde untersucht, indem die extrahierte Fläche der Äcker aus fraktionierten Karten zur Landbedeckung mit landwirtschaftlichen Statistiken auf Distrikt-Level miteinander verglichen werden. Die Genauigkeit der fraktionierten Landbedeckungskarten (Mean Absolute Error zwischen 14,2% und 19,1%) weist darauf hin, dass die heterogene Agrarlandschaft Westafrikas auf einem regionalen oder kontinentalen Maßstab, durch die Abschätzung fraktionierter Ackerflächen aus gering aufgelösten Satellitendaten, angemessen repräsentiert werden kann. Die Analyse der Ergebnisse zeigt, dass die Ackerflächen der Agrarökologischen Zone der sudanesischen Savanne interannuelle oder kurzzeitige Schwankungen in den vergangenen zehn Jahren unterlegen waren. Diese Schwankungen ergeben sich durch bestimmte Faktoren wie: klimatische Faktoren (z.B. Überschwemmungen oder Dürren), sinkende Bodenfruchtbarkeit, Bevölkerungswachstum und landwirtschaftliche Politik wie der Subvention von Düngemitteln. Der Vergleich von fraktionierter Landbedeckungskarten mit staatlich erstellten landwirtschaftlichen Statistiken (MoFA) in 17 Distrikten in Ghana ergaben große Unregelmäßigkeiten in den staatlichen Statistiken und zeigten das Potential von aus Satellitendaten abgeleiteten Informationen zu Ackerflächen auf regionalem Maßstab um nationale oder subnationale landwirtschaftliche Statistiken in Westafrika zu verbessern. Angesichts der baldigen Starts der optischen (Landsat 8) und SAR (Sentinel-1) Sensoren, die frei zugängliche Daten für die Kartierung von Feldfrüchten in der Subregion liefern werden, sind die Ergebnisse, die in dieser Studie gewonnen wurden, vielversprechend für Westafrika. Dadurch steigen die Chancen, dass adäquate Satellitenszenen für das Abbilden landwirtschaftlicher Landnutzung während der Anbauzeitraums bezogen und operationalisiert werden können. Dies hat zur Folge, dass ein breites Spektrum biophysikalischer und ökonomischer Modelle davon profitieren und die Entscheidungsfindung durch die Ergebnisse optimiert wird.

The stability of national and, increasingly more often, the global economy relies on well-functioning financial markets. Households' consumption and saving decisions, firms' investment choices, and governments' financing strategies critically depend on the stability of financial markets. These markets, however, are composed of individuals and institutions that may have different objectives, information sets, and beliefs, making them a very complex object that we do not fully comprehend. Motivated by this, my dissertation focuses on understanding how informational asymmetries and belief heterogeneity impact financial markets, and therefore, the macro economy. More specifically, this dissertation explores the sources of informational asymmetries among market participants. How do different financial market structures provide incentives for private information acquisition? Is information acquisition desirable? What types of policies can be implemented to increase liquidity and "discipline" in financial markets? Could business cycles be related to information or belief cycles? I tackle these questions from three separate angles. First, I study how alternative market designs bring forth different levels of private information generation, "market discipline," and liquidity. Second, I investigate how information sets of key market participants are determined. Finally, I focus on how information and belief fluctuations may affect key macroeconomic variables and economic fluctuations. In Chapter 1, ``Information Acquisition vs. Liquidity in Financial Markets," I propose a parsimonious framework to study markets for asset-backed securities (ABS). These markets play an important role in providing lending capacity to the banking industry by allowing banks to sell the cashflows of their loans and thus recycle capital and reduce the riskiness of their portfolios. In the financial crash of 2008, however, in which certain ABS played a substantial role, we witnessed a collapse in the issuance of all ABS classes. Given the importance of these markets for the real economy, policy makers in the US and Europe have geared their efforts towards reviving them. A good framework to think about these markets is imperative when thinking about financial regulation. The contribution of this chapter is to propose a model that captures the two main problems that have been shown to be present in the practice of securitization. First, the increase in securitization has led to a decline in lending standards, suggesting that liquid markets for ABS reduce incentives to issue good quality loans. Second, securitizers have used private information about loan quality when choosing which loans to securitize, indicating that a problem of asymmetric information is present in ABS markets. A natural question then arises: how should ABS be designed to provide incentives to issue good quality loans and, at the same time, to preserve liquidity and trade in these markets?To address this question, I propose a framework to study ABS where both incentives and liquidity issues are considered and linked through a loan issuer's information acquisition decision. Loan issuers acquire private information about potential borrowers, use this information to screen loans, and later design and sell securities backed by these loans when in need of funds. While information is beneficial ex-ante when used to screen loans, it becomes detrimental ex-post because it introduces a problem of adverse selection that hinders trade in ABS markets. The model matches key features of these markets, such as the issuance of senior and junior tranches, and it predicts that when gains from trade in ABS markets are `sufficiently' large, information acquisition and loan screening are inefficiently low. There are two channels that drive this inefficiency. First, when gains from trade are large, a loan issuer is tempted ex-post to sell a large portion of its cashflows and thus does not internalize that lower retention implements less information acquisition. Second, the presence of adverse selection in secondary markets creates informational rents for issuers holding low quality loans, reducing the value of loan screening. This suggests that incentives for loan screening not only depend on the portion of loans retained by issuers, but also on how the market prices the issued tranches. Turning to financial regulation, I characterize the optimal mechanism and show that it can be implemented with a simple tax scheme. The obtained results, therefore, contribute to the recent debate on how to regulate markets for ABS.In Chapter 2, I present joint work with Matthew Botsch, ``Learning by Lending, Do Banks Learn?" where we investigate how banks form their information sets about the quality of their borrowers. There is a vast empirical and theoretical literature that points to the importance of borrower-lender relationships for firms' access to credit. In this chapter, we investigate one particular mechanism through which long-term relationships might improve access to credit. We hypothesize that while lending to a firm, a bank receives signals that allow it to learn and better understand the firm's fundamentals; and that this learning is private; that is, it is information that is not fully reflected in publicly-observable variables. We test this hypothesis using a dataset for 7,618 syndicated loans made between 1987 and 2003. We construct a variable that proxies for firm quality and is unobservable by the bank, so it cannot be priced when the firm enters our sample. We show that the loading on this factor in the pricing equation increases with relationship time, hinting that banks are able to learn about firm quality when they are in an established relationship with the firm. Our finding is robust to controlling for market-wide learning about firm fundamentals. This suggests that a significant portion of bank learning is private and is not shared by all market participants.The results obtained in this study underpin one of the main assumptions of the model presented in Chapter 1: that banks have a special ability to privately acquire valuable information about potential borrowers. While the model is static, the data suggests that the process of lending and of information acquisition is a dynamic one. Consistent with this, the last chapter of this dissertation studies the macroeconomic implications of dynamic learning by financial intermediaries.Chapter 3 presents joint work with Vladimir Asriyan titled ``Informed Intermediation over the Cycle." In this paper, we construct a dynamic model of financial intermediation in which changes in the information held by financial intermediaries generate asymmetric credit cycles as the one observed in the data. We model financial intermediaries as ''expert'' agents who have a unique ability to acquire information about firm fundamentals. While the level of ''expertise'' in the economy grows in tandem with information that the ''experts'' possess, the gains from intermediation are hindered by informational asymmetries. We find the optimal financial contracts and show that the economy inherits not only the dynamic nature of information flow, but also the interaction of information with the contractual setting. We introduce a cyclical component to information by supposing that the fundamentals about which experts acquire information are stochastic. While persistence of fundamentals is essential for information to be valuable, their randomness acts as an opposing force and diminishes the value of expert learning. Our setting then features economic fluctuations due to waves of ``confidence'' in the intermediaries' ability to allocate funds profitably.

Luftverkehrsprognosen stellen ein wichtiges Instrument dar, die Luftverkehrsinfrastruktur zu beeinflussen. Hinter vielen der Projekte, die von Luftverkehrsprognosen begleitet werden, stehen Interessen. Dies gilt insbesondere für Ausbauvorhaben von Flughäfen, die von eindeutigen Zielen und Wünschen getragen werden. Die Gutachter, die im Rahmen solcher Ausbauvorhaben tätig werden, sind der Gefahr ausgesetzt, beeinflusste Prognosen zu erstellen. Es ist Ziel der folgenden Arbeit, die Qualität von Luftverkehrsprognosen in Deutschland empirisch zu überprüfen. Dabei stößt man auf das Problem, dass es für Luftverkehrsprognosen praktisch nur einen Gutachter gibt. Dies ist die Intraplan Consult GmbH. Prognosen anderer Gutachter liegen in so geringer Zahl vor, dass sie nicht empirisch auswertbar sind. Wir beschränken uns im Folgenden deshalb darauf, die Prognosen von Intraplan Consult GmbH zu analysieren. Wir glauben, dass die Untersuchungsergebnisse allgemeingültigen Charakter haben und auf andere Luftverkehrsprognosen übertragbar sind. Es werden drei Fragestellungen untersucht. • Überzeichnen die Luftverkehrsprognosen der Intraplan Consult GmbH die tatsächliche Verkehrsentwicklung? • Gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass Überzeichnungen bei bestimmten Prognosegrößen (z.B. PAX, Fracht, Flugbewegungen) besonders häufig vorkommen? • Gibt es Hinweise darauf, dass Überzeichnungen bei bestimmten Gutachtentypen bzw. Gutachtenanlässen (z.B. Erweiterungen, behördliche Genehmigungen) besonders häufig vorkommen? Die empirische Untersuchung zeigte, dass die Prognosen insgesamt betrachtet tendenziell die tatsächliche Verkehrsentwicklung überschätzen. Es konnte zudem ermittelt werden, dass die Qualität der Ergebnisse stark streut und sich nicht normalverteilt verhält. Weiterhin konnten Wendepunktefehler im Prognose-Realisierungs-Diagramm beobachtet werden. Das bedeutet, dass das Modell von Intraplan Wendepunkte von Entwicklungen nicht erkennen kann. Die Airlines haben in den von den Prognosen erfassten Zeiträumen Strategiewechsel vorgenommen, die von Intraplan nicht erkannt wurden. Im weiteren Verlauf wurden die drei Prognosegrößen (i) Passagiere, (ii) Fracht- und Postaufkommen sowie (iii) Flugbewegungen einzeln analysiert. Alle drei Größen zeigten systematisch überschätzende Prognosen. Besonders stark ist dies bei den Flugbewegungen zu erkennen. Die Prognosen wurden nach ihrem Zweck in die Kategorien "Planfälle bei Genehmigungsgutachten", "Worst-Case-Fälle bei Genehmigungsgutachten" sowie "Marktstudien" getrennt. Alle drei Kategorien weisen systematische Fehlschätzungen auf. Bei den Marktstudien liegen systematische Überschätzungen vor. Sie sind tendenziell etwas geringer als bei Planfallprognosen, wo die Überschätzungen erhebliche Größenordnungen annehmen (20-50% zu hohe Wachstumsraten). Worst-Case-Prognosen unterschätzen die tatsächliche Entwicklung systematisch. Da die beiden letzteren Kategorien (also Planfälle vs. Worst-Case-Fälle) im Zusammenhang mit Ausbauvorhaben an Flughäfen stehen, liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass im Rahmen der Genehmigungsgutachten die Worst-Case-Prognosen gezielt zu niedrig angesetzt werden (Unterschätzung), während die Planfallprognosen zu hoch angesetzt werden (Überschätzung), um das jeweilige Ausbauvorhaben in einem bedeutenderen Licht erscheinen zu lassen. Die Wendepunktfehler zeigen, dass Intraplan Strategiewechsel der Luftverkehrsunternehmen nicht richtig prognostiziert. Dies kann im Zusammenhang mit dem von den Auftraggebern verfolgten Zweck der Projekte stehen: Andere als die von den Auftraggebern gewünschten Strategien werden nicht abgebildet. Dieses sind, wie die empirischen ex post Ergebnisse zeigen, weder alle denkbaren Strategien und nicht einmal die wahrscheinlichsten Strategien. In der Luftverkehrswirtschaft wird argumentiert, dass die Prognosen von Intraplan nur wegen der Finanzkrise 2008, die nicht vorhersehbar gewesen wäre, so schlecht seien. Unsere Analyse zeigt für einige Flughäfen tatsächlich deutliche Brüche der Entwicklung nach der Finanzkrise. Bei anderen Flughäfen ist demgegenüber eine Konstanz der Entwicklung vor und nach der Finanzkrise festzustellen. Auch bei diesen Flughäfen ist aber die Prognose schlecht. Darüber hinaus gibt es Flughäfen, bei denen Airlines Strategiewechsel schon vor der Finanzkrise vorgenommen haben. Auch bei diesen hat das Prognosemodell von Intraplan schlechte Resultate erzielt. Bei anderen Flughäfen dagegen, ist die Prognoseleistung trotz Finanzkrise gut. Alles in allem zeigt sich deshalb, dass es weniger die Finanzkrise von 2008 ist, die zu Fehlprognosen führt, als die fehlende Fähigkeit, die Strategien der Airlines richtig abzubilden. ; Aviation traffic forecasts and airport analyses are important instruments which influence decisions on aviation related infrastructure. Behind many of such infrastructure projects, which are supported by forecast analyses, one finds political interests. This is especially the case for aviation projects, such as infrastructure enlargement projects of airports, which are motivated by distinct goals and desires. Referees who act within this framework are exposed to the risk of producing biased results. The quality of such aviation traffic forecasts is the subject of this working paper. To begin with, one major obstacle is that there is only one such referee available in Germany - Intraplan Consult GmbH. Other referees have only a minimal, insignificant share of output, which cannot be used for any further empirical investigation. This is the reason why the present working paper focuses on airport analyses produced by Intraplan Consult GmbH. We believe that these research results are of common character, and thus are transferable to other related airport studies. The following three research questions have been investigated: • Do recent aviation traffic forecasts performed by Intraplan Consult GmbH overestimate actual traffic developments? • Are there any indications that some specific forecast measures (such as PAX, freight and cargo, flight movement) might be overestimated exceptionally frequently? • Are there any indications that specific types and events of forecast analysis (such as airport expansion projects, official authorisation of a project by the public administration) overestimated exceptionally frequently? Empirical investigation has shown that forecast analyses tend to be indeed overestimated, compared to the actual traffic developments. It could be shown that the quality of the research results is widespread and not normally distributed. Furthermore, systematic errors with regard to the point of inflection in forecast-realisation-diagrams were identified. This means that models constructed by Intraplan could not identify points of inflection on the development path in the real world. For instance, airlines have undergone structure and strategic changes over the periods of investigation which could not be captured by Intraplan models. In addition, three forecast measures, namely the amount of (i) passenger, (ii) freight and post and the (iii) flight movements, have been analysed. All three of them have shown systematic overestimated forecast results. In particular, forecasts of flight movements have been largely overestimated. These forecast analyses have further been categorized according to their purpose, namely project cases for the issue of approval certificates, worst-case scenarios for the issue of approval certificates and market studies. All three categories show systematic misjudgements and miscalculations. Regarding the market studies, systematic overestimation was identified. It tends to be less severe than for the project cases, where extreme estimates of 20-50% higher growth rates were found. In contrast to this, worst-case scenarios systematically underestimated actual development trends. The last two of which suggest the assumption that, when analysing enlargement projects of airports, worst-case scenario forecast figures and project case forecast figures have been deliberately manipulated in order to put the expansion project in question into the right perspective. Misjudgement by Intraplan, regarding the points of inflection, shows that they cannot forecast any strategic development by the aviation industry flawlessly. However, it can be assumed that this may also be in the interest of their contractors. Others as those suggested strategies by their clients are not included in their models. To further strengthen this suggestion, all empirical ex post results show that only a small share of all possible strategies, and especially the most improbable strategies, had been used. The aviation industry argues that miscalculation by Intraplan only relates to the events around the financial crisis in 2008, which have been unpredictable. Our research results showed that few airports had indeed been hit, regarding their development, by the financial crisis in 2008 and after. Others, however, have shown no effect and continued their rather constant development before and after the financial crisis. Forecast analyses have also been inaccurate and false for these airports. In addition to this, some of these airports had already undergone a strategic change, airline strategic change, before the financial crisis. As well, with regard to these airports, the forecast model by Intraplan produced false results. On the other hand, some forecast results have been correct, despite the financial crisis. All in all, it can be argued that incorrect forecasts have not been caused as much by the financial crisis as by the missing capacities of the model to incorporate strategic change.

This paper examines aspects of the relationship of street art to the urban fabric of Athens, from the late 1990s, through the 2004 Summer Olympic Games, and well into the financial and socio-urban crisis grappling all aspects of the city's social and physical landscapes. The paper uses a one by one-and-a-half kilometre section in the northwest of central Athens as an area of study. In the first section, an ascending scale and scope of engagement between commissioned graffiti art and architecture can is clearly traced during the years of economic development leading to the Olympic Games of 2004. One finds that, in the area of study, initial, smaller works on disparate parts of the urban landscape give way to compositions on interior and exterior walls of institutional and residential buildings, and eventually commisssioned works appear on complete perimeter walls and envelopes of industrial and transportation complexes. In the tradition of Gothic sculptural exteriors or Byzantine mural interiors, these works, like new 'medieval cathedrals', communicated to the urban masses of Olympic Athens a variety of sponsored visual narratives that their patrons wished to relay. While the agenda was certainly not religious, it is argued that the social, political, economic, and at times even ethical intentions of the commissioned art are more than evident. The second section engages the years of economic down turn following the Olympic Games, from 2004 to 2008. It is found that a younger generation of street artists, who appropriated both new and older disused buildings, understood the power of architecture to display their noncommissioned work and make their intentions known to the city. With the signigficant help of both private and state art institutions, such as the Deste Foundation and the Athens Biennale, the work of these artists became more widely known and circulated. In turn, the artists used the vast possibilities presented by the disused urban fabric to not only transport and instantly deliver their work's meaning and message to the city, but also to express their generations' (few) hopes and (numerous) fears, and to ultimately foreshadow the coming socio-economic crisis. The third section concerns the post-2008 years of crisis in Athens. Street artists were deeply affected by the city's new plight. Artists turned not only to disused but also to destroyed architecture as their new urban canvas. Using the work of four artists within the area of study, it is evidenced that noncommissioned art was now carefully choosing its sites according to what message was to be conveyed and who the intended audience was. Unavoidably, artists became ever more political as their work emerged on the urban and architectural corpses. A sense of the unknown, of 'what next', waited at the end of the painted walls. It can be concluded that Athenian street art, always within its specific constructed sites and context, functioned as both an anticipation and a reflection of the socio-urban conditions and developments of the years from 2008 to 2012, and it remains key to the interpretation and understanding of what a whole generation hopes and expects from its city through these quickly changing socio-urban times and landscapes. ; Este artículo examina los aspectos de la relación del arte de calle con la trama urbana de Atenas, desde finales de 1990, a lo largo de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 2004, y hasta bien entrada la crisis financiera y socio-urbana, lidiando todos los aspectos de los paisajes físicos y sociales de la ciudad. El trabajo analiza, como un área de estudio, una zona uno por uno-y-medio kilómetros en el noroeste del centro de Atenas. En la primera parte, se traza claramente una escala y alcance ascendente del compromiso entre el arte del graffiti por encargo y la arquitectura, en los momentos y los años de desarrollo económico que llevan a los Juegos Olímpicos de 2004 obrvános que, en el área de estudio, las obras iniciales, más pequeñas en distintas partes del paisaje urbano dan paso a composiciones en las paredes interiores y exteriores de edificios institucionales y residenciales, y, finalmente, aparecen, en las paredes y los vallas perimetrales de los complejos industriales y de transporte las primeras obras de encargo. En la tradición de los exteriores e interiores escultóricos góticos y de los murales bizantinos, estas obras son como nuevas "catedrales medievales", comunicando a las masas urbanas de la Atenas Olímpica la variedad de narraciones visuales patrocinadas que los clientes querían transmitir. Si bien la agenda ciertamente no era religiosa, se aprecian de forma más que evidente, temas sociales, políticos, económicos y a veces, incluso, las intenciones éticas del arte por encargo. La segunda parte se dedica a los años de recesión económica después de los Juegos Olímpicos, de 2004 a 2008. Vemos como una generación más joven de artistas callejeros, se apropian de los nuevos y más viejos edificios en desuso, percatándose del poder de la arquitectura para mostrar su trabajo no comisionado y dando a conocer sus intenciones a la ciudad. Con la ayuda significativa de ambas instituciones de arte privadas y estatales, tales como la Fundación Deste y la Bienal de Atenas, el trabajo de estos artistas se conoció y difundió de un modo más amplio. A su vez, los artistas utilizan las vastas posibilidades que presenta el tejido urbano en desuso, no sólo para el transporte y de modo inmediato comunican el significado de su obra y mensaje a la ciudad, sino también para expresar sus esperanzas generacionales (pocas) esperanzas y sus (numerosos) miedos, que, en última instancia, presagian la crisis socio-económica que va a llegar. La tercera sección se refiere a los años posteriores a 2008, en plena crisis. Los artistas callejeros estaban profundamente afectados por la nueva situación de la ciudad, convirtiendo, no sólolos muros en desuso, si no también la arquitectura destruida como su nuevo lienzo urbano. Siguiendo el trabajo de cuatro artistas dentro del área de estudio, se evidencia que el arte libre, estaba ahora eligiendo cuidadosamente sus sitios de acuerdo con el mensaje a transmitir y a la audiencia a la que se quería llegar. Inevitablemente, los artistas eran cada vez más políticos ya que su labor emergió en los cuerpos urbanos y arquitectónicos. Un sentido de lo desconocido, de '¿y ahora qué', esperaba al final de las paredes pintadas. Se puede concluir que el el arte urbano de Atenas, siempre dentro de sus sitios construidos específicos y de su contexto, funcionó tanto como una anticipación cuanto un reflejo de las condiciones y la evolución socio-urbana de los años 2008 a 2012, y es una clave para la interpretación y comprensión de lo que una generación entera espera y desea de su ciudad en estos tiempos que, rápidamente, cambian los paisajes socio-urbanos.

This paper examines aspects of the relationship of street art to the urban fabric of Athens, from the late 1990s, through the 2004 Summer Olympic Games, and well into the financial and socio-urban crisis grappling all aspects of the city's social and physical landscapes. The paper uses a one by one-and-a-half kilometre section in the northwest of central Athens as an area of study.In the first section, an ascending scale and scope of engagement between commissionedgraffiti art and architecture can is clearly traced during the years of economic development leading to the Olympic Games of 2004. One finds that, in the area of study, initial, smaller works on disparate parts of the urban landscape give way to compositions on interior and exterior walls of institutional and residential buildings, and eventually commisssioned works appear on complete perimeter walls and envelopes of industrial and transportation complexes. In the tradition of Gothic sculptural exteriors or Byzantine mural interiors, these works, like new 'medieval cathedrals', communicated to the urban masses of Olympic Athens a variety of sponsored visual narratives that their patrons wished to relay. While the agenda was certainly not religious, it is argued that the social, political, economic, and at times even ethical intentions of the commissioned art are more than evident.The second section engages the years of economic downturn following the Olympic Games, from 2004 to 2008. It is found that a younger generation of street artists, who appropriated both new and older disused buildings, understood the power of architecture to display their noncommissioned work and make their intentions known to the city. With the signigficant help of both private and state art institutions, such as the Deste Foundation and the Athens Biennale, the work of these artists became more widely known and circulated. In turn, the artists used the vast possibilities presented by the disused urban fabric to not only transport and instantly deliver their work's meaning and message to the city, but also to express their generations' (few) hopes and (numerous) fears, and to ultimately foreshadow the coming socio-economic crisis.The third section concerns the post-2008 years of crisis in Athens. Street artists were deeply affected by the city's new plight. Artists turned not only to disused but also to destroyed architecture as their new urban canvas. Using the work of four artists within the area of study, it is evidenced that noncommissioned art was now carefully choosing its sites according to what message was to be conveyed and who the intended audience was.Unavoidably, artists became ever more political as their work emerged on the urban and architectural corpses. A sense of the unknown, of 'what next', waited at the end of the painted walls. It can be concluded that Athenian street art, always within its specific constructed sites and context, functioned as both an anticipation and a reflection of the socio-urban conditions and developments of the years from 2008 to 2012, and it remains key to the interpretation and understanding of what a whole generation hopes and expects from its city through these quickly changing socio-urban times and landscapes. ; Este artículo examina los aspectos de la relación del arte de calle con la trama urbana de Atenas, desde finales de 1990, a lo largo de los Juegos Olímpicos de Verano de 2004, y hasta bien entrada la crisis financiera y socio-urbana, lidiando todos los aspectos de los paisajes físicos y sociales de la ciudad. El trabajo analiza, como un área de estudio, una zona uno por uno-y-medio kilómetros en el noroeste del centro de Atenas.En la primera parte, se traza claramente una escala y alcance ascendente del compromisoentre el arte del graffiti por encargo y la arquitectura, en los momentos y los años dedesarrollo económico que llevan a los Juegos Olímpicos de 2004 obrvános que, en el área de estudio, las obras iniciales, más pequeñas en distintas partes del paisaje urbano dan paso a composiciones en las paredes interiores y exteriores de edificios institucionales y residenciales, y, finalmente, aparecen, en las paredes y los vallas perimetrales de los complejos industriales y de transporte las primeras obras de encargo. En la tradición de los exteriores e interiores escultóricos góticos y de los murales bizantinos, estas obras son como nuevas "catedrales medievales", comunicando a las masas urbanas de la Atenas Olímpica la variedad de narraciones visuales patrocinadas que los clientes querían transmitir. Si bien la agenda ciertamente no era religiosa, se aprecian de forma más que evidente, temas sociales, políticos, económicos y a veces, incluso, las intenciones éticas del arte por encargo.La segunda parte se dedica a los años de recesión económica después de los Juegos Olímpicos, de 2004 a 2008. Vemos como una generación más joven de artistas callejeros, se apropian de los nuevos y más viejos edificios en desuso, percatándose del poder de la arquitectura para mostrar su trabajo no comisionado y dando a conocer sus intenciones a la ciudad. Con la ayuda significativa de ambas instituciones de arte privadas y estatales, tales como la Fundación Deste y la Bienal de Atenas, el trabajo de estos artistas se conoció y difundió de un modo más amplio. A su vez, los artistas utilizan las vastas posibilidades que presenta el tejido urbano en desuso, no sólo para el transporte y de modo inmediato comunican el significado de su obra y mensaje a la ciudad, sino también para expresar sus esperanzas generacionales (pocas) esperanzas y sus (numerosos) miedos, que, en última instancia, presagian la crisis socio-económica que va a llegar.La tercera sección se refiere a los años posteriores a 2008 , en plena crisis. Los artistas callejeros estaban profundamente afectados por la nueva situación de la ciudad, convirtiendo, no sólo los muros en desuso, sino también la arquitectura destruida como su nuevo lienzo urbano. Siguiendo el trabajo de cuatro artistas dentro del área de estudio, se evidencia que el arte libre, estaba ahora eligiendo cuidadosamente sus sitios de acuerdo con el mensaje a transmitir y a la audiencia a la que se quería llegar.Inevitablemente, los artistas eran cada vez más políticos ya que su labor emergió en los cuerpos urbanos y arquitectónicos. Un sentido de lo desconocido, de '¿y ahora qué', esperaba al final de las paredes pintadas. Se puede concluir que el el arte urbano de Atenas, siempre dentro de sus sitios construidos específicos y de su contexto, funcionó tanto como una anticipación cuanto un reflejo de las condiciones y la evolución socio-urbana de los años 2008 a 2012, y es una clave para la interpretación y comprensión de lo que una generación entera espera y desea de su ciudad en estos tiempos que, rápidamente, cambian los paisajes socio-urbanos.

Los procesos actuales de desarrollo rural territorial de la Unión Europea persiguen lograr transformaciones productivas e institucionales a nivel local. Pero el verdadero desafío rural consiste en que esas dinámicas de transformación respondan a los retos globales a los que se enfrenta la sociedad europea. Entre las diferentes respuestas posibles destaca la obtención de bienes y servicios relacionados con el medio ambiente y el cambio climático, que pueden presentar estrechas relaciones con la identidad local, entendida en sentido amplio. En cualquier caso, y dada la heterogeneidad de las áreas rurales, esas respuestas ni pueden ni deben ser homogéneas lo que implica que en cada zonal rural se deberá encontrar la estrategia que mejor aproveche los recursos y capacidades locales para responder a los grandes desafíos. Diferentes autores han analizado la relevancia y viabilidad de las estrategias de desarrollo rural basadas en la diferenciación. Para estos autores, la puesta en marcha y el desarrollo de estrategias de diferenciación rural se interpretan como procesos de "construcción social" vinculados a distintas formas de acción colectiva. Por otra parte, la Comisión Europea y algunos Estados miembros vienen potenciando las estrategias basadas en la calidad diferencial de los productos agroalimentarios desde hace años. Por esta vía se pretende aprovechar mejor la potencialidad comercial de los productos de calidad, al margen de la lógica de los mercados globalizados de "commodities". Paralelamente, los sellos de calidad ligada al origen pretenden, además, proteger las formas de producción de ciertos productos de reconocido prestigio basado en su notoriedad y arraigo. Sin embargo, la gran proliferación de este tipo de sellos ha banalizado el objetivo inicial de calidad diferencial, lo que reduce mucho su impacto comercial. Como reacción ante la banalización de los sellos de calidad ligada al origen, algunos territorios rurales de varios países de la Unión Europea se embarcaron en un proyecto de cooperación internacional. Este proyecto es una Marca de Calidad Territorial (MCT) registrada como "Calidad Rural". Se trata de una marca "paraguas" que pretende simplificar en un único sello europeo el mensaje de calidad diferencial dirigido a los consumidores y usuarios. Por lo tanto, esta MCT se ha diseñado como la parte mas visible de una estrategia de desarrollo rural territorial basada en la diferenciación por calidad, y como herramienta para fortalecer las capacidades locales en términos de acción colectiva. En otras palabras: el sello "Calidad Rural" nació con la aspiración de fortalecer o crear los lazos entre los territorios rurales implicados en el proyecto y las zonas urbanas, por un lado, y como estrategia de comunicación y participación responsable hacia los actores de los territorios correspondientes, por otro lado, a modo de nueva forma de contrato social rural urbano. La investigación que soporta esta Tesis Doctoral revisa estos problemas de partida y presenta una revisión del marco teórico concentrado en dos temas: la emergencia del enfoque territorial del desarrollo rural y las estrategias de desarrollo basadas en la diferenciación. La descripción del caso de estudio (el proyecto Marca de Calidad Territorial Europea – MCTE) es abordada en un capítulo específico que sigue a los dos anteriores. La pregunta de investigación que orienta la investigación es: ¿qué factores explican mejor el grado de implantación y desarrollo de una Marca de Calidad Territorial en un proceso de desarrollo rural? Para responder a esta pregunta ha sido necesario diseñar y aplicar una novedosa y original metodología para calcular un Índice Sintético Global (ISG) que. ; Current processes of rural territorial development in the European Union seek to transform both production systems and institutions at the local level. But the real challenge facing rural areas is to ensure that these changes respond to the demands of European society. A possible response to such demands is to procure environmentally-sustainable and climate-friendly goods and services, which are closely linked to the local identity, understood in the broad sense of the term. Given the diversity of rural areas, however, these responses cannot and should not be of only one kind; rather each rural area should pursue the best strategy for leveraging their resources and local capacities to meet the challenges that lie ahead. Several authors have examined the importance and viability of rural development strategies based on differentiation. For these authors, the implementation and development of rural differentiation strategies are processes of "social construction" linked to different forms of collective action. The European Commission and some Member States have actively promoted measures based on the differential quality of food and agricultural products for many years. These measures seek to exploit the commercial potential of quality products more effectively, regardless of the logic of global commodities markets. In a similar manner, origin-linked quality labels also aim to protect production systems and certain products based on their reputation and local roots. However, the ever increasing number of these quality labels has undermined and trivialized the initial goal of achieving differential quality, thus diminishing the commercial success of these products. In response to the trivialization of origin-linked quality labels, some rural areas in several countries of the European Union have embarked on a trans-national project of cooperation: the European Territorial Quality Label (ETQM) registered under the name Rural Quality (Calidad Rural in Spanish). This project aims for the creation of an "umbrella" brand on a European scale in an effort to simplify the quality labels used to convey quality messages to consumers. The ETQM has been designed as the most visible part of a broader territorial rural development strategy based on quality differentiation, and as a tool to strengthen the capacity for collective action on the local scale. In other words, the Rural Quality label was born with the desire to strengthen and build links between the rural areas involved in the project and urban areas, and as a strategy to facilitate communication and participation among local stakeholders as a new form of rural-urban social engagement. The research conducted for this Doctoral Thesis examines these problems and reviews the theoretical framework focusing on two main issues: the emergence of the territorial approach to rural development and development strategies based on differentiation. The description of the case study, the European Territorial Quality Mark (ETQM), is addressed in a separate chapter that follows the two previous chapters. The research question guiding this research is: What factors best explain the degree of implementation and development of a territorial quality label in a process of rural development? To answer this question it was necessary to design and implement a new and original methodology for calculating a Global Synthetic Index (GSI) that reflects the degree of development of each local territorial quality label. To collect the data needed to calculate the GSI, intense field work and a specific protocol to facilitate interaction between local actors and the research team were required. The work to collect and systematize the data (secondary and mainly primary data), as well as the development.

El presente trabajo se estructura de la siguiente forma: OBJETIVO GENERAL El objetivo general de la investigación era el de indagar sobre la percepción de la conflictividad escolar y su afrontamiento, en el entorno cercano para posteriormente, medir el impacto de un programa preventivo de sensibilización en IES de la Región de Murcia. El esquema del programa de sensibilización estaba basado en todos aquellos aspectos que se aglutinan en la denominada "Cultura de la Mediación", entendida como conjunto de valores y creencias que se generan en torno a esta forma singular de afrontar los conflictos. OBJETIVOS ESPECÍFICOS ­ Indagar sobre el tratamiento normativo de la conflictividad. ­ Determinar el grado de percepción de la conflictividad escolar, por parte expertos en educación y mediación, así como profesores y alumnos pertenecientes a centros educativos de la Región de Murcia. ­ Indagar sobre las formas de tratamiento de la conflictividad más utilizadas por los profesores y alumnos de los centros objeto de la investigación. ­ Indagar sobre la influencia del entorno y las características socioculturales, en la percepción del conflicto y la utilización de estrategias de resolución. ­ Conocer el impacto del programa de sensibilización sobre el alumnado. ­ Comprobar la disposición del profesorado y alumnado, para aprender formas alternativas de resolución de conflictos y en especial la mediación. METODOLOGÍA La investigación fue diseñada en tres fases, una primera exploratoria, una segunda descriptiva y una tercera explicativa, correspondientes a tres tipos de investigación y metodologías diferentes, aunque complementarias para alcanzar el objetivo final. La fase inicial consistió en realizar una búsqueda de datos aportados por informantes clave, expertos en materia de conflictividad y convivencia escolar. La segunda fase permitió analizar la opinión de profesores y alumnos acerca de la percepción de la conflictividad y la manera de resolverla desde sus centros. La tercera fase sirvió para comprobar el efecto producido por el programa de sensibilización en mediación, en alumnado de ESO de seis IES de la Región de Murcia. CONCLUSIONES En relación al tratamiento normativo de la conflictividad en España, encontramos que ha habido una evolución desde 1970 cada vez más favorable a planteamientos democráticos y participativos respecto a la resolución de conflictos. Encontramos también, en la actualidad, la existencia de una pluralidad de normas de ámbito autonómico en materia de regulación de la convivencia, lo que ha supuesto una expansión rápida, aunque desigual, de la regulación de la mediación. En el caso de la Región de Murcia encontramos vigente el Decreto 115/2005, que responde al modelo normativo-sancionador. Con relación al grado de conflictividad percibida en nuestro entorno encontramos que, pese a no haberse alcanzado en España los niveles de otros países, hoy, factores internos al ámbito escolar como la diversidad y pluralidad en las aulas, y externos relacionados con los cambios sociales, hacen que revierta en la escuela mayor número de situaciones conflictivas de naturaleza diversa. En todo caso, esta conflictividad difiere de la violencia. Respecto al alumnado encontramos que el mayor nivel de conflictividad percibido se sitúa a nivel de enfrentamientos verbales. Comprobamos que es evidente la necesidad de formación en técnicas de resolución de conflictos para toda la comunidad escolar. El programa ha logrado el impacto esperado en los alumnos, al ocasionar diferentes cambios de perspectiva, de manera destacable en lo referente a la percepción del conflicto y el aprendizaje de nuevas estrategias de gestión y resolución. Todos los anteriores aspectos, estaban incluidos en la cultura de la mediación; en consecuencia, el programa utilizado nos ha posibilitado iniciar el camino de cambio de paradigma que supone esta nueva cultura. The structure of this paper is as follows: GENERAL PURPOSE The overall objective of the research was to investigate the perception of school conflicts and its coping in the immediate environment to subsequently measure the impact of a preventive awareness programme in secondary schools in Murcia. The outline of the awareness programme was based on all the aspects generated around the so-called "Culture of Mediation", understood as a set of values and beliefs that are built around this unique way of dealing with conflicts. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES - To investigate the regulatory treatment of conflict - To determine the degree of perception of school conflicts by educational and mediation experts, as well as teachers and students from secondary schools in Murcia - To explore the ways of dealing with conflicts more used among teachers and students of the centers under investigation - To inquiry about the influence of enviroment and socio-cultural characteristics on conflict perception and the use of resolution strategies - To assess the impact of the awareness programme among students - To determine students and teachers willingness to learn alternative dispute resolution models, particularly the use of mediation METHODOLOGY The research was designed in three stages: first an exploratory phase, second a descriptive phase and third an explanatory phase, each one corresponding to different but complementary research methodologies aimed to achieve the ultimate goal. The initial stage consisted of a data search, supported by key informants who were esperts on school community life and conflicts. The second stage allowed us to analise teachers and students perceptions of conflicts and the resolving models applied in their schools. The third phase enabled us to verify the effect of the mediation awareness programme on students from six secondary schools in Murcia. CONCLUSIONS There has been an evolution since 1970, regarding to regulatory treatment of the scholar conflicts in Spain. An approach more favourable to democratic and participatory conflict resolution models can be observed. We also detect nowadays the existence of regional plurality regulation standards of scholar coexistence. These standards have brought a rapid but unequal expansion of mediation regulation. Particularly, in Murcia, we find the applicable Decree 115/2005 which responds to the normative - disciplinary model. In connection to the degree of conflict perceived in our environment we find that, not having achieved the levels of other countries, today in Spain we have a high number of conflict situations from diverse nature caused by internal factors, such as diversity and plurality in the classroom, and external factors related to the social changes. However, these conflicts do not mean the use of violence. As far as students is concerned, we find that the highest level of conflicts are found in verbal confrontations. There is an obvious need of training on conflict solving techniques in school communities. The program has achieved the expected impact on students, producing different perspective changes. It is specially remarkable the change on the conflict perception and the learning of new management and solving strategies. All the above mentioned aspects were included in the culture of mediation. Therefore, the programme used has make possible to begin the path of paradigm shift represented by this new culture.

This thesis analyses both theoretically and empirically some of the issues that emerge when applying environmental policies to the agricultural sector in a trade context. In a first part, Chapter II illustrates the possible leakage effects of environmental policies implemented unilaterally. A computable general equilibrium model is used to quantify the indirect global impacts of a greening of European agriculture through a large shift to organic farming. Organic farming is known for its local environmental benefits, especially on water and soil quality, biodiversity and greenhouse gas emissions. However, organic yields are on average 25% lower than those of conventional farming. We calibrate organic production technologies using micro-level data and find that using organic production techniques on 20% of the European area cultivated with maize, rapeseed, sunflower and wheat results in a large negative productivity shock. This shock affects global markets and induces production and demand displacements, unless the yield gap is reduced. The resulting land use changes are assessed, as well as the corresponding changes in greenhouse gas emissions, chemical inputs use and biodiversity. The negative indirect effects on the environment appear limited compared to the local benefits of adopting greener forms of agriculture in the EU. However, in the case of greenhouse gases, the indirect emissions more than offset the local benefits of organic agriculture. In the case of chemical pollution and biodiversity, results show that indirect effects deserve to be accounted for in life cycle analyses. These findings should not be used to point a finger on organic farming, a large variety of policies and consumption patterns have greater land use change impacts. Nevertheless, they rise some issues, especially on the need for more systematic sustainability assessments, even for environmental polices, the importance of research and development in organic farming to reduce yield gaps and of public policies to help to remove economic factors that could limit the increase of organic yields, such as the relative cost of production factors. In a second part, focus is on crop biodiversity, which is known to maintain agricultural productivity under a large range of environmental conditions. Interactions between crop biodiversity effects, environmental policies and trade are complex. Specialisation induced by trade, following comparative advantages, tends to reduce the number of crops cultivated in a given country and then reduces crop biodiversity. A decrease in crop biodiversity results in lower resilience to pest attacks. To face higher pest attacks, farmers use pesticides. But since pesticides harm environment and human health, governments regulate their use. In a free trade context, an environmental policy on pesticides can thus have a strategic aspect: allowing the use of more pesticides can lead to gain larger agricultural market shares. Chapter III represents these interactions in a Ricardian trade model. It shows that, because not in my backyard effects are larger than strategic impacts, the optimal environmental policy is more stringent under trade than under autarky. Furthermore, because of this stringency, production volatility is generally higher under trade. This could explain part of the background volatility observed on agricultural markets, which have been historically more volatile than those of manufactured products. Chapter IV empirically confirms the positive impact of crop biodiversity on agricultural production using a large dataset on South African agriculture. Developing a structural approach, it also analyses the role played by biodiversity on the exposure of farmers to production risks and downside risks. ; Cette thèse analyse à la fois théoriquement et empiriquement certaines des questions qui se posent lors de l'utilisation de politiques environnementales dans le secteur agricole, en situation de commerce. Dans une première partie, le chapitre II illustre les effets de fuite que peuvent engendrer des politiques environnementales mises en oeuvre unilatéralement. Un modèle d'équilibre général calculable est utilisé pour quantifier les impacts indirects sur l'environnement à l'échelle mondiale d'un accroissement des surfaces dédiées à l'agriculture biologique en Europe. L'agriculture biologique est connue pour ses bénéfices locaux sur l'environnement mais ses rendements sont inférieurs de 25% en moyenne à ceux de l'agriculture conventionnelle. Nous calibrons les technologies de production de l'agriculture biologique avec des données micro-fondées et trouvons qu'utiliser ces techniques sur 20% des surfaces européennes consacrées au maïs, colza, tournesol et blé conduit à un choc de productivité négatif. Ce choc a des conséquences sur les marchés mondiaux et induit des déplacements d'offre et de demande. Les changements d'utilisation des sols résultants sont évalués, ainsi que les changements en termes d'émissions de gaz à effet de serre, d'utilisation d'intrants et de biodiversité. Les effets indirects négatifs sur l'environnement semblent limités, sauf en ce qui concerne les émissions de gaz à effet de serre. Nous montrons également que les effets indirects concernant l'utilisation d'intrants et la biodiversité méritent d'être pris en compte dans les analyses de cycle de vie. Ces résultats ne doivent pas être utilisés pour pointer du doigt l'agriculture biologique, mais ils soulèvent quelques questions, en particulier sur la nécessité d'effectuer des analyses d'impact de façon plus systématique, y compris pour les politiques environnementales, et l'importance de la recherche et développement mais également des politiques publiques pour lever les obstacles techniques et économiques à l'augmentation des rendements en agriculture biologique. Dans une deuxième partie de la thèse, l'attention est portée sur la biodiversité des cultures, reconnue pour stabiliser la productivité agricole sous différentes conditions environnementales. Les interactions entre les effets de cette biodiversité, les politiques environnementales et le commerce sont complexes. La spécialisation induite par le commerce réduit la biodiversité en diminuant le nombre d'espèces cultivées. La biodiversité influe positivement sur les niveaux de production, entre autre, en améliorant la résistance aux ravageurs. Pour faire face à des attaques plus fréquentes, les agriculteurs utilisent des pesticides. Mais ces derniers ont des impacts négatifs sur l'environnement et la santé humaine, leur utilisation est donc réglementée. Une politique environnementale concernant les pesticides peut ainsi avoir un aspect stratégique: autoriser l'utilisation de plus de pesticides peut permettre de gagner en compétitivité. Le chapitre IV représente ces interactions dans un modèle ricardien de commerce. Il montre que, parce que les effets NIMBY sont plus importants que les impacts stratégiques, la politique environnementale est plus stricte en situation de commerce qu'en autarcie. De ce fait, la volatilité de la production agricole est généralement plus élevée en commerce. Cela pourrait en partie expliquer la volatilité de fond observée sur les marchés agricoles, historiquement plus volatiles que ceux des produits manufacturés. Le chapitre IV confirme empiriquement l'impact positif de la biodiversité sur la production agricole en utilisant une large base de données sur l'agriculture sud-africaine. En utilisant une approche structurelle, il analyse également les liens entre biodiversité et exposition des agriculteurs aux risques de production, en particulier ceux à la baisse.

The research opens a new chapter about the studies conducted until now on the traditional architecture of the smaller towns in Sardinia, which I have been part from 2007 to 2010 and has been completed with the editing of Manuals Retrieval of the historical centers of Sardinia. The research started from a socio-anthropological knowledge of the characters, urban and technological centers and from the study of the traditional Sardinian architecture. Furthermore, having the opportunity to meet the Mediterranean architecture on the same viewpoints, the research investigates the archetypal elements of traditional architecture under the aspect of composition. It looks at the ways in which the contemporary design strategies, released by ideological references, take them over elaborating them, comparing with the memory of places, beyond of every stylistic affiliation. Belonging to minimalist positions, regionalist or post-modern resuming solutions, contextualizing and reinterpreting them in a practical and empirical way, even trying to see which characters and modes could be identified as typical and recurrent. This kind of research, which specifically aims to verify the composition and some elements of the experience of this project, needs to be based on the knowledge of the culture and the debate which marked the activity of designers in the near past, from the first modernity trying to recognize which characters were conditioners, which continue to influence the present and which are typical and original in the actuality. For this reason, the research has an introductory part which incorporates some emblematic moments of the debate on the architecture of the twentieth century, referring to reality and figures of the Mediterranean. One is the myth of modernity celebrated from the first rationalism, especially in Italy and Spain, the other one is the debate about the historical centers of the late twentieth century, still typical of our country: in the first season the traditional Mediterranean architecture is transformed into a progressive ideal used to specify shapes and intentions of the new architecture, especially in its character of anonymity and puristic reduction. The first part of the research, introduces the relationship between modern architecture and Mediterranean inspiration and deepens in a critical manner, the weakness of the concept of Mediterranean, founded on one hand in a sham and on the other on how rationalism looks at the historical landscape searching for a radical overhaul of the style of architecture. The Mediterranean myth in the Italian architecture is mainly influenced by the idea of the correspondence of the formal themes of modernity and is used for political reasons in order to find a place of modern Italian positions within the regime. The Mediterranean architecture is not, therefore, re-interpreted conservatively, but revised into a new paradigm, a new way of imagining the architecture. In the second part, by the pre-war myth, still literary and idealized, we move to a more critical and accurate knowledge to the empirical verification and philological sort order, losing the progressive tension of the first season and building a system of strict preservation rules, revealed, too deterministic and inhibitory. The weakness of the rationalist positions, reveals the architecture of the Second World War, who looked to the Mediterranean, devoid by now, of the ideal tension during the rationalism: it is less parallelism between cutting-edge research and charm of the Mediterranean landscape and the question begins to focus more on the relationship with the towns, with the existing environment, and for a certain range of the debate, with the preservation of historic centers, up to produce more and become part of the theories of critical regionalism, political manifesto, as Frampton says, of resistance towards globalization. The enhancement of local realities is no longer specific to the Mediterranean, but is extended: it is as if the great architecture of Mediterranean figures lost part of the universal value, which instead is recognized during rationalism. In the present, after the crisis of the great paradigms interpretive, the debate about relationship between new and old loses strength and becomes eccentric compared to issues considered preeminent. Some great works receive media attention representing particular methodologies, these are exceptional circumstances, related to charismatic personalities who avoid to define a strong theory. This research select a field of attentive investigation to the works of medium size on which you can recognize an empirical approach (not programmatic), which could be recognized as typical of this period. An approach that addresses issues that in the past were strongly ideological - the relation between modernity and tradition and continuity and rupture with the figures of history - out of those programmatic intentions and norms: in this way many architects of the younger generation, active in the Mediterranean territories, they built a sensitive and imaginative dialogue between the elements inherited from the context and strategies - even radical - of contemporary design, defining a fertile scene and interesting to build new methodologies and practices of intervention. Currently there is no attention to the great paradigm, but an open and practical approach. I will approach the scope of this study as part of the Mediterranean, in order to understand the outcome of discussions which are the current approaches and isolating a specific subject of the tradition, one of the most characteristic, trying to figure out how the projects chosen take up and rework the issue. The modulation of the light, treated according to the manner in which you relate to some elements of tradition: the dematerialization of the building mass, the dimming systems, gaps in the patio and courtyard and places of shade. Each of the examples treated, shows that there is a traditional way to control the light that has characterized the Mediterranean architecture of the past and that has been expressed by the categories identified. I prove that there are contemporary projects which reflect those solutions contextualizing and reinterpreting them in an empirical and practical way: this is very interesting because it demonstrates the vitality of the relationship between contemporary architecture and history and how certain paradigms of the Mediterranean tradition have survived as a cultural and architectural legacy, in the attempt to offer a possible answer to the complexity of the problems posed by the existing historic and how have been reinterpreted. Beyond each "nuovismo", as well as the obsession of memory, which often gave rise to an analytical mummification that carries with it the nostalgic for the unachievable quality of the ancient city and the assurance of the absence of quality of the city modern-contemporary, can be an alternative based on the careful study of places to go back to the essential qualities that the architectures are realized in it.

Die vorliegende Studie beschäftigt sich mit ethisch-politischen Vorstellungen im 12. Jahrhundert. Dieses Thema lässt sich auch in die Fragen der Mentalitätsgeschichte einordnen. Die Vielfalt der menschlichen Mentalitäten kann aus unterschiedlichen Perspektiven analysiert werden. Hier ist aus diesem Grund der aus Beumanns politischer Ideengeschichte hervorgegangenen Vorstellungsgeschichte gefolgt worden. Dadurch gewinnt die Diskussion über die ethisch-politischen Vorstellungen im 12. Jahrhundert an Vielfalt. Die Studien zu dem Zusammenhang von politischen Tugendvorstellungen und politischen Idealisierungen sind, vor allem aber bezüglich dieses Jahrhunderts, aber selten. Daher ist die Thematisierung dieser Fragen wünschenswert. Die Studie musste auf einige Elemente und Quellen beschränkt werden. Die klassischen politischen Schriften des 12. Jahrhunderts wurden in der Untersuchung übergangen. Das leitende Prinzip bei der Quellenauswahl war die Bedeutung des Autors in seinem Aktionsgebiet sowie dessen Behandlung von politischen Problemen in seinen Schriften. In dieser Hinsicht sind Otto von Freising und Bernhard von Clairvaux eine interessante Auswahl. Otto von Freising wird in erster Linie wegen seiner Geschichtsschreibung gepriesen, während Bernhard von Clairvaux wegen seiner Beiträge zur mönchischen Reformbewegung des 12. Jahrhunderts, zur christlichen Mystik und zu theologischen Diskussionen seiner Zeit angesehen wird. Indirekt aber haben beide Autoren politische Themen in ihren jeweiligen Schriften behandelt und dadurch ihre politischen Anschauungen und Vorstellungen vermittelt. Mithilfe der vorstellungsgeschichtlichen Analyse wurden einige Schriften dieser mittelalterlichen Autoren untersucht und wichtige Aspekte ihres Denkens herausgestellt. Analysiert wurden beide historiografische Werke Ottos von Freising sowie die Briefe und zwei Traktate – De consideratione und De laude novae militae – Bernhards von Clairvaux. Die Kardinaltugenden stellen die Grundlage der politischen Tugendvorstellungen sowohl Ottos als auch Bernhards dar. Sie deuten aber dieses traditionelle Thema der politischen Ideen neu. Ihre Anschauungen bezüglich der politischen Tugenden sind von ihrer Weltanschauung und ihren Erfahrungen geprägt. Sie nennen die Kardinaltugenden Ciceros, liefern aber ein im 12. Jahrhundert angepasstes Bild dieser Tugenden, das den Erwartungen dieses Zeitalters entspricht und die Fragen ihrer Zeit in den Mittelpunkt stellt. Die Vorstellungen der beiden Denker weisen viele Gemeinsamkeiten auf. So erscheint die fortitudo als militärische Tugend bzw. als Tugend des Schlachtfelds. Sie ist politisch, indem sie zur Erzeugung und Erhaltung eines politischen Ideals durch die Kriegsführung beiträgt. Wie ein Herrscher gut regiert, wird ihm mithilfe der sapientia und der prudentia offenbart. Die iustitia soll anschließend die richtige Ordnung bewahren und jedem das Seine zuteilen, was erneut auf die Vorstellungen von gemeinem Wohl und auf die Erhaltung eines politischen Ideals hindeutet. Letztlich sollen Herrschaften in allen ihren Aspekten mit moderatio geführt werden, damit auch keine der anderen Tugenden im Übermaß geübt wird. Neben den Kardinaltugenden präsentieren beide untersuchten Denker andere Tugenden, die eine politische Bedeutung in Zusammenhang mit ihren Idealen und Erwartungen beinhaltet: Bernhard stellt seine Auffassung der humilitas als Grundlage seiner Idealanschauungen dar, sodass diese Tugend seine politischen Erwartungen bestimmt, wenngleich sie in politischen Schriften bzw. Kontexten zumeist nur indirekt erfasst wird. Otto von Freising schreibt dagegen in seinen Werken deutlich über die Rolle von fides, constantia und largitas in Zusammenhang mit seinen politischen Idealvorstellungen. Fides und largitas deuten auf Ottos Wahrnehmung der sozio-politischen Strukturen seiner Zeit und seine Versuche, diese in seinen Erwartungen und Idealisierungen zu berücksichtigen und einzublenden. Die constantia weist schließlich auf die Betonung der politischen Stabilität als ein zentrales Thema in den Vorstellungen des Freisinger Bischofs hin. Diese Ergebnisse präsentieren neue Erkenntnisse über die politische Vorstellungswelt des 12. Jahrhundert. Sie lassen auf die Vorstellungen eines wichtigen Anteils der Zeitgenossen Ottos und Bernhards schließen. Wie herausgestellt wurde, sind die politischen Tugendvorstellungen dieser Denker kein Einzelfall, sondern repräsentieren eine bedeutsame Gedankenrichtung des 12. Jahrhunderts, die kaum in der aktuellen Forschung untersucht wurde. Insoweit stellt die vorliegende Studie über die politischen Tugendvorstellungen und ihre Rolle in den politischen Idealen des 12. Jahrhunderts einen Fortschritt in der historischen Forschung dar. Sie ergänzt die Kenntnisse über die politischen Ideen des Mittelalters und weist auf weitere Möglichkeiten zur Untersuchung dieses Themas, nicht nur in Hinsicht auf das 12. Jahrhundert, sondern bezüglich des ganzen Mittelalters hin. ; This study addresses the topic of ethical and political ideas of the 12th century. The present study follows the German Vorstellungsgeschichte, which developed from Beumann's politische Ideengeschichte. Through this methodological option the discussion of ethics and politics in the 12th century is enriched by diversity. This period is regarded among medievalists as one of the most important of the Middle Ages: the Renaissance of the 12th century. This renaissance also pertains to the political thought of the period, which has already, though insufficiently, been researched. Studies on the relation between political ideals and political virtues in this century are also rare. The discussion of these topics is therefore desirable. It was necessary to reduce this study to the research of specific elements and sources of the 12th century, however, avoiding the classical political treatises of this period, though the De consideratione from Bernard of Clairvaux is regarded by some historians as a central piece of political writing for this century. The guiding principle, however, in this source selection was the authors dealing with political problems in their writings. In this regard, Otto of Freising and Bernard of Clairvaux were an interesting choice. Both were influential churchmen in their time and attained important positions inside the ecclesiastical hierarchy. They were supporters of the 12th century reform movements in the Church, were considered politically very active and were highly regarded in their respective circles. However, neither of them produced writings whose core was the discussion of political ideas. Their significance is due to their contribution to other areas. Otto of Freising is mainly praised on account of his historical writing, while Bernard of Clairvaux is celebrated for his contributions on the monastic reform, Christian mysticism, and theological debates of his time. Yet both authors touched indirectly on political issues in their writings and thus presented their own views and ideas on such matters. Through an analysis based upon the Vorstellungsgeschichte, some of the writings of these medieval thinkers were examined and important aspects of their thinking were pointed out. These complement the knowledge about the political views of these authors and contribute to the research of the (political) mentalities of the 12th century. Both historical works of Otto of Freising – Historia de duabus civitatibus and Gesta Friderici – were analysed as well as the Letters of Bernard of Clairvaux and two of his treatises: De consideratione and De laude novae militae. The cardinal virtues – iustitia, fortitudo, sapientia/prudentia, temperantia/moderatio – represent the basis upon which the entire idea of political virtues is built in the writings of both authors. They are therefore part of a tradition which reaches back to the Ciceronian origins of the cardinal virtues theme. Both thinkers interpret however this traditional theme of political thought in a new way. Their beliefs about political virtues are determined by their own experiences and shaped by their own worldview. They mention Cicero's cardinal virtues, but deliver particular interpretation of them, meeting the expectations of their own age and putting them into focus. The ideas of both Otto and Bernard show similarities which point to a typical tendency for a significant part of 12th century thought. For example, fortitudo appears as a military or battlefield virtue and it turns political when in connection with the creation and preservation of an ideal government. According to both authors, one needs sapientia and prudentia to become a good ruler. Primarily, however, the government is considered good if it seeks the common good. The iustitia looks further to the maintenance of the right order of the world and finds its application in the just distribution of all things, referring again to the common good and the political ideals of these medieval thinkers. Finally, all rulers should govern with moderatio by avoiding all excesses. In addition to the cardinal virtues, both thinkers present other virtues which can be applied to their political ideals and expectations. Thus Bernard sets humilitas as the foundation of his concept of (political) virtue and Otto shows the connection between fides, constantia and largitas in his political expectations. These results offer new insight into the political thought of the 12th century. The ideas on political virtue presented by these thinkers represent a significant trend of thought of the 12th century, which so far has scarcely been studied. In this respect, applying the ideas of political virtue to political thought of the 12th century represents an advance in historical research. It complements current knowledge of political ideas and presents them in a new perspective, taking into consideration not only the 12th century, but the whole of the Middle Ages.

Los olores provocados por diversas actividades como la cría y el cuidado de animales en granjas avícolas y porcícolas, plantas depuradoras, vertederos, industrias químicas, Plantas de tratamiento de aguas residuales, entre otros, constituyen una forma de contaminación ambiental, que pueden generar molestias respiratorias y alteraciones psicológicas, que afectan la calidad de vida de las personas. A nivel internacional ha sido posible cuantificar el olor por diferentes tipos de estudios, para ello es necesario recurrir a una evaluación del olor que proporcione datos sobre las propiedades del mismo y la sensación que produce sobre la población afectada. Para el caso del subsector de avicultura considerado como una fuente generadora de olores, se hace necesario identificar y fomentar unas prácticas de trabajo que se realicen evitando los impactos sobre el medio ambiente (consumo de recursos, vertimientos de aguas residuales, generación de residuos, olores, contaminación y erosión de suelos, entre otros), no sólo preservan el entorno, sino que además pueden implicar un ahorro de costos. Para lo cual se han revisado publicaciones nacionales e internacionales, sobre Buenas Prácticas Ambientales (BPA) y Mejores Técnicas Disponibles (MTD) con impacto favorable, tanto sobre los diferentes aspectos medio ambientales que afectan al sector y disponibles desde el punto de vista técnico y económico para proteger de olores ofensivos a la población expuesta. El estudio pretende constituirse como herramienta de ayuda y consulta técnica para las autoridades ambientales y las empresas avícolas. Las BPA y MTD definidas en este estudio para su aplicación en las actividades de avicultura pueden ser consideradas como una opción viable desde el punto de vista técnico y económico para reducir la contaminación ambiental y dar cumplimiento a las normas relacionadas con el control de olores, evitando costos asociados al monitoreo y medición de los mismos y reduciendo significativamente los conflictos y quejas de las comunidades cercanas a las explotaciones. Constituyen el inicio de una nueva herramienta de carácter ambiental hasta ahora inexistente en el país, que será de gran utilidad como referente técnico para los actores generadores de olores, que deben dar cumplimiento a las disposiciones normativas en la materia. En ese sentido, el presente estudio tiene por objeto, establecer las medidas ambientales entendidas como las BPA y/o MTD a implementar en las diferentes fases de las actividades de avicultura, para la prevención, control y seguimiento de la generación de olores ofensivos. La metodología utilizada consistió en revisar el estado de arte e nivel nacional e internacional, en materia de aplicación de Guías de buenas prácticas ambientales, buenas prácticas avícolas, las mejores técnicas disponibles analizadas por la Unión Europea, normatividad aplicable, estadística de quejas por malos olores asociadas a la avicultura. Desde el punto de vista técnico, se realizó una revisión de las actividades intrínsecas de la avicultura, así como la identificación de impactos ambientales, el manejo y la disposición de residuos líquidos, sólidos y gaseosos; procesos químicos, biológicos y físicos asociados a la generación de olores de estas actividades; sistemas de registro y atención de quejas por impactos ambientales. Cada una de las MTD y BPA se encuentra desarrolladas en fichas dentro de las cuales se describen sus características generales, aplicabilidad, eficacia ambiental y posibles efectos secundarios; el conjunto de fichas propuestas a nivel integral define un Plan de buenas prácticas ambientales para la prevención, control y seguimiento de la generación de olores ofensivos en el subsector avícola; adicional a lo anterior se realizó la formulación de una serie de indicadores para el seguimiento, monitoreo y evaluación de costos de las medidas propuestas. ; Abstract. Odors caused by various activities such as breeding and care of animals in poultry and swine farms, treatment plants, landfills, chemical plants, treatment plants of wastewater, among others, constitute a form of environmental pollution, that may generate respiratory distress and psychological disorders, which affect the quality of life of people. Internationally has been possible to quantify the smell by different types of studies, for it is necessary to adopt an odor evaluation to provide data on its properties and the sensation on the affected population. In the case of poultry subsector considered as a source of odors, regarded as a generating source of odors, it is necessary to identify and promote work practices that are carried out avoiding impacts on the environment (resource consumption, vertimeents wastewater, waste, odors, pollution and soil erosion, among others) not only preserve the environment, but also may involve cost savings. For which we have reviewed national and international publications on Good Environmental Practices (GAP) and Best Available Techniques (BAT) with positive impact, both on different environmental issues affecting the industry available from the technical and economic offensive odors to protect the exposed population. The study even pretend constituted as an aid and technical consultation for the environmental authorities and poultry companies. The GAP and the BAT defined in this study for use in the activities of poultry can be considered as a viable option from a technical and economic standpoint to reduce environmental pollution and comply with standards related to odor control, avoiding costs associated with monitoring and measuring them and significantly reducing conflicts and complaints from communities near farms. Constitute the beginning of a new tool of environmental character hitherto unknown in the country, which will be useful as a technical reference for actors odor generators, which must comply with the provisions normative matter. In this sense, the present study aims to establish environmental measures understood as the GAP and / or the BAT to implement in phases differences poultry activities for the prevention, control and monitoring of odor generation. The methodology used was to review the state of art at national and international level, in the application of codes of good environmental practices, good farming practices, best available techniques discussed by the European Union, applicable regulations, statistics odor complaints poultry associated. From the technical point of view, a review of the intrinsic activities of poultry farming as well as the identification of environmental impacts, the management and disposal of liquid, solid and gaseous wastes was performed; chemical, biological and treasuries processes associated with the generation of odors from these activities; systems for recording and handling complaints by environmental impacts. Each of the GAP and BAT chip is developed within which describes its general characteristics, applicability, environmental effectiveness and possible side effects; the set of chips proposals comprehensive plan defines a level of good environmental practices for the prevention, control and keep under review the generation of offensive odors in the poultry subsector; Additional to this the formulation a series of indicators for tracking, monitoring and evaluation of costs of proposed actions. ; Maestría

ABSTRACTThis study aims to determine: 1) the reasons BUMN In Pontianak using a system of Outsourcing in the recruitment of employees. 2) outsourcing practices in BUMN in Pontianak, 3) the factors that cause outsourcing system has not given legal protection of employees and 4) the perspective of the legal regulation of the employees who were recruited by the BUMN system outsourcing in Indonesia. The research was conducted at the Department of Social Welfare and Labor Pontianak, and involve Pontianak Trade Union Chairman, Director of PT. Media Prima HR Solutions in Pontianak, Director of PT. Telkom Pontianak, Director of PT. PLN Pontianak, Director of PT. Pertamina Pontianak and workers / laborers who work in state-owned companies Pontianak. Data collection methods used were interviews, questionnaires, and direct observations. The data obtained in qualitative analysis. The results show that the legal protection of workers / laborers, both contradictory, always found the gap between das sollen (must) and das science (reality) and always appeared discrepancy between the law in the books and law in action. Fact of economic life with the hegemony of financial capitalism has operated through the "dis-solution subject" who do not see the workers / laborers as production subject that should be protected, but rather as an object that can be exploited, this is what happens in the practice of outsourcing in Indonesia, so that the legalization of outsourcing by Law No. 13 Year 2003 on Manpower reap kotroversi. For those who disagree argue useful in outsourced business development and create new jobs. For those who refused to believe the practice of outsourcing is a modern style of capitalism that brought misery to the workers / laborers. Based on the fact that the authors formulate the problem: 1) Why BUMN In Pontianak Still Using Outsourcing System In Recruitment? 2) Why not outsource system provide legal protection for employees? 3) How should the legal arrangements for employees who were recruited by the BUMN system outsourcing in Indonesia? The objectives are: 1) To explain the reasons BUMN In Pontianak using Outsourcing the recruitment system. 2) To determine the state of outsourcing practices in Pontianak. 3) To disclose and explain the factors that cause outsourcing system has not been providing legal protection for employees. 4) To reveal the perspective of the legal regulation of the employees who were recruited by the BUMN system outsourcing in Indonesia. To answer the problems and research objectives, juridical approach used empirical / sociological research Descriptive Analytical specifications. Data types include Primary Data and Secondary Data collected through library research and documentation (library and documentation) as well as field research (field research), while the sampling was done by using non-random sampling with purposive sampling method. From the discussion, note that the legality of many violations of outsourcing in terms of Pontianak, employment protection and working conditions for workers / laborers outsourcing is not given by the employer to the fullest, while legal protection for workers / laborers are constrained due to the weakness in the system employment law, good substance, structure and culture. Therefore, it is necessary revision of labor legislation, the Local Government of Pontianak need to increase the numberof labor inspectors personnel, provide facilities and an adequate budget for the operation of the labor inspection in order to carry out its duties and functions to the fullest and empower Unions / Union to be able to carry out the purposes and functions well.Keywords: Outsourcing employee/ labour and Legal Protection. A B S T R A KPenelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui : 1) alasan BUMN Di Kota Pontianak menggunakan sistem Outsourcing dalam perekrutan karyawan. 2) praktik outsourcing pada BUMN di Kota Pontianak, 3) faktor-faktor penyebab sistem outsourcing belum memberikan perlindungan hukum terhadap karyawan dan 4) perspektif pengaturan hukum terhadap karyawan yang direkrut dengan sistem outsourcing pada BUMN di Indonesia. Penelitian ini dilakukan di Dinas Sosial dan Tenaga Kerja Pontianak, dan melibatkan Ketua Serikat Buruh Kota Pontianak, Direktur PT. Media Prima HR Solutions di Kota Pontianak, Direktur PT. Telkom Kota Pontianak, Direktur PT. PLN Pontianak, Direktur PT. Pertamina Pontianak serta pekerja/buruh yang bekerja pada perusahaan BUMN Kota Pontianak. Metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan adalah wawancara, kuesioner, dan pengamatan langsung. Data yang diperoleh di analisis secara kualitatif. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa perlindungan hukum pekerja/buruh, keduanya saling bertentangan, selalu dijumpai kesenjangan antara das sollen (keharusan) dan das sain (kenyataan) dan selalu muncul diskrepansi antara law in the books dan law in action. Nyatanya kehidupan ekonomi dengan hegemoni kapitalisme financial telah beroperasi melalui dis-solution subject yang tidak memandang pekerja/buruh sebagai subjek produksi yang patut dilindungi, melainkan sebagai objek yang bisa di eksploitasi, inilah yang terjadi dalam praktik outsourcing di Indonesia, sehingga legalisasi outsourcing berdasarkan Undang-Undang Nomor 13 Tahun 2003 Tentang Ketenagakerjaan menuai kotroversi. Bagi yang setuju berdalih outsourcing bermanfaat dalam pengembangan usaha dan membuka lapangan kerja baru. Bagi yang menolak beranggapan praktik outsourcing merupakan corak kapitalisme modern yang membawa kesengsaraan bagi pekerja/buruh. Berdasarkan kenyataan itu penulis merumuskan masalah : 1) Mengapa BUMN Di Kota Pontianak Masih Menggunakan Sistem Outsourcing Dalam Perekrutan Karyawan ? 2) Mengapa sistem outsourcing tidak memberikan perlindungan hukum terhadap karyawan ? 3) Bagaimana seharusnya pengaturan hukum terhadap karyawan yang direkrut dengan sistem outsourcing pada BUMN di Indonesia ? Tujuannya adalah : 1) Untuk menjelaskan mengenai alasan BUMN Di Kota Pontianak menggunakan sistem Outsourcing dalam perekrutan karyawan. 2) Untuk mengetahui praktik outsourcing pada BUMN di Kota Pontianak. 3) Untuk mengungkapkan dan menjelaskan faktor-faktor penyebab sistem outsourcing belum memberikan perlindungan hukum terhadap karyawan. 4) Untuk mengungkapkan perspektif pengaturan hukum terhadap karyawan yang direkrut dengan sistem outsourcing pada BUMN di Indonesia. Untuk menjawab permasalahan dan tujuan penelitian, digunakan metode pendekatan yuridis empiris/sosiologis dengan spesifikasi penelitian Deskriptif Analitis. Jenis datanya meliputi Data Primer dan Data Skunder yang dikumpulkan melalui penelitian kepustakaan dan dokumentasi(library and documentation) serta penelitian lapangan(field research), sedangkan pengambilan sampel dilakukan dengan menggunakan teknik Non Random Sampling dengan metode Purposive Sampling. Dari hasil pembahasan diketahui bahwa secara legalitas banyak terjadi pelanggaran syarat-syarat outsourcing di Kota Pontianak, perlindungan kerja dan syarat-syarat kerja bagi pekerja/buruh outsourcing tidak diberikan oleh pengusaha secara maksimal, sedangkan perlindungan hukum bagi pekerja/buruh terkendala karena adanyakelemahan dalam system hukum ketenagakerjaan, baik substansi, struktur maupun kulturnya. Oleh karena itu, perlu revisi atas beberapa peraturan perundang-undangan ketenagakerjaan, Pemerintah Daerah Kota Pontianak perlu menambah jumlah personel pegawai pengawas ketenagakerjaan, menyediakan sarana dan fasilitas serta anggaran yang memadai untuk operasional pengawasan ketenagakerjaan agar dapat menjalankan tugas dan fungsinya secara maksimal serta memberdayakan Serikat Pekerja/Serikat Buruh agar mampu menjalankan tujuan dan fungsinya dengan baik.Kata Kunci : Pekerja/Buruh Outsourcing dan Perlindungan Hukum.