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Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Danda Cheruvu-2 Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 665 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 646 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, 12 ha by rock outcrops and 6 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 9 soil series and 16 soil phases (management units) and 7 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 22 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 42 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 44 per cent area low (51-100 mm/m) and 21 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 30 per cent area.  1 per cent area is high (>57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus, 46 per area is medium (23-57 kg/ha) and 50 per area is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 21(3) 439(66) Guava - 27(4) Maize 17(3) 485(73) Sapota - 27(4) Bajra 17(3) 443(67) Pomegranate - 194(29) Groundnut - 27(4) Musambi 167(25) 27(4) Sunflower 4(<1) 189(29) Lime 167(25) 27(4) Redgram - 193(29) Amla 17(3) 444(67) Bengal gram 167(25) 294(44) Cashew - 17(3) Cotton 167(25) 294(44) Jackfruit - 27(4) Chilli - 298(45) Jamun - 167(25) Tomato 17(3) 281(42) Custard apple 194(29) 267(40) Brinjal 21(3) 440(66) Tamarind - 167(25) Onion - 294(44) Mulberry - 27(4) Bhendi 4(<1) 456(69) Marigold - 460(69) Drumstick - 193(29) Chrysanthemum - 460(69) Mango - 4(<1)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested for these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel and generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 101 (58.05%) men and 73 (41.95%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.4, marginal farmers' was 5, small farmers' was 5.42 and semi medium farmers' was 4.75.  The data indicated that, 28 (16.09%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 80 (45.98%) were in 16-35 years of age, 55 (31.61%) were in 36-60 years of age and 11 (6.32%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Dandacheruvu-2 had 58.05 per cent illiterates, 1.15 per cent functional literates, 8.05 per cent of them had primary school education, 2.30 per cent of them had middle school education, 14.37 per cent of them had high school education, 8.62 per cent of them had PUC education, 0.57 per cent did ITI and 2.87 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 82.86 per cent of households were practicing agriculture, 14.29 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers and 2.86 per cent of them were general labour.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 61.49 per cent of the household members, 6.90 per cent were agricultural laborers, 2.87 per cent were general labourers, 0.57 per cent were in private service, 22.99 per cent were students, 2.30 per cent were housewives and 2.87 per cent were children.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 28.57 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 51.43 per cent of the households possess katcha house and 20 per cent of them possess pucca house.  The results show that 65.71 per cent of the households possess TV, 28.57 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 2.86 per cent of the households had refrigerator, 2.86 per cent of them had bicycle, 34.29 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 74.29 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.9043, mixer grinder was Rs.1920, refrigerator was Rs.9000, bicycle was Rs.2000, motor cycle was Rs.56666 and mobile phone was Rs.3535.  The results indicated that no households possessed farm implements in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, 11.43 per cent of the households possess bullocks and 2.86 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.26, average own labour (women) available was 1.68, average 2 hired labour (men) available was 10.33 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.52.  The results indicate that, 88.57 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Dandacheruvu-2 micro-watershed possess 31.23 ha (98.72%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (1.28%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 12.43 ha (96.85%) of dry land and 0.40 ha (3.15%) of irrigated land. Small farmers possess 9.28 ha (100%) of dry land. Semi medium farmers also possess 9.52 ha (100%) of dry land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 891,517.63 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 1,976,000. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 3,258,264.89 for dry land and Rs. 4,882,629.11 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,903,948.43 for dry land. And in case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,115,821.92 for dry land.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.86 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.05 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal farmers had an irrigated area of 0.40 ha.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown cotton (8.47 ha), greengram (9.73 ha), groundnut (3.32 ha), paddy (4.16 ha) and redgram (10.19 ha). Marginal and small farmers have grown cotton, Greengram, groundnut, paddy and redgram. Semi medium farmers have grown cotton and Greengram. Medium farmers have grown paddy and redgram.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Dandacheruvu-2 microwatershed was found to be 100 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for redgram was Rs. 38935.18. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 92512.94. The net income from Redgram cultivation was Rs. 53577.75, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.38.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 115103.96. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 135850. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 20746.04. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.18.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 29745.78. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 90618.12. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 60872.35. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.05. 3  The results indicate that, 8.57 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and another 8.57 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 61,400 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 109,684.21, for small farmers it was Rs. 136,857.14 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 226,750.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 10,639.41. For landless households it was Rs. 8,600, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 5,837.64, for small farmers it was Rs. 10,959.18 and for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 35,437.50.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 6 custard apple trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 52 neem and 2 tamarind tree in their field.  The results indicated that, all crops were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 77.14 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 8.57 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 5.71 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.71 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households used firewood and 5.71 per cent used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.14 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 71.43 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 94.29 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 97.14 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 5.71 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 31.43 per cent, fruits were adequate for 37.14 per cent, milk was adequate for 100 per cent, eggs were adequate for 100 per cent and meat was adequate for 97.14 per cent. 4  The results indicated that, oilseeds were inadequate for 94.29 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 68.57 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 62.86 per cent and meat was inadequate for 2.86 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 85.71 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (77.14%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (85.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water (88.57%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (85.71%), high rate of interest on credit (85.71%), low price for the agricultural commodities (82.86%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (14.29%), inadequate extension services (2.86%) and lack of transport for safe transport of agricultural produce to the market. ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Nalla Cheruvu Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 584 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 516 ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils and 68 ha by others (habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 6 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 5 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  Entire area in the microwatershed is suitable for agriculture.  About 27 per cent area are very shallow to shallow (150 cm).  About 8 per cent area in the microwatershed has loamy and 81 per cent clayey soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent area in the microwatershed is non gravelly (200 mm/m) in available water capacity, 2 per cent area medium (101-150 mm/m), 32 per cent area low (51- 100 mm/m) and 27 per cent area very low (0.75%) in 47 per cent area.  83 per cent area is low (337 kg/ha) in available potassium and 36 per cent is medium (145-337 kg/ha).  Available sulphur is low (4.5 ppm) in the entire area of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in all the soils of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 117 (70.91%) men and 48 (29.9%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4.4, marginal farmers' was 4.9, small farmers' was 5, semi medium farmers' was 4.5 and medium farmers were 5.  The data indicated that, 21 (12.73%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 72 (43.64%) were in 16-35 years of age, 63 (38.18%) were in 36-60 years of age and 9 (5.45%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Nalla Cheruvu had 48.88 per cent illiterates, 10.91 per cent of them had Primary School, 0.61 per cent of them had Middle School and masters, 15.15 per cent of them had High School, 7.27 per cent of them had PUC education, 6.6 per cent of them had ITI and 10.30 per cent of them had Degree education.  The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 14.71 per cent of the household heads were agricultural laborers and 5.88 per cent of the household's heads were government services.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 57.58 per cent of the household members, 99 per cent were agricultural laborers and private services, 1.21 per cent were in Household government services, 0.61 per cent were trade and business. 21.21 per cent were in student and 1.21 per cent were housewives.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in local institution.  The results indicate that 5.88 per cent of the households possess Thatched house, 64.71 per cent of the households possess Katcha house and 29.41 per cent of them possess pucca/RCC house.  The results show that 94.12 per cent of the households possess TV, 64.71 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder, 2.94 per cent of the households possess refrigerator, 8.82 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 32.35 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 5.88 per cent of the households possess auto and 82.35 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 9,000, mixer/grinder was Rs. 1,968, refrigerator was Rs. 8,000, bicycle was Rs. 11,500, Motor Cycle was Rs. 35,625, auto was Rs. 117,500 and mobile phone was Rs. 3,253.  About 2.94 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 38.24 per cent of them possess plough, 17.65 per cent of them possess seed/ fertilizer drill, 8.82 per cent of them possess Sprayer and 70.59 per cent of them possess weeder. 2  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 30,000, plough was Rs. 1,576, seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 4,050, Sprayer was Rs. 1,333 and the average value of weeder was Rs. 52.  The results indicate that, 47.6 per cent of the households possess bullocks, 29.41 per cent of the households possess local cow, 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo, sheep and goat and 5.88 per cent of the households possess poultry birds.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 2.21, average own labour (women) available was 0.93, average hired labour (men) available was 9.34 and average hired labour (women) available was 77.  The results indicate that, 85.29 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Nalla Cheruvu micro-watershed possess 28.76 ha (28.80%) of dry land and 3.34 ha (10.41%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 8.91 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 14.94 ha (96.70%) of dry land and 0.51 ha (3.3%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 4.9 ha (100%) of dry land. Medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (100%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 1,117,513.38 and the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 388,740.92. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,340,440.50 for dry land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,177,464.81 for dry land and Rs. 1,372,222.23 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 529,867.99 for dry land. Medium farmers, the average land value were Rs. 211,714.29 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 5.88 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 6.28 meters.  The results indicate that, small and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 0.51 ha and 2.83 ha respectively. The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (21.78 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), green gram (2.15 ha), sorghum (1.23 ha) and cotton (0.45 ha). The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Nalla Cheruvu micro-watershed was found to be 95.87 per cent.  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 71717.25. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 83647.68. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 11930.43. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17. 3  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 53453. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54751.57. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. 1298.57. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:12.  The total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 20566.59. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 23994.29. The net income from paddy cultivation was Rs. 3427.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.17.  The total cost of cultivation for Sorghum was Rs. 43061.38. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 31178.69. The net income from Sorghum cultivation was Rs. -11882.69. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.72.  The total cost of cultivation for Cotton was Rs. 51426.86. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 72776.79. The net income from Cotton cultivation was Rs. 21349.92. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.42.  The results indicate that, 47.6 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 186,000 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 124,642.86, for small farmers it was Rs. 97,916.67, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 100,000 and medium farmers it was Rs. 99,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 25,117.30. For landless farmers it was Rs. 64,400 for marginal farmers it was Rs. 21,862.24, for small farmers it was Rs. 9,409.72, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 22,500 and medium farmers it was Rs. 68,000.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 144 custard apple, 3 jackfruit and 1 lemon trees in their field.  The results indicate that, households have planted 4 Teak, 32 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their field and also 9 neem trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 14,470.59 for land development.  The results indicated that loan from bank was the source of additional investment for 23.53 per cent for land development. Own funds was the source of additional investment for 41.18 per cent for land development. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 17.65 per cent for land development.  The results indicated that, Cotton was sold to the extent of 100 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 72.97 per cent, paddy was sold to the extent of 40 per cent, Sorghum was sold to the extent of 16.67 per cent, and red gram to the extent of 90.4 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 2.94 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/ traders, 82.35 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants. The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation. 4  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households used firewood and 17.65 per cent of them used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.6 per cent of the households in the micro watershed and Bore Well was the source of drinking water for 2.94 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 85.29 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 97.6 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL cards.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 88.24 per cent, vegetables and milk were adequate for 94.12 per cent, fruits were adequate for 14.71 per cent, Egg and meat were adequate for 47.22 per cent.  The results indicated that, cereals were inadequate for 2.94 per cent of the households, pulses were inadequate for 11.76 per cent, oilseed were inadequate for 100 per cent, vegetables and milk were inadequate for 5.88 per cent and fruits were inadequate for 82.35 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil and high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals was the constraint experienced by 85.29 per cent of the households, Wild animal menace on farm field (82.35%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (58.82%), Lack of marketing facilities in the area (14.71%), inadequacy of irrigation water and (2.94%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (41.18%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Daddegallu-3 microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 311 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 97 per cent is covered by soils and three per cent by mining /industrial area, water bodies and others. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 13 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150 cm).  Entire area in the microwatershed has clayey soils at the surface.  About 52 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  Entire area in the microwatershed has very gently sloping (1-3%) lands.  An area of about 48 per cent is slightly eroded (e1), 41 per cent is moderately eroded (e2) lands and 8 per cent is severely (e3) eroded.  An area of about 74 per cent soils strongly alkaline (pH 8.4 to 9.0) and 23 per cent is very strongly alkaline (pH > 9.0).  Electrical conductivity (EC) of the soils are dominantly 337 kg/ha) in 71 per cent of the soils.  Entire area in the microwatershed is low (<10 ppm) in available sulphur.  Entire area in the microwatershed is medium (0.5-1.0 ppm) in available boron.  Entire area in the microwatershed is deficient (<4.5 ppm) in available iron.  Entire area in the microwatershed is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in available zinc.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 71(23) 96(31) Pomegranate - 129(41) Maize - 168(54) Guava - - Bajra - 167(54) Jackfruit - - Redgram - 94(30) Jamun - 40(13) Bengal gram 71(23) 96(31) Musambi 40(13) 89(29) Groundnut - - Lime 40(13) 89(29) Sunflower 40(13) 89(29) Cashew - - Cotton 71(23) 96(31) Custard apple 71(23) 96(31) Chilli - - Amla - 168(54) Tomato - 23(7) Tamarind - 40(13) Drumstick - 129(41) Marigold - 168(54) Mulberry - 82(26) Chrysanthemum - 168(54) Mango - - Jasmine - 39(12) Sapota - 23(7) Crossandra - 58(18) Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LUCs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation treatment and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. Chapter 1 FINDINGS OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY  The survey was conducted in Daddegallu-3 is located at 15022'35.529'' to 150 20'45.305'' North and 760 7' 13.707'' to 7606'12.385''covering an area of about 311.52 ha coming under Dadhegala, Koppala and Yathnatti Villages of Koppal taluk.  Socio-economic analysis indicated that, out of the total sample of 39 respondents, 1 (2.56%) were landless, 17 (43.59%) were marginal farmers, 13 (33.33%) were small farmers, 6 (15.38%) were semi medium farmers and 2 (5.13%) were medium farmers.  The population characteristics of households indicated that, there were 106 (57.61%) men and 78 (42.39%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers were 4.4, semi medium farmers' was 4.5, small farmers' was 5.1 and medium farmers' was 7.  Majority of the respondents 37 (20.11%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 74 (40.22%) were in 16-35 years of age, 51 (27.72%) were in 36-60 years of age and 22 (11.96%) were above 61 years of age.  Education level of the sample households indicated that, majority there were 40.22 per cent illiterates, 21.74 per cent of them had primary school, 4.35 per cent of them had Middle school education, 15.76 per cent of them had high school, 5.43 per cent of them had PUC, 0.54 per cent of them had diploma education, 1.63 per cent of them had ITI education and 5.43 per cent of them had degree education.  About, 94.87 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture and 2.56 per cent of the household industry and trade and business.  Agriculture was the major occupation for 69.57 per cent of the household members, 1.09 per cent were household industry and trade and business, 16.85 per cent were student, 1.63 per cent was housewives and 4.89 per cent were children.  The households possess, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  In the study area, 10.26 per cent of the households possess thatched houses, 58.97 per cent of the households possess katcha house, 20.51 per cent of the households possess pucca/RCC and 12.82 per cent of the households possess semi pacca.  The durable assets owned by the households showed that, 94.87 per cent of the households possess TV, 2.56 per cent of the households possess DVD/VCD player and refrigerator, 100 per cent of the households possess mixer/grinder and mobile phones, 23.08 per cent of the household's possess bicycle and 30.77 per cent of the households possess motor cycle.  Farm implements owned by the households indicated that, 12.82 per cent each of the households possess bullock cart, 20.51 per cent each of the households possess 2 plough, 2.56 per cent of the households possess seed/fertilizer drill and chaff cutter, 5.13 per cent of the households possess tractor, 17.95 per cent of the households possess sprayer and 46.15 per cent of the households possess weeder.  Regarding livestock possession by the households, 15.38 per cent of the households possess bullocks and local cow, 5.13 per cent of the households possess crossbreed cow and 17.95 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.68, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 7.59 and average hired labour (women) available was 7.43.  Out of the total land holding of the sample respondents 47.54 ha (89.88%) of dry land and 4.45 ha (8.42%) of irrigated land.  Marginal farmers possess 12 ha (100%) of dry land. Small farmers possess 17.13 ha (95.49%) of dry land and 0.81 ha (4.51%) of irrigated land.  Semi medium farmers possess 14.35 ha (89.87%) of dry land and 1.62 ha (10.13 %) of irrigated land.  Medium farmers possess 4.05 ha (66.67%) of dry land and 2.02 ha (33.33 %) of irrigated land.  There were 1 functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  Bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 2.56 per cent of the farmers.  The major crops have grown maize (37.87 ha), sunflower (3.33 ha), red gram (2.1 ha), jowar (1.62 ha), rabi maize (1.28 ha), Bengal gram and mulberry (1.21 ha), rabi bengal gram (0.93 ha), pearl millet (0.81 ha), red gram (0.61 ha) and paddy (0.4 ha). Cropping intensity in micro watershed was found to be 96.8 per cent.  The households possess 69.23 per cent of the households have bank account. The household's posess, 64.1 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The per hectare cost of cultivation for Maize, Bengal gram, red gram, bajra, mulberry, jowar and sunflower was Rs. 31782.98, 34704.54, 21997.31, 10613.13, 20133.77, 30097.46 and 39789.73 with benefit cost ratio of 1:1.05, 1:1.34, 1:1.05, 1:1.44, 1:0.82, 1:0.6, and 1:0.95 respectively.  Further, 41.03 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 20.51 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The average annual gross income was Rs. 53,200 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 56,510.59, for small farmers it was Rs. 62,926.92, semi medium farmers it was Rs. 139,366.67 and medium farmers it was Rs. 130,000.  The average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,333.44. For landless farmers it was Rs. 53,200, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,324.15, for small farmers it was Rs. 3 4,840.53, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 23,227.78 and medium farmers it was Rs. 65,000.  Sampled households have planted 5 teak, 50 neem, 2 tamarind and 1 banyan and peepul trees in their field and also 2 neem trees in their backyard to cultivate forest species.  Households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 4,153.85 for land development, Rs. 666.67 for irrigation facility, Rs. 2,153.85 for improved crop production and Rs.179.49 for improved livestock management. Source of funds for additional investment is concerned; own funds was the source of additional investment for 61.54 per cent for land development, 7.69 per cent for irrigation facility, 41.03 per cent for improved crop production and 5.13 per cent for improved livestock management. Soft loan was the source of additional investment for 10.26 per cent for land development, 5.13 per cent for irrigation facility and 7.69 for improved crop production.  Regarding marketing channels, 20.51 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to agent/traders, 82.05 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchant and 2.56 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to regulated market.  Further, 2.56 per cent of the households have used head load, 15.38 per cent of the households used cart, 71.79 per cent of the households used tractor and 15.38 per cent of the households used truck as a mode of transportation.  Majority of the households 23.08 per cent have shown incidence of soil and water erosion problems.  The household possess, (76.92%) were interested towards soil testing.  The households possess, 89.74 per cent of the households used fire wood and 28.21 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  Piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 20.51 per cent, 66.67 per cent of the households used bore well, 2.56 per cent of the households used open well and 7.69 per cent used lake/ tank in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households.  In the study area, 53.85 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  Regarding possession of PDS card, 94.87 per cent of the sampled household's possessed BPL cards and 2.56 per cent of the sample households has not possess PDS cards.  Cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 64.1 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 41.03 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 66.67 per cent, fruits were adequate for 10.26 per cent, milk were adequate for 92.31 per cent, egg were adequate for 46.15 and meat were adequate for 20.51 per cent of the households.  Pulses were inadequate for 30.77 per cent of the households, oilseed were inadequate for 53.85 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 28.21 per cent, 4 fruits were inadequate for 64.1 per cent, milk were inadequate for 5.13 per cent, egg were inadequate for 7.69 per cent and meat were inadequate for 66.67 per cent of the households.  Farming constraints experienced by households in the micro watersheds were lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 82.05 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (56.41%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (87.18%), Inadequacy of irrigation water (69.23%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals (84.62%), high rate of interest on credit (100%), Low price for the agricultural commodities (76.92%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (92.31%), inadequate extension services (56.41%), Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (79.49%), less rainfall (23.08%) and Source of Agri-technology information (10.26%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

L"olivicultura de la comarca del Priorat es basa en la varietat "Arbequina" i està inclosa dins la DOP "Siurana" (Tarragona) on ocupa unes 2.900 ha que produeixen 4.700 t d"olives i 900 t d"oli, que ha de competir amb unes 100.000 t d"oli d"aquesta varietat produïdes a tot el mon, més de la meitat fora de Catalunya i amb tecnologies de producció modernes que permeten reduir costos i millorar la rendibilitat. Per aquest motiu els productors de la zona van fundar l"Associació d"Oleïcultors del Priorat (AOP) amb la finalitat de crear una estructura comercial que permetés accedir a mercats d"alt preu, semblants als que utilitzen els vins de qualitat de la comarca. La AOP signà el 2002 un conveni amb l"IRTA i el DAAM per a desenvolupar un programa científico-tècnic que permetés la caracterització i tipificació dels olis de la comarca, establint criteris objectius de selecció d"aquells olis de qualitat superior i diferenciable de la resta d"olis de "Arbequina" de Catalunya, per a facilitar la seva comercialització. Aquesta tesis doctoral inclou tots els aspectes científics sobre els que està fonamentada l"aplicació comercial d"aquest programa. Els objectius fixats són: (1) caracteritzar els olis produïts a la comarca, a nivell fisicoquímic i sensorial; (2) constatar si aquests olis són objectivament diferents dels d"altres zones, produïts amb la mateixa varietat "Arbequina"; (3) identificar en què consisteix la seva tipicitat, relacionant-la amb factors propis del clima i sòls de la comarca; i (4) caracteritzar l"olivicultura i elaiotècnia de la comarca. Els treballs s"han desenvolupat durant sis campanyes successives (2002-03 a 2008-09) i es basen en l"anàlisi sistemàtica de pràcticament el 100% dels olis produïts a la comarca durant aquests anys (6.308.124 litres), la descripció de l"olivicultura de la zona (mitjançant enquesta) i dels processos d"extracció (descripció de les instal·lacions i anotació de les condicions de procés en campanya) i l"estudi de la relació existent entre l"oli i els factors de producció, edàfics i climàtics. Als olis s"han analitzat les característiques sensorials, paràmetres fisicoquímics de qualitat, àcids grassos, esterols, polifenols totals, índex d"amargor, estabilitat i, en alguns casos, ceres i compostos volàtils. La metodologia utilitzada és similar a la dels nombrosos treballs de tipificació i caracterització d"olis d"oliva verge, normalment associats a DOP espanyoles i d"Itàlia, la qual fiabilitat està relacionada amb la representativitat de les mostres d"oli analitzades i que apliquen tècniques estadístiques univariants i multivariants diverses. Els resultats demostren que fins un 54% dels olis de la zona Priorat, elaborats majoritàriament amb "Arbequina", es poden diferenciar objectivament dels d"altres zones productores del mon que utilitzen la mateixa varietat, inclús de les veïnes Garrigues i Siurana-Camp. Aquestes diferències ho són tant a nivell sensorial (principalment els atributs picant, aromes secundàries, fruitat, astringència i dols), como a nivell d"àcids grassos (principalment palmitoleic, oleic, palmític i esteàric). Existeix una variabilitat intrazonal (inferior al 20% en tots els paràmetres, excepte els esterols) que sembla aleatòria en el cas d"atributs sensorials i, en el cas de la composició química, està relacionada amb factors geogràfics, de tècniques de cultiu i de clima de cada municipi. Les diferències respecte d"altres zones veïnes on es cultiva la mateixa varietat estan relacionades amb l"orografia i geologia particular de la comarca (més del 50% de plantacions estan a més de 400 m d"altitud i sobre sòls del Paleozoic de baixa fertilitat i amb zones de transició cap a sòls sedimentaris del quaternari cap al Camp de Tarragona i del terciari cap a Les Garrigues) i amb el clima particular i bastant homogeni a tota la zona (règim termo-pluviomètric de tipus "mediterrani prelitoral sud", amb transició cap a "mediterrani continental sec" a Les Garrigues i "mediterrani litoral sud" al Camp de Tarragona). S"ha definit un model matemàtic per a predir si una partida d"olives té possibilitats de produir olis de qualitat suficient per a la seva diferenciació, així com funcions discriminants de Fischer per a determinar si el perfil sensorial o la composició en àcids grassos d"un oli són típics de la comarca del Priorat i, per tant, diferenciables de les zones veïnes. Actualment, els resultats d"aquests treballs serveixen de base per a establir les estratègies comercials de venda dels olis del Priorat. Els moliners i envasadores trien aquells olis considerats com típics de la zona per a ser envasats (s"ha passat del 20% al inici del programa fins al 65% actual), dedicant la resta de la producció a l"autoconsum i al mercat a doll ; El olivar de la comarca del Priorat se basa en el cultivo de la variedad "Arbequina" y está incluido en la DOP "Siurana" (Tarragona), ocupando unas 2.900 ha que producen 4.700 t de aceitunas y 900 t de aceite, que debe competir con unas 100.000 t de aceite de esta variedad producidas en todo el mundo, más de la mitad fuera de Cataluña y con tecnologías de producción modernas que permiten reducir los costes y mejorar la rentabilidad. Por este motivo, los productores de la zona fundaron la Asociación de Oleicultores del Priorat (AOP) con el fin de crear una estructura comercial que permitiera acceder a mercados de alto precio, parecidos a los que utilizan los vinos de calidad de la comarca. La AOP firmó, en 2002, un convenio con el IRTA y el DAAM para desarrollar un programa científico-técnico que permitiera la caracterización y tipificación de los aceites de la comarca, estableciendo criterios objetivos de selección de aquellos aceites de calidad superior y diferenciable del resto de aceites de "Arbequina" de Cataluña, para facilitar su comercialización. La presente tesis doctoral incluye todos los aspectos científicos sobre los que se fundamenta la aplicación comercial de este programa. Los objetivos que se plantean son: (1) caracterizar los aceites producidos en la comarca, a nivel físico-químico y sensorial; (2) constatar si estos aceites son objetivamente diferentes de los de otras zonas producidos con la misma variedad "Arbequina"; (3) identificar en qué consiste su tipicidad, relacionándola con factores propios del clima y suelos de la comarca; y (4) caracterizar la olivicultura y elaiotecnia de la comarca. Los trabajos se han desarrollado durante seis campañas (2002-03 a 2008-09) y se basan en el análisis sistemático de prácticamente el 100% de los aceites producidos en la comarca durante esos años (6.308.124 litros), la descripción de la olivicultura de la zona (mediante encuesta) y de los procesos extractivos (descripción de las instalaciones y anotación de las condiciones de proceso en campaña) y el estudio de la relación existente entre el aceite y los factores tanto de producción como edáficos y climáticos. En los aceites se han analizado las características sensoriales, parámetros físico-químicos de calidad, ácidos grasos, esteroles, polifenoles totales, índice de amargor, estabilidad y, en algunos casos, ceras y compuestos volátiles. La metodología utilizada se basa en los numerosos trabajos de tipificación y caracterización de aceites de oliva virgen, normalmente asociados a DOP españolas e italianas, cuya fiabilidad está relacionada con la representatividad de las muestras de aceite analizadas y que aplican técnicas estadísticas univariantes y multivariantes diversas. Los resultados demuestran que hasta un 54% de los aceites de la zona Priorat, elaborados mayoritariamente con "Arbequina", pueden diferenciarse objetivamente de los de otras zonas productoras del mundo que utilizan la misma variedad, incluso de las vecinas Garrigues y Siurana-Camp. Dichas diferencias lo son tanto a nivel sensorial (principalmente los atributos picante, aromas secundarios, frutado, astringencia y dulzor), como a nivel de ácidos grasos (principalmente palmitoleico, oleico, palmítico y esteárico). Existe una variabilidad intrazonal (inferior al 20% en todos los parámetros, excepto los esteroles) que parece aleatoria en el caso de atributos sensoriales y que, en el caso de la composición química, está relacionada con factores geográficos, de técnicas de cultivo y de clima de cada municipio. Las diferencias respecto de otras zonas vecinas, donde se cultiva la misma variedad, están relacionadas con la orografía y geología particular de la comarca (más del 50% de plantaciones están a más de 400 m de altitud y sobre suelos del Paleozoico de baja fertilidad y con zonas de transición hacia suelos sedimentarios del cuaternario hacia el Camp de Tarragona y del terciario hacia Les Garrigues) y con el clima particular y bastante homogéneo en toda la zona (régimen termopluviométrico de tipo "mediterráneo prelitoral sur", con transición hacia el "mediterráneo continental seco" de Les Garrigues y el "mediterráneo litoral sur" del Camp de Tarragona). Se ha definido un modelo matemático para predecir si una partida de aceitunas tiene posibilidades de producir aceites de calidad suficiente para su diferenciación, así como funciones discriminantes de Fischer para determinar si el perfil sensorial o la composición en ácidos grasos de un aceite son típicos de la comarca del Priorat y, por tanto, diferenciables de las zonas vecinas. Actualmente, estos resultados sirven de base para establecer las estrategias comerciales de venta de los aceites del Priorat. Los almazareros y envasadores escogen aquellos aceites considerados como típicos de la zona para su envasado (se ha pasado desde un 20% al inicio del programa hasta el 65% actual), dedicando el resto de la producción al autoconsumo y al mercado de graneles. ; Olive production in the Priorat area raws on "Arbequina" cultivar and is included into PDO "Siurana" (Tarragona), with 2.900 ha and yielding 4.700 t fruits in average, equivalent to 900 t of virgin oil. This oil competes with 100.000 t of oil from the same cultivar produced worldwide (more than a half out of Catalonia and using new technologies to reduce costs and enhance profitability). This was the reason to promote the Priorat"s Producer Association (PPA) in order to build a commercial structure to gain high value markets, similar to those used by high quality wines of this area. PPA proposed in 2002 an agreement with IRTA and the Agricultural Services from the Catalan Government with the aim to develop a scientific and technical program to characterize and differentiate virgin oils from Priorat and setting objective criteria to select high quality oils different from others "Arbequina". This ought to improve current commercialization. This thesis includes all scientific aspects supporting the commercial application of the program. Research goals were: (1) to characterize oils from Priorat using physic, chemical and sensorial parameters; (2) to assess if these oils can be differentiated from others produced with the same cultivar "Arbequina" in other regions; (3) to test their "typicality", related to Priorats" climate and soil characteristics; and (4) to characterize olive production and mill technology in Priorat. The study was carried out during a six years period (2002-03 to 2008-09 harvests) with systematic analysis of almost 100% virgin oil produced in the area (6.308.124 liters). Olive crop production was studied using a questioner, while mill technology was assessed by registering processing conditions along harvest every year. The relationship between oil quality and climate, soils and cultural practices was studied. Chemical parameters analyzed were: sensory profile, physic and chemical quality parameters, fatty acids, sterols, total polyphenols, bitterness index, stability and, sometimes, waxes and volatiles. Methodology was similar to that applied in many scientific studies on virgin oil characterization in wide areas, usually linked to PDO in Spain and Italy. Results reliability depends on oil sampling representativeness. Both univariate and multivariate statistics were used. Results show that up to 54% of Priorat virgin oils made with "Arbequina" can be classified to be typical and different from other producing regions, even the neighboring areas of Garrigues and Siurana-Camp. Such differences are both sensorial (mainly pungency, secondary aromas, fruity, astringency and sweet) and chemical (fatty acids palmitoleic, oleic, pamitic, and stearic). Variability between Priorat areas, is lower than 20% (except for sterols) and seems to be random for sensory profile while is related to geography, cultural practices and climate, for chemical composition. Differences to other regions with the same cultivar are related to the Priorat"s geography and geology (more than 50% orchards are placed higher than 400 m and over soils from Paleozoic with low fertility with transitions to quaternary sedimentary soils towards Camp of Tarragona and transitions to tertiary sedimentary soils towards Garrigues) and climate (Priorat"s climate belongs to "south pre-littoral Mediterranean" with transitions to "dry continental Mediterranean" towards Garrigues and transitions to "south littoral Mediterranean" towards Camp of Tarragona). A mathematic model was fitted which makes possible to decide if an olive lot is able to produce virgin oil of enough quality to be classified as typical of Priorat. Fischers" discriminate functions were fitted that make possible to decide if a virgin oil sample has a fatty acid composition or a sensory profile characteristics from Priorat and different to other regions. Currently, these results are used to establish commercial strategies to sell Priorat virgin oils. The oil producers from this area select those more characteristics oils to be retailed (this increased from 20% at the beginning of the program to currently 65%) while the standard oils are used to self consumption or for bulk market.

Universidad Nacional Agraria La Molina. Escuela de Posgrado. Maestría en Innovación Agraria para el Desarrollo Rural ; La escasez hídrica en el Perú se encuentra entre uno de los problemas más graves para el desarrollo humano (ENAHO, 2013). Factores como la poca disponibilidad de agua por ecorregiones, la distribución de la población en el territorio nacional, los efectos climáticos y las políticas nacionales para gestionar éste recurso, también influyen en la escasez. Lima, la ciudad más poblado del país, con aproximadamente 9 millones de habitantes (9'904,727, según el INEI, del 15 de enero 2016), está ubicada en una franja desértica. Cerca de Lima —a aproximadamente 4 horas— se encuentra la Comunidad Campesina de San Andrés de Tupicocha. Habitan poco más de 1400 personas (INEI, 2007). Su territorio oscila entre varios pisos altitudinales, desde los 500 hasta los 4800 msnm (Sifuentes de la Cruz, 1997). Se sitúa en una de las regiones de mayor escasez de agua en la serranía peruana (García, 2011). Esta tesis presenta un estudio sobre cambios percibidos en los medios de vida de la población de Tupicocha; estos cambios, según lo observado, tienen un punto de inicio con la llegada de innovaciones hídricas. Se encontró la coexistencia de múltiples sistemas de riego: sistemas meramente dedicados a recibir agua de lluvia, sistemas vinculados a represas manejadas por la comunidad campesina y sistemas por goteo, que fueron considerados como los sistemas de riego más avanzados. Debido esta multiplicidad, se eligieron solo a tres sistemas por su cercanía con las familias con quienes se trabajaron: a) el sistema de amunas; b) el sistema de manantiales familiares y c) el sistema represas comunales1. Históricamente, el sistema de las amunas, por ser un sistema prehispánico, es el más antiguo de los tres; le sigue el sistema de manantiales familiares; y, en último lugar, el sistema más reciente es el de las represas comunales. En tanto sus infraestructuras, los tres sistemas no necesariamente comparten materiales usados: por ejemplo, cuando se observa que el sistema de represas comunales y manantiales familiares, están comenzando a importar materiales que frenan la pérdida del agua. Es la comunidad campesina la que organiza el uso de dos de los tres sistemas; el único sistema que no se gestiona por esta entidad, es el de los manantiales familiares, quienes tienen un comité formado del grupo de familias que construyeron su infraestructura. De los tres sistemas, el único que se asocia con festividades y rituales, es el sistema de amunas: la fiesta de la champería se organiza ritualmente (todos los años) para poder limpiar la infraestructura de las amunas de la champa (malezas) que crecen en ella, e impiden su funcionamiento correcto2. Las innovaciones hídricas han generado cambios en las actividades agrícolas y pecuarias en la zona. El incremento del uso de agua para riego ha significado, a su vez, cambios en los productos agropecuarios, en cómo producirlos y hacia dónde se dirigen. Hoy en día, estos productos son destinados a los mercados en Lima (recordemos que Tupicocha está a 4 horas de Lima). Otros cambios ocurrieron: disminución en el uso de terrenos dedicados a las actividades pecuarias; menos familias se dedican a criar ganado en Tupicocha; la ganadería es destinada a los mercados de Lima; el tipo de ganado que las familias ahora crían son, sobretodo, cuyes (el alfalfa – producto más sembrado en el distrito según el último censo – es el alimento estrella de estos animales). La teoría de capitales comunales (Emery y Flora, 2006), permite observar la asociación de otros cambios con la llegada de las innovaciones hídricas suscitadas: Capital construido: Construcción del canal de Willcapampa se consideró como uno de los hitos más importantes, hechas por la comunidad, en aras de conseguir agua para el riego. Capital natural: Se dio un cambio en los materiales de construcción de la infraestructura de los sistemas de riego ha sido un proceso clave. Significó una nueva forma de relacionarse con el agua para riego, donde los sistemas que filtraban el agua —como en el caso de las amunas—, están siendo olvidados; en su reemplazo, sistemas que trasladan eficientemente el agua de un punto hacia otro, sin que se filtre, están tomando su lugar. Capital social: Se manifestaron cambios en tanto que nuevos actores en la zona (como la municipalidad o la gobernación) surgen como entidades que contestan a la comunidad campesina, pero a su vez con quienes se organizan trabajos comunales para beneficio de la población. No está demás considerar un estudio a futuro sobre tensiones interinstitucionales en dicho distrito-comunidad. Otros capitales, como el capital humano, permitió observar el descuido de la educación de hijos para favorecer la construcción del canal de Willcapampa o cambios en la alimentación de familias; capital financiero, con el incremento en el acceso a dinero en efectivo o motivos para llevar a cabo una cosecha; capital político, en tanto se percibieron cambios en el relacionamiento de instituciones políticas locales; y cambios en capital cultural, en donde la existencia de prácticas festivas y rituales, asociadas al agua, se comienzan a desprender del quehacer de sistemas de riego, como el de las amunas. La teoría de Escalamiento (o Spiraling-up), que también mencionan Emery & Flora (2006), supone que las innovaciones y los cambios suscitados, mejorarían de forma escalonada todos los capitales comunales. Sin embargo, y por lo recogido en campo, esto no es del todo cierto. Varias personas manifestaron el beneficio de ciertos cambios, pero no de otros. Un ejemplo se dio con la alimentación: familias en Tupicocha anteriormente producían para alimentarse; pocos eran los productos que compraban para comer. Sin embargo, hoy en día, buena parte de los alimentos consumidos por familias en la comunidad, se obtiene de las tiendas residentes en esta localidad. Ahora se consumen productos que antes no formaban parte de la canasta básica familiar (como son los fideos, las galletas, la leche en tarro, entre otros). Ha llegado al punto, según un entrevistado, que ahora se compran productos que anteriormente se cosechaban. Se llega a una conclusión descriptiva, donde existió para las familias visitadas en Tupicocha, una serie de cambios que se suscitaron con la llegada (construcción) de nueva infraestructura hídrica, asociada a las represas comunales. Esto, a su vez, puede enfocarse desde la interculturalidad, donde los tres sistemas de riego se asocian con mundos culturalmente distintos: significa que las lógicas de cada sistema se diferencian, lo que implica maneras distintas de cómo usar y pensar el agua. Las nuevas lógicas de los sistemas de riego más novedosos llegaron con cambios que han afectado los medios y modos de vida de pobladores en San Andrés de Tupicocha, analizándolos como capitales comunales, donde cada capital puede tener relación con algún otro. No necesariamente la mejora en uno de estos capitales significaría la mejora en los demás. ; Water scarcity in Peru is among one of the most serious problems for human development (ENAHO, 2013). Factors such as the limited availability of water within ecological regions, the distribution of the population in the national territory, climatic effects and national policies on managing resources, also influence its scarcity. Lima, the most populated city in the country, with approximately 9 million inhabitants (9,904,727, according to the INEI, of January 15, 2016), is located in a desert strip. Near Lima —approximately 4 hours away— is the Campesino Community of San Andrés de Tupicocha. There are a little more than 1400 people (INEI, 2007). Its territory oscillates between several altitudinal floors, from 500 to 4800 meters above sea level (Sifuentes de la Cruz, 1997). It is located in one of the regions with the greatest water scarcity in the Peruvian highlands (García, 2011). This thesis presents a study on perceived changes in livelihoods from the population of Tupicocha; these changes, as observed, have a starting point with the arrival of water innovations. During the study, a coexistence of multiple irrigation systems was found: systems exclusively dedicated to receiving rainwater, systems linked to dams managed by the peasant community and drip systems, which were considered the most advanced. Due to this multiplicity, only three systems were chosen because of their closeness to the families with whom this study was made: a) the amunas system; b) the system of family springs and c) the system of communal dams. Historically, the amunas system, being a pre-Hispanic system, is the oldest of the three; it is followed by the system of family springs; and, lastly, the most recent system is that of communal dams. With respects to their infrastructure, the three systems do not necessarily use similar materials: for example, it was observed that the system of communal dams and family springs are now beginning to import materials that stop or reduce the loss of water. It is the comunidad campesina that organizes the use of two of the three systems; the only system that is not managed by this entity is the family springs, which have committees formed by the family groups that build their infrastructure. Of the three systems, the only one that is associated with festivities and rituals is the amunas system: the champería festivity is organized ritually (once a year); this festivity aims at cleaning the amunas infrastructure from champa (weeds) that grow in it and prevent its proper functioning. Water innovations have generated changes in agricultural and livestock activities in the area. The increase of water for irrigation has meant, in turn, changes in agricultural products, in how to produce them and where they are given. Nowadays, these products are destined to markets in Lima (remember that Tupicocha is 4 hours away from Lima). Other changes that occurred were: decrease in the use of land dedicated to livestock activities; fewer families dedicated to raising cattle in Tupicocha; livestock is destined to the markets of Lima; and the type of cattle that the families now breed are, above all, guinea pigs (the alfalfa - the most sown product in the district, according to the last census - is the star food source for these animals). The theory of communal capitals (Emery and Flora, 2006), analyzes the association of other changes with the arrival of these water innovations. Capital built: Construction of the Willcapampa canal was considered one of the most important landmarks, made by the community, in order to get water for irrigation. Natural capital: There was a change in the construction materials used for the irrigation systems infrastructure. It meant a new way of relating to water for irrigation, where systems that filtered water -as in the case of amunas- are being forgotten; in its replacement, systems that efficiently transfer water from one point to another, without filtering, are taking their place. Social capital: Changes were manifested as new actors in the area (such as the municipality or the government) emerge as entities that contest the comunidad campesina; but, in turn, organize communal work for the benefit of the population with this contested institution. It is worth considering a future study on inter-institutional tensions in said district-community. Other capitals, such as human capital, allowed observing the neglected situtation of childerns education, favoring the construction of the Willcapampa canal or changes in the feeding of families. With respects to financial capital, there was an increase in access to cash or reasons to carry out a harvest. On political capital, changes were perceived in the relationship of local political institutions; and changes in cultural capital, where the existence of festivities and ritual practices, associated with water, begin to detach from the task of irrigation systems, like the amunas example. The Spiraling-up theory, which is also mentioned by Emery & Flora (2006), assumes that the innovations and changes that have arisen would progressively improve all the communal capitals. However, field data collected tend to show this is not entirely true. Several people expressed the benefit of certain changes, but not others. An example was given with food: families in Tupicocha previously produced to feed themselves; few were the products that they bought to eat. However, nowadays, a good part of the food consumed by families in the community is obtained from the stores that reside in this locality. Families now consume products that were not previously part of the basic family basket (such as noodles, cookies, milk in a jar, among others). According to one interviewee, they are now buying products that were previously harvested. We arrive at a descriptive conclusion, where there was a series of changes for the families visited in Tupicocha; these changes came with the arrival (construction) of new water infrastructure, associated with the communal dams. This, in turn, can be approached from an intercultural perspective, where the three irrigation systems are associated with culturally different worlds: it means that the logics of each system are differentiated, which implies different ways of using and thinking about water. The new logics of the most innovative irrigation systems came with changes that have affected the means and ways of life of residents in San Andrés de Tupicocha, analyzing them as communal capitals, where each capital can be related to another. The improvement in one of these capitals would not necessarily mean the improvement of the others. ; Tesis

This thesis is entitled "Essays on Public Debt, Growth and Development in Africa" and consists of a set of four essays, three of which are empirical. The first essay provides a literature survey on public debt and economic growth, specially focused on Africa. Since the beginning of the 1990s, public debt has been a real barrier to the economic growth of African economies and has since become part of the agenda and concern of policy makers, economists and researchers. A considerable number of theoretical and empirical studies have been produced over decades, addressing the impact of public debt on the economic growth of these countries. The results are consensual and point generally to an inverse relationship between the two variables i.e. public debt negatively affects economic growth from a given level. Krugman (1988) and Sachs (1989) agree that high levels of public debt mitigate the economic growth of developing countries through investment. This position is further corroborated by Mbale (2013) who referring to African countries argues that public debt crowds out credit to the private sector and constitutes a barrier to capital accumulation and private sector growth. Buchanan (1958) and Modigliani (1961) also share the view that in addition to the crowding out effect, the increase in public debt positively affects the long-term interest rate. Generally, the increase in public debt negatively affects economic growth. Fosu (1996) Irons and Bivens (2010) are decisive in concluding that high debt levels jeopardize economic growth, a position shared by Ezeabasili et al (2011), Escobar and Mallick (2013) and Zouhaier and Fatma (2014). Regarding the impact of fiscal policy on the economic growth of African countries, Devarajan et al. (1996) consider, after empirical analysis, that an increase in public spending has a positive and significant impact on economic growth. Nurudeen and Usman (2010) argue that an increase in public spending is not immediately converted into economic growth, whereas Nworji et al. (2012) show that current and capital expenditures do not have a significant negative impact on Nigeria's economic growth. This view is supported by Engen and Skinner (1997) who concluded that public expenditure and the tax burden negatively and sharply affect economic growth. Babadola and Aminu (2011) provide complementary evidence and recommend that increased public spending on health and education should promote growth. The survey also highlights the inverse relationship between economic growth and government debt, compounded by the problem of debt overhang, preventing these countries from leveraging their economies. Additionally, the literature on the relationship between public deficits and economic growth is also not consensual. In fact, although the economic theory postulates that fiscal deficit contributes inevitably to debt accumulation, which through debt overhang affects negatively economic growth, there are other strings of economic thoughts that advocate that African countries would not reach economic growth without increasing debt. The second essay is empirical and analyzes the implications of public debt on economic growth and inflation in a group of 52 African economies between 1950 and 2012. The overall analysis was focused on the relationship between the limits of public debt as a percentage of the GDP, economic growth, and inflation. African economies achieve their highest performance in terms of average rates of economic growth (6.39%), while the limits of public debt as a percentage of the GDP are in the second intervals (30 - 60%) with an average inflation rate of 8.17%. From this limit, any increase in public debt is converted into a reduction of the average growth rates of economies and into an increase in average inflation rates. The findings show, unequivocally, that there is an inverse relationship between these two macroeconomic variables, depending on the levels of indebtedness. Briefly, the analysis concludes that the highest average growth rates are achieved when the public debt is in the second interval. When this ratio is situated in the third interval the average rates of economic growth suffer a drop of 1.32 percentage points and 1.64 percentage points when this ratio exceeds 90%. These results are much lower than those found by Reinhart and Rogoff in the essay "Growth in Time of Debt", for which an amount of debt equivalent to 60% of GDP causes a drop in the annual growth rate of around 2 percentage points. The third essay empirically assesses the traditional determinants of economic growth in African economies over the period 1950 to 2012, using growth regression techniques in which the explanatory variables are: public debt per capita, investment ratio, government ratio, capital stock per capita, and the Human Capital Index. The method used takes into account observed and unobserved heterogeneity. The regression results show strong evidence of a positive impact of the growth rate of capital stock to economic growth of African countries. The growth rate of the government to GDP ratio is also important in all but one of the regressions in which appears, and its growth is harmful for economic growth. Human capital has a positive relationship with economic growth in regressions that don't include public debt. However, the cross country impact of these two variables on the growth rate of the economies (positive to some and negative to others) is not uniform, so that appropriate policies for one country may be seriously misguided in another. Concerning public debt, we found that it is not significant and therefore it has no impact on the economic growth of African countries. The growth rate of real GDP per capita also depends (negatively) on its past value, i.e., the lower the real GDP per capita the higher will be its growth rate. We have also tested two proxies for institutions, which did not deliver significant results. The software used for the regressions is STATA, version 13. The fourth essay is devoted to an exploratory analysis of the main economic, social and institutional determinants of development in Africa, using a main component analysis for categorical data and cluster analysis and taking into account the years 1996 and 2014 as the oldest and most recent, respectively. This methodology allowed the agglomeration of the African countries into four differentiated clusters, being the countries constituting the clusters of 1996 distinct from those of the year 2014. The results point out to a positive association between the social, economic and institutional determinants of development which is reflected in the fact that countries with better institutional performances also show better indicators of economic and social achievement. The results also draw the attention of policy makers and development strategists to the need for an integrated approach to the development process, in order to achieve greater and more efficient integration of the different development determinants. The software used is IBM-SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), version 23.0. ; Esta tese intitula-se "Essays on Public Debt, Economic Growth and Development in Africa" e é constituída por um conjunto de quatro ensaios, sendo três de natureza empírica. O primeiro ensaio ocupa-se da revisão da literatura sobre a dívida pública e o crescimento económico no contexto das economias africanas. A dívida pública constitui desde os princípios dos anos noventa do século passado uma verdadeira barreira para o crescimento económico das economias africanas e desde então passou a fazer parte da agenda e da preocupação dos decisores políticos, dos economistas e de uma massa crítica de investigadores cada vez mais interessada. Um manancial de estudos teóricos e empíricos foi produzido ao longo dessas décadas abordando o impacto da dívida pública no crescimento económico desses países. Os resultados são consensuais e apontam, genericamente, para uma relação inversa entre as duas variáveis ou seja a dívida pública afeta negativamente o crescimento económico a partir de um determinado nível. Krugman (1988) e Sachs (1989) concordam que níveis elevados da dívida pública hipotecam o crescimento económico dos países em vias de desenvolvimento por via do investimento. Esta posição é ainda corroborada por Mbale (2013) que referindo aos países africanos defende que a dívida pública crowds out o crédito destinado ao sector privado e impede a acumulação do capital e o crescimento do sector privado. Buchanan (1958) e Modigliani (1961) também partilham a opinião de que para além do efeito crowding out, o aumento da dívida pública influencia diretamente o aumento da taxa de juros a longo prazo. Em suma, o aumento da dívida pública afeta negativamente o crescimento económico. Fosu (1996) Irons e Bivens (2010) são decisivos em concluir que níveis elevados de dívida comprometem o crescimento económico, posição partilhada também por Ezeabasili et al (2011), Escobar and Mallick (2013) e Zouhaier e Fatma (2014). Relativamente ao impacto da política fiscal no crescimento económico dos países africanos, Devarajan et al (1996) consideram, após análises empíricas, que um aumento das despesas públicas tem um impacto positivo e significante no crescimento económico. Nurudeen e Usman (2010) argumentam que um incremento das despesas públicas não é imediatamente convertido em crescimento económico, enquanto Nworji et al. (2012) mostram que as despesas correntes e de capital não têm significativo impacto negativo no crescimento económico da Nigéria. Opinião díspar é defendida por Engen and Skinner (1997) que concluíram que as despesas públicas e a carga fiscal afetam negativamente e de forma acutilante o crescimento económico. Babadola e Aminu (2011) trazem evidências complementares e recomendam que o aumento das despesas públicas na saúde e educação promovem o crescimento. O segundo ensaio faz uma análise empírica sobre os limites do endividamento público, o crescimento económico e a inflação nas economias africanas, partindo de uma base de dados que cobre o período entre 1950 e 2012, envolvendo um conjunto de 52 economias, dividido em três áreas geográficas, designadamente: (1) Africa do Norte, (2) Africa Sub-Sahariana e (3) Comunidade para o Desenvolvimento da Africa Austral (SADC). O estudo conclui que, para o conjunto das economias africanas, as melhores performances em termos de taxas médias de crescimento económico (6,39%) são alcançadas quando os limites da dívida pública em percentagem do PIB se encontram entre os 30-60% do PIB e a taxa média de inflação for igual a 8.17%. Qualquer incremento da dívida pública a partir deste limite, provoca uma redução das taxas de crescimento médio das economias e um aumento das taxas médias de inflação. O ensaio traz-nos ainda uma evidência inequívoca de que existe uma relação inversa entre o crescimento económico e a inflação, em função dos níveis de endividamento. A principal conclusão do ensaio é a de que maiores taxas de crescimento médio das economias são alcançadas quando a dívida pública se encontra entre os 30 e os 60% do PIB. Se este rácio aumentar e se enquadrar entre os 60 e os 90% do PIB, as taxas médias de crescimento económico caem 1,32 pontos percentuais e 1,64 pontos percentuais quando excede os 90% do PIB. Trata-se, efetivamente, de valores inferiores aos obtidos por Reinhart e Rogoff no ensaio "Growth in Time of Debt" em que a dívida pública equivalente a 60% do PIB provoca uma queda do crescimento económico em cerca de 2 pontos percentuais e uma redução até 50% para valores da dívida pública superiores a 90% do PIB. Nota-se ainda que, no que diz respeito à taxa de inflação os resultados obtidos são idênticos aos de Reinhart e Rogoff ".nas economias emergentes, níveis elevados da dívida coincidem com elevadas taxas de inflação" (Reinhart and Rogoff, 2010). Um artigo resultante deste ensaio foi publicado no South African Journal of Economics, uma revista científica internacional pertencente ao Journal Citations Report e ao ranking do CEFAGE. O terceiro ensaio, intitulado "Explaining Growth in African Countries – What Matters?", analisa a relação entre dívida pública, stock de capital, consumo público em percentagem do PIB, Formação Bruta do Capital Fixo (BCF) em percentagem do PIB e o Índice do Capital Humano enquanto determinantes do crescimento e o próprio crescimento económico em 52 economias africanas entre 1950 e 2012. Tratando-se de um conjunto preciso de países e, por conseguinte, de uma regressão limitada, utilizou-se um modelo de painel de efeito fixo. Os coeficientes heterogéneos foram estimados utilizando o Modelo de Correção de Erros, de forma a envolver as propriedades das séries temporais e a própria dinâmica dos dados em painel. O software utilizado para as regressões é o STATA versão 13. O ensaio traz sólidas evidências, em todas as regressões efetuadas, de que a taxa de crescimento do stock de capital afeta positivamente o crescimento económico dos países africanos. Por outro lado, o capital humano manifesta uma relação positiva com o crescimento económico nas regressões que não incluem a dívida pública. No que se refere à dívida pública, o ensaio mostra que o seu impacto no crescimento económico dos países africanos não é significante. Testamos ainda duas proxies para as instituições mas os resultados não foram significativos. O quarto ensaio dedica-se à análise exploratória dos principais determinantes económicos, sociais e institucionais de desenvolvimento em Africa, utilizando uma análise de componentes principais para dados categóricos e análise de clusters e tendo em conta os anos de 1996 e 2014 como ano mais antigo e mais recente, respetivamente. Esta metodologia permitiu a aglomeração dos países africanos em quatro clusters diferenciados, sendo os países constituintes dos clusters de 1996 distintos dos do ano 2014. Os dados foram tratados com recurso ao software estatístico IBM-SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences), versão 23.0. Os resultados do ensaio apontam para uma associação positiva entre os determinantes sociais, económicos e institucionais do desenvolvimento. Esta associação traduz-se no facto de que os países com melhores performances institucionais manifestam também melhores indicadores de realização económica e social. Os resultados chamam também a atenção dos decisores políticos e dos estrategas de desenvolvimento para a necessidade de uma abordagem integrada do processo de desenvolvimento, visando uma maior e mais eficiente integração dos diferentes determinantes do desenvolvimento. A tese está organizada em capítulos que constituíram a base para artigos científicos submetidos a revistas internacionais, dai que embora relacionados entre si nos temas abordados e tendo como fio condutor um contributo para o desenvolvimento da economias dos países de Africa, cada capitulo é autocontido, tendo também o autor optado por incluir listas bibliográficas em cada um dos capítulos.

[spa] La importancia de la Historia de la Arqueología radica en su capacidad para dar respuesta a la primera pregunta que nos debemos plantear como arqueólogos, ¿cómo hemos llegado a ser lo que somos? (Murray 2002, en Ruíz Zapatero 2017b). Para conocer este pasado es indispensable llevar a cabo su estudio, el cual se puede afrontar desde diversas perspectivas. Aquí nos centraremos en analizar las relaciones internacionales dentro de la Historia de la Arqueología, como parte del mecanismo para comprender nuestro pasado en una época donde las fronteras entre países dibujan tanto los tratos personales como académicos, en especial las relaciones entre arqueólogos españoles e italianos del siglo XX (Díaz-Andreu García 2016; Gracia Alonso 2010; Gracia Alonso 2012a), dado el desconocimiento que existe sobre este tema, en contraposición con los trabajos sobre las relaciones con alemanes, franceses y también en menor medida con los ingleses. La presente Tesis se propone profundizar en el conocimiento del impacto que las relaciones entre investigadores tuvieron en la Arqueología española del siglo XX. Con ello se intenta romper varios tópicos firmemente establecidos en la Historia de la Arqueología española, como que los profesionales españoles son receptores pasivos de las novedades que provienen de otros países y que, sobre todo en lo que se refiere a la dilatada etapa franquista, el aislamiento internacional de los expertos es prácticamente total. Dentro de este contexto, se han analizado específicamente las relaciones entre la arqueología española e italiana desde principios del siglo XX a 1975, estableciéndose este año como fecha límite del estudio. En nuestro examen hemos dividido el periodo estudiado en dos: antes y después de la Guerra Civil. Para alcanzar estos objetivos generales se han investigado a través de objetivos más específicos cuales fueron primer lugar las instituciones españolas que se encargaron de propiciar directa o indirectamente las estancias de arqueólogos españoles en territorio italiano. Como resultado, se han documentado multitud de ayudas económicas de carácter personal de dos instituciones, la Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios y el Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. Con esta documentación se han pretendido establecer cuales fueron relaciones personales entre la arqueología española e italiana a lo largo de los dos periodos anteriormente descritos, así como formarnos una ida más precisa de la influencia que supusieron estos contactos en la arqueología española posterior. Para completar estos objetivos específicos, se ha realizado un estudio de las publicaciones españolas contemporáneas con un marcado carácter arqueológico, que permite refutar esta influencia a través de las referencias bibliográficas utilizadas en los artículos que contienen. También hemos tenido en cuenta el convulso contexto político del siglo XX como elemento influyente en todo el proceso. Con estas premisas hemos desarrollado varias hipótesis en función a los objetivos planteados, esbozando un escenario en el que, pese al desarrollo de instituciones acorde con las necesidades de mantener investigadores en el extranjero, Italia no fue un centro de recepción primordial para la arqueología de principios del siglo XX frente a Francia y Alemania, acrecentado por la situación de aislamiento político y académico durante el franquismo. Estas hipótesis generales se complementan con otras más específicas, fundamentadas en la difícil situación económica de los periodos entre guerras para la inversión en estancias en el extranjero, y la imprecisión de lo que se entiende por la labor arqueológica. Esto lleva a plantear que quizá nuestro conocimiento sobre los viajes de arqueólogos españoles a Italia se haya visto disminuido, a lo que en realidad fueron viajes más prolíficos, y cuya influencia posterior en España, considerada exigua a principios del siglo XX, se desarrolló con mayor fluidez a partir de los años cincuenta. Como método de trabajo se han realizado vaciados en diferentes archivos y bibliotecas nacionales, y en algún caso muy puntual se ha acudido a la historia oral. A partir sobre todo de la documentación obtenida en archivos y bibliotecas se han podido obtener los datos de los sujetos susceptibles de ser incorporados a este estudio. Conjuntamente, se ha llevado a cabo un análisis bibliométrico de varias de las revistas más importantes sobre arqueología publicadas durante el periodo establecido, recogiendo así toda la información relevante para nuestro trabajo. Además, se ha vaciado la información encontrada en publicaciones tanto coetáneas a los hechos como posteriores. Se ha dividido este estudio en dos grandes etapas temporales, abarcando la primera desde principios del siglo XX hasta la Guerra Civil, y la segunda desde ese último momento hasta el final del periodo franquista. Con todo ello, se ha realizado un análisis de las estancias de españoles en Italia, tanto por la colaboración en exposiciones como por viajes de estudio o de trabajo. También se ha examinado la importancia de las instituciones nacionales para el desempeño de estas acciones, y el reflejo de sus actuaciones en la difusión de los conocimientos adquiridos a través de las publicaciones españolas en las que participaron. Los resultados obtenidos nos han permitido demostrar cómo las relaciones personales entre los académicos internacionales repercutieron directamente en el desarrollo de la actividad arqueológica española, asegurar que esta no estuvo completamente cerrada a las influencias extranjeras, y observar una evolución en los contactos establecidos a lo largo del marco cronológico estudiado. Durante la primera etapa entre principios del siglo XX y la Guerra Civil, las pensiones (denominación que reciben las ayudas económicas en este periodo) fueron concedidas a un mayor número de investigadores españoles, que, finalmente, realizaron algún tipo de actividad arqueológica. Aunque la Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología en Roma se funda en 1910 como centro de recepción para estos pensionados, no será el epicentro de las relaciones entre arqueólogos españoles e italianos, siendo más característicos los viajes itinerantes por la península itálica y cuya influencia inmediata ha sido menos señalada, aunque asienta las bases de los contactos de la etapa siguiente, mucho más evidentes y fructíferos. Durante el segundo periodo y una vez pasados los primeros años de postguerra, la Escuela reabre sus puertas en 1947, comenzando en la década de los cincuenta su edad dorada, hasta los años setenta. Esta se ve acompañada por un mayor número de estancias en Italia, sobre todo de larga duración, gracias a los acuerdos para excavar la Grotta dei Pipistrelli (Finale), la Grotta del´Olivo (Toirano) en 1954 y 1955 respectivamente, y fundamentalmente Gabii, entre 1956 y 1969. Esto permite establecer contactos más profundos y dilatados en el tiempo, siendo el máximo exponente de las relaciones entre ambos países la contraída por Martín Almagro Basch y Luis Pericot García con el arqueólogo italiano Nino Lamboglia, presente en la bibliografía española de forma destacada como se demuestra tanto en el análisis de las revistas, como en la correspondencia personal, y la documentación administrativa. A pesar de esta nota positiva, en comparación con las relaciones establecidas para la misma época con arqueólogos alemanes y franceses, las relaciones italo-españolas todavía siguen siendo menores quizá incluso con británicos. ; [eng] The importance of the History of Archaeology lies in the capacity to respond to the first question we should consider as archaeologists: how have we become what we are?. It is essential to study this past, and this research could be faced from different perspectives. Here we will focus on analysing the international relations inside the History of Archaeology, as part of the mechanism to understand our past in a period where borders between countries portray the personal and academic relations of scholars. In particular, the relationships between Spanish and Italian archaeologists of the 20th century will be examined due to the ignorance existing around this topic, compared to the studies about the relations with Germans scholars, and also, to a lesser extent, with British academics. The purpose of this thesis is to take a closer look at the impact that the relationships between researchers had in the Spanish Archaeology of the 20th century. With this, we have tried to break away from the clichés which were solidly established in the History of Spanish Archaeology, such as, the general belief that Spanish professionals were passive receptors of the newness that came from other countries, and the idea that, particularly during the Francoist period, the international isolation of the experts was practically total. Within this context, it has been specifically analysed the relations between Italian and Spanish archaeology from the beginnings of the 20th century to 1975, establishing this year as the closing date of the study. In our examination we have divided the period studied in two parts: before and after the Civil War. To accomplish these general objectives, our investigations started studying the Spanish institutions that were in charge, directly or indirectly, of the stays of Spanish archaeologists in Italian territory. As a result, we have documented a multitude of economic aids from two institutions: "Junta para la Ampliación de Estudios" and "Centro Superior de Investigaciones Científicas". Thanks to this information, it was possible to establish the personal relations between Italian and Spanish archaeology during the two periods described above, as well as confirming the influence that these interactions meant in the later Spanish archaeology. To achieve these specific goals, we have conducted a study of the contemporary Spanish publications related to archaeology, which refute this influence through the bibliographic references used in these articles. In addition, it was taken into consideration the rough political context of the 20th century as an influential element in all the process. Under this premiss, several hypotheses were developed in function of the objectives planned, setting a scenario where, despite the fact that the development of institutions in compliance to the necessity of keeping researchers in foreign countries, Italy was not the essential centre of receptions for the Archaeology in the beginning of the 20th century, in opposition to France and Germany, increased by the situation of academic and politic isolation during the Francoist period. These general hypotheses are completed by others more specific, based on the difficult economic situation of the periods between wars for the investment in foreign stays, and the inaccuracy of what is known as "archaeological labour". This can lead us to think that the knowledge about Spanish archaeological trips to Italy could have been misvalued, being in fact very productive journeys, of which later influence in Spain, considered exiguous in the start of the 20th century, developed with more fluency after the 1950s Furthermore, as a work method, different national archives and libraries have been exhaustively inspected, including some oral history resources. Jointly, a bibliometric analysis of several archaeological journals published during this period was taken, collecting all the relevant information for our work. In addition, the information found in coetaneous publications and later ones was also investigated. The study has been divided in two big temporal periods, first covering from the beginning of the 20th century until the Civil War, and the second from this last event up to the end of the Francoist period. Due to these facts, it was possible to conduct an analysis of Spanish scholars' stays in Italy, for their collaboration in exhibitions as well as for study and work trips. Also, the importance of the national institutions for the performance of these actions, and the observation of their intervention in the diffusion of the achieved knowledge throughout Spanish publications in which they took part in, were examined. Consequently, the results retrieved allow us to demonstrate how personal relationships among international scholars directly influenced the development of Spanish archaeological activities, which were not completely closed to foreign influences, and discover the evolution of these contacts over the timeline studied. Moreover, between the beginning of the 20th century and the Civil War, the "pensiones" (name given to the economic aids in this period) were granted to a larger number of Spanish researchers, that finally, carried out some type of archaeological activity. Despite the foundation in Rome of "Escuela Española de Historia y Arqueología" in 1910 as a centre of reception for all these pensioners, it would not become the epicentre of the relations among Italian and Spanish archaeologists but set up the basis of the contacts for the next period, that were much more prolific and obvious. The itinerant journeys around the Italian Peninsula were more characteristic during this first part, but its immediate influence was less emphasized. During the second period and the beginning of postwar, the "Escuela" reopened in 1947, beginning its golden era until the 1970s. The stays in Italy increased, especially long-term stays, thanks to the agreements to excavate Grotta dei Pipistrelli (Finale), Grotta del´Olivo (Toirano) in 1954 and 1955 respectively, and Gabii, between 1956 and 1969. These agreements allowed to establish strong and long contacts, being the most important of these connections the relationships between Martín Almagro Basch and Luis Pericot García with the Italian archaeologist Nino Lamboglia, who are strongly present in the Spanish literature, personal correspondence and administrative documents. However, even though Spanish-Italian relationships were very productive and prolific, the relations between Spanish researchers and German, French and British academics were more intense.

Dottorato di ricerca in Storia e cultura del viaggio e dell'odeporica nell'età moderna ; La famiglia Volkonskij appartiene a un ramo tra i più antichi della nobiltà russa. I suoi membri si distinsero per spirito di abnegazione e coraggio sia che fossero al servizio della zar, come Nikita Grigor'evič o Petr Michajlovič, sia che ne contestassero apertamente le politiche come il giovane Sergej Grigor'evič, che prese parte alla rivolta decabrista del 1825. Anche le rappresentanti femminili annoverano personaggi di spicco, su tutte Marija Nikolaevna Raevskaja, moglie di Sergej, che decise coraggiosamente di seguire il marito nel lungo e difficile esilio siberiano al quale era stato condannato. Un altro membro che fece onore al prestigio di questa famiglia, divenendo celebre tanto in Russia quanto in Europa fu Zinaida Aleksandrovna Belosel'skaja-Belozerskaja, moglie di Nikita. Il suo nome rimbalza praticamente in ogni memoria dei personaggi a lei contemporanei sparsi per tutto il continente europeo. Zinaida era la figlia del raffinato principe Belosel'skij-Belozerskij, ambasciatore di Caterina II prima a Dresda e poi a Torino, che aveva affascinato i suoi contemporanei distinguendosi per i suoi principi, le idee illuministe e l'enorme cultura nel segno della quale aveva cresciuto la sua incantevole figlia. Zinaida era la degna erede di suo padre: dopo aver trascorso l'infanzia tra Dresda e Torino, si era trasferita molto giovane a San Pietroburgo e qui era presto entrata a palazzo in qualità di dama di compagnia dell'imperatrice vedova attirando le attenzioni dello zar Alessandro I. Dopo aver fatto parte del seguito imperiale durante la marcia trionfale in seguito alla vittoria nella guerra patriottica del 1812, la Volkonskaja partecipò al Congresso di Vienna, a quello di Verona, affascinò la corte austriaca, quella francese, inglese e papale, stringendo rapporti profondi e stimolanti con gli uomini più influenti del suo tempo, fossero essi politici, intellettuali o artisti. In Russia il suo nome divenne celebre grazie al suo salotto sulla via Tverskaja, nel palazzo che attualmente ospita i magazzini Eliseev. A Roma era universalmente nota non solo per risiedere in una delle ville più belle della città, divenuta oggi residenza dell'Ambasciatore inglese in Italia, ma soprattutto per il suo generoso mecenatismo volto a sostenere la colonia degli artisti russi e, negli ultimi anni della sua vita, come fervente cattolica convertita. Gli ospiti dei suoi salotti erano luminari dell'università di Mosca, come Ševyrev, Del'vig, Odoevskij e Pogodin, poeti del calibro di Puškin, Mickiewicz e Belli, artisti affermati e alti prelati quali Thorvaldsen, Walter Scott, i cardinali Consalvi e Mezzofanti così come Kipreenskij, Bruni, Ščedrin e Gal'berg, giovani promesse dell'arte russa. In una parola: chiunque fosse amante del bello, della cultura o frequentasse il bel mondo a Mosca come a Parigi, a Odessa come a Roma fu almeno una volta suo ospite. Da parte sua Zinaida Volkonskaja fu cantante, mecenate, compositrice, membro delle principali società intellettuali di Russia e Italia, ispiratrice di alcuni tra i più bei versi dei poeti più acclamati e intima amica dello zar. Intratteneva fitte corrispondenze con intellettuali e funzionari e si distingueva per intelligenza, arguzia e innato savoir faire. La sua biografia, per quanto attraversi fasi assai differenti fra loro, è costantemente popolata da figure di primo piano e la vede presente nei luoghi dove si fa la Storia. In primo luogo Zinaida fu un'instancabile viaggiatrice. Iniziò a viaggiare fin da piccola per seguire il padre da Dresda a Torino, poi il ritorno in Russia, la marcia europea al seguito di Alessandro, l'entrata a Parigi delle truppe russo-prussiane, i festeggiamenti in Inghilterra, i congressi di Vienna e Verona. E ancora i soggiorni in Italia nel 1815 e nel 1820, quello a Parigi, Odessa, Mosca e di nuovo l'Italia e Roma. Anche quando si stabilì col suo salotto nella vecchia capitale russa, si rimise in cammino per il (quasi) definitivo trasferimento in Italia dopo soli quattro anni. Dei primi quarant'anni della sua vita, ne trascorse circa quindici in viaggio. La principessa è stata celebrata dai suoi contemporanei e in molti si sono prodigati nella descrizione della sua lunga e intensa vita: esistono infatti almeno cinque biografie, ciascuna delle quali si distingue dalle altre per l'approfondimento di un tratto peculiare o lo studio di un particolare periodo. La biografia pubblicata da N.A. Belozerskaja su «Istoričeskij vestnik» e il libro Pilgrim princess di Maria Feirweather offrono i resoconti più completi della vita della Volkonskaja, sebbene in entrambe le opere si riscontrino inesattezze o informazioni mancanti e spesso imprecise circa avvenimenti e periodi della biografia della principessa. Dalla bibliografia presa in considerazione emerge la mancanza di un approfondimento circa i salotti di Odessa e Parigi, ma la lacuna più evidente riguarda i lunghi anni trascorsi da Zinaida in viaggio. Solo Ettore Lo Gatto e Giulia Baselica trattano l'argomento, sebbene restringendo il campo al solo viaggio del 1829 alla volta dell'Italia, unico tra tutti sul quale si hanno notizie più dettagliate, non tanto per i frammenti delle memorie pubblicate da Zinaida (presentate qui in traduzione integrale, corredate da due lettere inedite provenienti dall'archivio statale russo di letteratura e storia dell'arte di Mosca – RGALI), quanto per il dettagliato resoconto che il prof. Ševyrev, compagno di viaggio della principessa, trascrisse sui suoi diari pubblicati in patria su numerose riviste e successivamente in un libro sulle Impressioni italiane. Sugli altri viaggi non ci sono testimonianze dirette e possono essere ricostruiti solo grazie a fonti indirette. La ricerca è stata resa particolarmente complessa dalla scarsa accessibilità dei documenti: se si escludono i manoscritti conservati nell'archivio statale e i materiali della biblioteca nazionale di Mosca – successivamente pubblicati sui «Severnye cvety» del 1830 e 1831, la maggior parte delle fonti si trova nell'archivio della Houghton Library dell'Università di Harvard, mentre pochi altri documenti sono sparsi nelle biblioteche di Francia, Germania, Polonia e Inghilterra. L'archivio privato della principessa, dopo la sua morte, in pochi anni è andato disperso tra i discendenti, riaffiorando non di rado nelle collezioni private e nelle aste degli antiquari romani. Il barone Lemmermann, dopo averne raccolto una parte consistente, lo donò nel 1967 ad Harvard, dove dovette attendere molti anni prima di essere catalogato. Unica testimonianza dei contenuti di tale archivio, sebbene parziale, è costituita dal libro di Bayara Aroutunova Lives in Letters, che raccoglie alcune tra le missive più significative ricevute dai numerosi corrispondenti della principessa. Il presente lavoro raccoglie e organizza per la prima volta tutti i materiali disponibili circa i viaggi della principessa Volkonskaja, con lo scopo di metterne in luce la centralità in un'esistenza votata alla realizzazione del progetto che Pietro il Grande aveva solo vagheggiato qualche decennio prima: quel ponte tra Russia ed Europa che Zinaida attuerà tanto nel privato dei suoi salotti, quanto nelle diverse ambascerie. Inoltre questa tesi presenta una nuova biografia dettagliata dalla quale sono state eliminate le frequenti imprecisioni, rivaluta l'attività letteraria della Volkonskaja e mette in luce la rilevanza delle opere pie che contraddistinsero gli ultimi anni della sua vita. Infine l'Appendice Documentaria presenta, accanto ai già citati resoconti di viaggio, la traduzione di alcune delle opere più significative della principessa e frammenti della sua corrispondenza privata inediti in italiano. Malgrado tutti gli sforzi compiuti la ricerca non si definisce né può essere completa: i documenti conservati in archivi inaccessibili, quali gli archivi segreti vaticani o gli archivi imperiali russi, potrebbero costituire materiale prezioso per far luce su alcuni punti della biografia della principessa rimasti oscuri o fornire nuovi dettagli sulla sua figura: interi periodi sono stati ricostruiti finora solo grazie alle testimonianze indirette di chi conobbe la Corinna del Nord. Tali lacune sono da attribuirsi inoltre all'azione censoria che Aleksandr Nikitič operò sull'archivio privato di sua madre dopo la morte di Zinaida per salvaguardarne l'onore distruggendo informazioni e materiali potenzialmente compromettenti, ragione che spinse anche Propaganda Fide a secretare le lettere dell'archivio del cardinal Consalvi, tra le quali alcune della Volkonskaja, e probabilmente anche i custodi delle memorie della famiglia imperiale russa. Il più accessibile resta l'archivio statunitense, di cui è disponibile una dettagliata catalogazione alla luce della quale è possibile ipotizzare la possibilità di rinvenire informazioni se non del tutto nuove, quantomeno più dettagliate su questa donna straordinaria che tanto diede alla cultura del primo Ottocento europeo. ; Volkonsky family have been one of the older and nobler branches of Russian aristocracy. Its members stood out for abnegation and bravery, whether in favour, such as Nikita or Petr, or against the Emperor, such as the decembrist Sergey Grigorevich. The female branch includes high ranking personalities as well: amongst all Maria Nikolaevskaya Raevskaya, Sergey's wife, who decided voluntarily to follow her husband to the Siberian exile, to which he had been condemned. Another woman, who honoured the name and the prestige of this family was Zinaida Aleksandrovna Beloselskaya-Belozerskaya, Nikita's wife. Her name can be found in quite every memory of her contemporaries all over Europe. She was the daughter of the sofisticated prince Alexander Beloselsky-Belozersky, Catherine the Great's ambassador first in Dresden, than in Turin, who fascinated his contemporaries with his principles, Illuministic ideas and huge culture. Princess Zinaida was educated following her father's steps. She was his worthy heiress: grown up in Dresden, than in Turin, she left for Petersburg in her early adolescence, becoming after few months lady-in-wating of the Empress Dowager and drawing the attentions of young Emperor Alexander I. After Napoleon's defeat in the great patriotic war of 1812, Zinaida followed the imperial entourage across Europe, took part in the Congresses of Vienna and Verona, fascinating Austrian, English, French and Vatican courts, establishing heartfelt and stimulating friendships with the most influential figures of her times, might they be politicians, intellectuals or artists. In Russia her name became famous thanks to her salon in Tverskaya street, in the building now housing Eliseev's stores. In Rome she was well-known not only for her beautiful villa, in which nowadays England's ambassador resides, but particularly thanks to her patronage in support of the roman Russian artistic colony and, in the last days of her life, for her passionate support to catholicism. The guests of her salons were eminences from Moscow university, such as Shevyrev, Delvig, Odoevsky and Pogodin, distinguished poets like of Pushkin, Mickiewicz and Belli, prominent artists and prelates like Thorvaldsen, Walter Scott and cardinals Consalvi and Mezzofanti, as well as Kipreensky, Bruni Shchedrin and Galberg, who showed promise as painters and artists. Everyone who loved culture, beauty and elegance was at least once in her place. Zinaida herself was a singer, a philantropist, a composer, a member of the most important intellectual societies both in Russia and in Italy, inspired many acclaimed poets and was an intimate friend of Emperor Alexander I. She also had correspondences with intellectuals and officials and distinguished herself for cleverness, intellect and innate savoir faire. Her biography, though it includes very different periods, is constantly featured by prominent figures and during her entire life she was in every place, where History was made. First of all she was an unceasing traveller. She began travelling since she was a child in order to follow her father from Dresden to Turin, then their journey back to Russia, the European march following the tsar, the Russian-Prussian army entry to Paris, the celebrations in England, the Congresses of Vienna and Verona. The sojourn in Italy in 1815 and 1820, in Paris, in Odessa, in Moscow and once again in Rome. Even when she decided to open her salon in Moscow, her stay lasted not more than four years, before she moved (quite) definitely to Rome. As she was forty she had already spent fifteen years travelling. Princess was celebrated by her contemporaries and many of them wrote about her: there are at least five biographies and each of them particularly focuses on a single stage or a peculiarity of her life and personality. Biographies published by A.N. Belozerskaya and M. Fairweather seem to be the most complete works on Volkonskaya's life, even if in both of them there can be found mistakes and lack of information. Considering the analyzed bibliography, there are so far poorly examinated seasons of her life, such as the salons in Paris or in Odessa, but the most evident lack concerns her travels. In Italy only Ettore Lo Gatto and Giulia Baselica wrote about this topic, but only analyzed the 1829-year travel, the only one about wich we have detailed information. Zinaida, actually, wrote some travel memories (here presented in their first Italian complete translation, with two non-published letters from the Moscow State archive for literature and arts), but mainly we have details about this journey thanks to the diaries of Shevyrev, who took part in this travel. Researches about Volkonskaya were also difficult on account of hard access to documents: the main part of sources from Zinaida's private archive can be found at Harvard's Houghton Library, while some manuscripts and few other materials are conserved in Moscow (RGALI and Russian State Library) or in French, German, Polish or English libraries. Princess Volkonskaya's private archive, firstly scattered in numerous private collections, was out together by baron Lemmermann, who in 1967 donated it to Harvard University, where it was classified only many years later. The only direct, but partial, evidence of the content of this archive is Aroutunova's Lives in letters, a book collecting some of the most significant letters received by Zinaida from her correspondents. The present work is aimed to gather and organize all available information and materials about Volkonskaya's travels, in order to underline their importance in a life dedicated to the realization of Peter the Great's long for dream about a bridge connecting Russia and Europe. Finally the Appendix presents the Italian translation of some of the most significant literary works of princess Zinaida and few fragments of her private correspondence. In spite of all the efforts made this work is not, and it can't be complete: documents stored in unaccessible archives, such as the Vatican or the Imperial ones, might reveal helpful knowledge about some obscure years in the life of princess Volkonskaya. These lacks are due, furthermore, to the censorship by Alexander Nikitich of the private collection of his mother, in order to preserve her memory from likely compromising materials. Maybe the same reasons forced Propaganda Fide and the imperial Russian officers to take the same action. Harvard University is the main accessibile archive: thanks to its detailed cataloguing we can hold that there is a possibility to reveal accurate information about this extraordinary woman, to whom XIX century european culture owes so much.

Mary Swain, photo taken at her home on January 10, 2014 ; The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ; The following is an oral history interview with Mary Swain conducted on January 10, 2014 by Deborah George. ; 15p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 sound disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; Oral History Program Mary E. Swain Interviewed by Deborah M. George 10 January 2014 Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Mary E. Swain Interviewed by Deborah M. George 10 January 2014 Copyright © 2014 by Weber State University, Stewart Library Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The New Zion Community Advocates worked with community members age 80 years and older to have contributed to the history of Ogden city. The interviews looked at the legacy of the interviewees through armed services, work, social life, church, NAACP and educational systems in an environment where their culture was not predominant. This program has received funding from the Utah Humanities Council and the Utah Division of State history. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management Special Collections All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Swain, Mary E., an oral history by Deborah M. George, 10 January 2014, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, Special Collections, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. iii Mary Swain, photo taken at her home on January 10, 2014 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Mary Swain conducted on January 10, 2014 by Deborah George. DG: Okay I'm Debbie George, I'm here today to interview Mrs. Mary Swain. We are in her home in her luscious living room and we're going to start our oral history interview. So tell me your full name. MS: My name is Mary Ellen Swain DG: What is your birth date? MS: May 9th, 1937. DG: And are we related at all? MS: No, we are not. DG: What are you doing now in your life? MS: I am just having fun, enjoying my grandchildren. I have been traveling quite a bit. I have gone on a few cruises, and I am just enjoying a life of leisure. DG: Alright wonderful. So tell me some of the important lessons that you have learned throughout your life. MS: Well let me start back when I was in Arkansas. My father worked for the railroad and he came here about a year before we did. When we were told that we were going to come to Utah, I got a book and I started reading all about Utah. I thought, "That is a religious state. Things are going to be so different than they are here in Arkansas." 1 You know in Arkansas, we were aware that we were segregated. We knew that we had our schools there, and we knew that there were other schools there, but we knew where we were supposed to be. Everybody knew what they were supposed to do. When I began attending Elementary school here in Utah, I had very high expectations for change. I did meet a lot of people and built a lot of strong friendships. One of the girls that I had become friends with was named Ruth. One day, Ruth and I had planned on going to her house after school. Ruth asked her mother if I could visit and her mother agreed. I asked my mother if I could go with Ruth to her house, and my mother agreed. With both of our parents approving the idea, Ruth and I got on a bus and went to her house, I had not been in Utah very long and I was not familiar with the area. She lived somewhere up on the bench above Washington Boulevard. When we arrived at her house, her mother said, "No Ruth. You cannot play with her. WI did not know that she was colored!" Ruth broke into tears and her mother asked me to leave. This was the funny part. I left, but I didn't know where to go. I could not find my way back home. I wandered around. That was very frightening. I was so afraid. I knew that I lived on 25th Street, and I knew that I lived west. I walked until I could see a big hotel that we lived by. I had finally found my home and I was so happy to get there. The next day at school, Ruth apologized. We were best friends you know. I was just shocked because I had no idea that would happen in Utah. I thought I could have white friends in Utah. I thought that I could have all kinds of friends. There were Japanese, Hispanics, and Caucasian, a little bit of every race in my 2 classes. I thought that was great. I thought Utah was the place, but that was one of the worst experiences. I did sing in the choir, and going from church to church, we were always welcomed with open arms. We never had anyone say anything about our race. We would just walk in with the choir and sing. We would go out and we would go back home. Nothing was said, and I could not figure that out. I wondered why could I sing with them at church, but I could not visit them in their homes. DG: That surprised you? MS: Yes, that was shocking to me. As I think about it now, it was funny that I got lost when I was going back home from Ruth's home. I think I had been in Utah for about eight days. DG: Wow, eight days! MS: Yes, I had no idea where anything was. I was just going home with her. I was happy to be in mixed company. It was just something I had looked forward to doing. DG: What was your proudest moment? MS: I think that my proudest moment is the birth of my children. Not just the birth of one specific child, but the birth of all my children. I have been blessed with seven children and nineteen grandchildren. I am also proud that I have been able to work in different areas. I have had some good jobs. I have been blessed in so many ways. I remember a time before I became eligible for each job, a friend and I were going to work in a 3 cannery to peel tomatoes. We were so excited about it. We got a ride out there because we were young children, and our parents did not own a vehicle. When we got there, the supervisor had a long line of people. We had called ahead of time and were told that he needed people to work for him. When he saw us, he told us that he could not hire us because he could not hire colored people. We had to walk all the way back to Ogden from Clearfield. That was a bad experience. Even though we had to walk all the way back to Ogden, we were not angry or upset about tit. We laughed at it, and came on back to Ogden. I had that same experience with so many jobs I had looked forward to being hired onto before. Colored people would not be hired in many areas at that time. I did enjoy elementary school though. I have a lot of good memories of elementary school. I cannot say I have many from junior high or high school. When I began Junior High, there were a lot of dances that were held at my school. There were only three black people in my school and were all females, so we would not attend the dances because we never had a partner to go with. We were not allowed to dance with white males and they were not allowed to dance with black females, so I missed out on that. I remember a time when a Japanese boy asked me to dance with him. There were no special events on this day like prom or anything, it was just a normal Friday afternoon. I was so excited to have the opportunity to dance and as he began walking towards me, a few guys started teasing him and he ran off. I was not going to let that spoil my time, and I did not let that make me dislike 4 people. I felt sorry for the guy because I was no stranger to rejection. Being rejected did not hurt me. While working with Ogden City Schools, the social worker and I were going to do a home study with a family. While we were in this home, the social worker said to me, "I am going to write them up because there are no books being displayed anywhere in side of this home." They had a Jet magazine, and Ebony magazine on the coffee table. She said she had never heard of them before. I informed her that is how we learn about our history. That is how we know what is going on in the Black community. We take Utah history classes in our schools, but we do not learn much about Black History. One of the Psychologists was writing a program for under privileged students, but not including the areas where most of the blacks lived. I asked him where the black students were going to go when they needed help. His reply was, "blacks take care of themselves. They do not need help. They are usually well behaved. They rarely have behavioral problems, and when they do, they can go see their school counselor. Blacks have always taken care of their own problems." I told him, "If you think that makes me feel better then you are wrong. We were born oppressed. We have just learned to live in the society that we were born in. We have adjusted to being treated as second class citizens. We take care of our own issues because people like you refuse to help us. We have problems just like everyone else in the world does. We do not have access to the same resources as you do. We have worked two and sometimes even three jobs just to make ends meet." 5 Although we lived on 25th street, we were not able to eat in any of the restaurants on the street, or any other eating establishment for that matter, unless it was owned by a black person. There was only one of two black school teachers in the Ogden area. When I came here in the 40's, there were employment opportunities working with the railroad system and the government. They were not the best jobs. If you would go and apply at any of the local stores, they would tell you that you could iron the clothes and unpack the boxes. No matter how busy they were up in the front of the store, we were never allowed to go up to the front and sell anything. We were not even allowed to greet customers. Although, when you have the support of your church, family, and local black community, at the end of the day everything is not all that bad. When we tried to buy a home located on Polk Street in Ogden, we were unable to do so because the realtor that we were working with told us that if he sold that home to us, he would be run out of Ogden by his peers. There were several black businesses here when I first moved her. Blacks owned beauty shops, clubs, dry cleaners, hotels, and new paper companies just to name a few. Somehow we got systematically destroyed in that area. I am not quite sure how or what happened, but one by one, the businesses started to disappear. DG: Thank you so much, Mrs. Swain. This concludes our interview. 6

Drivers, characteristics and barriers of beneficial and adapted response mechanisms to water-related risks in the Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) are at the centre of this PhD research. These subject matters owe their importance to a manifold range of factors. Water is at the fore as the most formative element for landscapes and societies in the VMD – not only in its function as a vital source of livelihood but also as a threatening natural hazard. Water-related hazards have changed and will continue to change amidst a vibrant socio-economic setting and a fundamentally changing climate. These looming threats and the ongoing changes require action if the prospering character of Vietnam's rice bowl is to be maintained. Long-term and short-term-oriented response mechanisms have thus aroused a great deal of interest in science, practice and in the public debate. Strategic assessments of the nature and values of risk-related measures have, however, rarely been addressed in the Mekong Delta context. This research has therefore brought evaluation of coping and adaptation in the context of water-related risks into focus. Quality judgements are at the centre of interest in the international community of evaluation research and practice. Within this community, evaluations commonly revolve around the identification of the most efficient strategy for a specific target group. Quality is, however, a measure of basic normative considerations on divergent implications and distinct values – aspects which cannot always be measured by a mere effectiveness assessment which judges "good" responses in seemingly absolute terms. A more comprehensive evaluation in combination with a profound understanding of the local context and individuals' decision-making processes is an essential prerequisite for identifying barriers to "good" adaptation and coping. This is, in turn, a vital requirement for promoting more sustainable development pathways for the Mekong Delta. This thesis therefore aims at a holistic assessment of "good" risk-related response mechanisms, an identification of more than just economic barriers to the successful implementation of these strategies, and an exploration of context-specific and actor-oriented ways of overcoming the barriers. The study consequently develops an innovative and adaptable evaluation framework which takes a multi-disciplinary perspective of risk-related strategies. This concept draws on three different schools of thought and combines them in an integrative approach. Firstly, it takes a social-ecological system perspective. In contrast to most of evaluation research and practice, this framework thereby explicitly addresses the risk context. It allows actors at various scales to be addressed and considers multiple dimensions. Vulnerability, as a concept arising from this line of thought, provides an expedient baseline to judge the relevance of taking action, grasp the complexity of strategy outcomes, and identify barriers emerging from the overall risk context. Secondly, the vulnerability concept is linked with an actor-oriented perspective derived from a socio-cognitive model of adaptation decision-making. This provides a, widely neglected, actor-oriented perspective to evaluation. It explains why decisions to adapt or cope are taken and involves a subjective and actor-specific evaluation component. Thirdly, the framework involves a more structured analysis of the actual adaptation/coping process along the lines of so-called "theories of change". It comprises the assessment of strategy implementation, outcomes and impacts on the vulnerability of different groups and can therefore facilitate outcome- and process-oriented evaluations. Such a multi-faceted analysis entails quite a number of methodological challenges such as empirically unfolding implicit preference structures, revealing underlying interconnectivities across scales, and facing difficulties specific to doing field research in Vietnam. A mixed-methods paradigm was used to address many of these challenges. A deliberately chosen set of methods in combination with a conscientious and flexible process created thereby the foundation for a more encompassing empirical assessment of risk-related strategies in the VMD. The data demonstrate that the risk context was diverse and varied, most notably with regard to the geographic location of the production area and the agro-economic indicators. Rice producers were the least exposed group, but experienced the largest production losses. This was mainly due to the fact that the farmers raised their susceptibility significantly by introducing winter-spring rice in 2011. In addition, the vulnerability of rice farmers was reinforced by low risk-specific capacities to cope and adapt. Aquaculture and sugarcane producers were more experienced in dealing with water-related hazards and/or produced less susceptible commodities. Nevertheless, the hydrological and geophysical characteristics as well as the location with regard to the hydraulic infrastructure made these farmers more exposed to water-related hazards than rice producers. The analysis also shows that these vulnerability patterns have and will most likely gather momentum as the sea level rises and socio-political changes lead to agricultural modernisation and rural industrialisation. How far and why the past and the future risk context induces "good" coping and adaptation actions depended, however, not only on the actual but also on the individually perceived risks. A social-psychology perspective motivated and guided by the social-ecological vulnerability concept indicates why intentions to act were formed and how different actors evaluated the quality of strategy options. The analysis of risk perception shows, for instance, that the perceived threats (i.e. hazard exposure and susceptibility) could differ substantially from the revealed threats. This became most apparent in the example of the individuals' appraisal of salinity threats. Rice producers perceived a low hazard exposure in a year of high salinity values and also seemed to have misjudged their susceptibility. This was a major reason for their producing winter-spring rice in the season with the highest salinity exposure, i.e. an action which increased the susceptibility substantially. The perceived capacity of response and the subjective quality judgement of the acknowledged adaptation and coping options were also of central importance for forming an intention to act. The empirical data suggest that households had a clear preference for protective infrastructural measures, despite the subjectively perceived high costs and low income effects. This seemed to be due to the positively judged long-term effects. Corresponding to this finding, negative long-term effects were a major factor restraining the application of many strategies, most notably taking children out of school, selling assets and buying on credit. Income effects were, thus, of less importance to people than expected from the weighting of quality criteria in group discussions. Migration was, for example, rarely preferred over other strategies although it was perceived to have the most positive income effect of all strategies (in addition to the judgement that it is easily implementable and comes at a comparatively low cost). This is only one of many examples which show that subjective evaluations cannot always be explained with common evaluation criteria, are often context-specific and represent in many cases more of an intuition than a structured quality judgement. Still, structured and "objectivity"-based approaches from evaluation research are essential elements in a more holistic judgement and analysis of risk-related response mechanisms and were therefore taken into consideration. They describe the revealed characteristics of the strategies, indicate their implications for the risk context, and provide a valid basis of comparison to the subjective evaluations. A theory-of-change-led assessment of the most common household strategies shows that strategies which induced a change in the exposure of the household were rarely applied in the context of flood and salinity risks. Households hardly ever sold exposed land although buyers were easily found and land prices were comparatively high. Moreover, strategies which caused a susceptibility reduction played only a minor role. Susceptibility-reducing strategies, such as the construction and maintenance of dikes and a change of crops, were either rarely put into practice or had merely a short-term impact. Most of the measures were intended to strengthen the coping and adaptive capacity. Raising the short-term availability of financial capital by buying on credit or taking a loan were the most common measures. However, these strategies often reduced the capacity of response in the long-term. Measures which were intended to strengthen the stock of capital endowment, in contrast, came at a high cost in the short-run but had positive effects on the capacity of response in the long-run. At the government level, the responsibilities with regard to flood- and salinity-related risk management were allocated hierarchically based on the centrally planned and highly technocratic Vietnamese state system. Protective and productive infrastructural measures were the most influential strategies from governmental side. The strong preference for the construction and management of dikes and sluice gates was largely based on their role in protecting a large number of people in the areas inside the dike. Nevertheless, these infrastructure-related measures had detrimental effects such as an increased flood risk outside the dike and strengthened the motivation to apply susceptibility-increasing strategies inside the dike (growing winter-spring rice, in particular). These aspects turn the construction and management of protective infrastructure into the most controversially judged measures in the research area. Susceptibility reduction seemed to play a merely minor role. Only the regular dredging of a canal had a substantial impact on the vulnerability of a large share of the population. The majority of strategies were applied in order to strengthen the capacity of response. The short-term oriented strategies, i.e. compensation payments and flood and salinity warnings, seemed to have had only a short-term effect, if any, on the capacity to cope. Agricultural training and public loan schemes were, in contrast, more common, had a longer-term effect, and were more positively judged. Overall, analyses of strategies along the lines of theories of change have been shown to facilitate a better understanding of the quality of certain strategies. In an integrative analysis with the previously outlined risk context and decision-making processes, this evaluation perspective provides innovative findings about evaluations of and barriers to "good" coping and adaptation at a region-specific, methodological and conceptual level. The analysis of the risk context enabled an identification of many context-specific barriers and recommendations for action. The data, for instance, show that several of the geo-physical and ecological limits may not be limits in "real" terms - at least not when they are taken up at higher-level arenas. Without mitigation action on a global level, sea level rise may turn most other barriers into limits and make adaptation on site impossible. Further geo-physical and ecological characteristics constitute barriers which can be overcome by "better" infrastructural planning and coordinated international and inter-regional water-resource management. Most of the economic barriers have been shown to emerge from agricultural modernisation and rural industrialisation. De-industrialised and diversified forms of income generation could clear many of these barriers and provide a basis for more sustainable livelihoods. Cognitive and knowledge-related obstacles were identified at the level of individuals' decision-making processes. Knowledge barriers arose mainly at the level of non-agricultural employment. A more adapted vocational education system could help seize the opportunities that rural industrialisation policies provide. Knowledge barriers to the implementation of "good" risk-specific strategies could be addressed by a more explicit inclusion of salinity-and flood-specific content in agricultural training. A participatory approach would, in this context, be conducive in strengthening the trust in expert know-how, involve local knowledge, develop context-specific solutions, and convey an understanding for diverging interests and implications. Many of the cognitive barriers emerged from too strong a reliance on the actions of other actors, most notably on governmental measures. In addition, cognitive processes converted some barriers into perceived limits. Too strong a hierarchical thinking and an often subordinate mentality made people believe that an order from the respective higher level is inviolable. It has thus been shown to be of particular importance to raise awareness with regard to the fallibility of infrastructural measures in addition to a reinforcement of the household's belief in its own capability to implement "good" response mechanisms. At the institutional level, the multifaceted approach revealed that a lack of official demand for evaluations, an unclear structure of responsibilities, vaguely defined criteria and insufficient control mechanisms inhibited an expedient evaluation practice. These barriers (as well as several other obstacles identified before) often relate to general institutional barriers such as prevailing elitism, a lack of participatory decision-making and the technocratic nature of the system. Many barriers thus have to be defeated at the level of national regulations and can be supported by technical cooperation from international partners. At the local level, stronger cooperation between NGOs, development organisations, researchers and the local government would provide a pertinent basis for more evaluation-based data exchanges and appraisals. Besides this lack of evaluation activities, the analysis has revealed methodological shortcomings in existing evaluation practice. It has been shown that there is a need to include more than just economic criteria, improve the competences of local evaluators in participatory and qualitative methods, specify and enforce the evaluation guidelines, and increase local participation in evaluation practice. In conclusion, the concerted analysis of risks and risk-related strategies on multiple levels and a comparison of revealed and perceived realities have been shown to put the often assumed "objective" vulnerability into perspective. At the same time, a vulnerability-centred lens in a socio-cognitive decision-making model has added agency to the often one-sided reflection of risk perception as a mere function of the individuals' appraisal of probability and magnitude of an event. It has also been demonstrated that the identification of "good" strategies is highly complex and specific to the evaluation method, the stakeholder, the spatial-scale and the time-scale. Many drivers, opportunities and barriers would therefore have remained uncovered if the conceptual framework had not included multiple scales and actor groups; single data sets had suggested a less reliable evaluation result; and an analysis based on a single evaluation approach would have depicted a merely one-sided judgement of a strategy's quality. In the end, this thesis has not presented the "ultimate" strategy in response to water-related risks in rural areas of the Mekong Delta. On the contrary, it is argued that such absolute judgments are neither achievable nor desirable. The suggested context-specific and actor-oriented evaluation approach, instead, has acknowledged and grasped the distinct nature and diverse values of risk-related strategies and has thereby made a contribution to promoting flexible and adapted measures for more sustainable development pathways for the Vietnamese Mekong Delta.

AMÉRICA LATINA Crece la desesperanza en México por el caso de los estudiantes.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/07/world/americas/remains-of-student-in-mexico-identified.html http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30374975 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/identificacion-de-restos-de-uno-de-los-43-estudiantes-desaparecidos-en-mexico/14944618 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1750216-mexico-identifican-los-restos-de-al-menos-uno-de-los-43-estudiantes-desaparecidos http://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/07/world/americas/mexico-missing-student-id/index.html?hpt=ila_c1 Comenzó la Cumbre Mundial del Clima en Perú para contener el calentamiento global.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2014/12/09/conference-sur-le-climat-a-lima-il-faut-aller-plus-loin_4537333_3232.html#H0dJPkWDImBafOVP.99 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749437-lima-extrema-la-seguridad-para-la-cumbre-mundial-del-clima http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/08/actualidad/1418000244_434337.html http://www.nbcnews.com/science/environment/u-n-s-lima-climate-talks-have-biggest-carbon-footprint-n264836 http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article4383537.html Se llevó a cabo la Cumbre Iberoamericana.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1750718-un-mexico-en-crisis-recibe-a-la-cumbre-iberoamericana http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418157823_337055.html Sismo de magnitud 5,8 sacude Guatemala y El Salvador.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/sismo-de-magnitud-58-sacude-guatemala-y-el-salvador/14943975 La corrupción en Petrobras, una trama que se replica en toda la economía.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/08/world/americas/brazil-to-indict-key-figures-in-oil-company-graft-scandal.html?ref=americas&gwh=17293A4C365CE965A6F6A152BE5E8451&gwt=pay&assetType=nyt_now http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748897-la-corrupcion-en-petrobras-una-trama-que-se-replica-en-toda-la-economia http://america-latina.blog.lemonde.fr/2014/12/09/le-bresil-affaibli-par-une-corruption-endemique/ http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/08/actualidad/1418070521_606134.html Abuelas de Plaza de Mayo encuentran otro nieto.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30341617 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/abuelas-de-plaza-de-mayo-encuentran-al-nieto-116-en-argentina/14937786 Según Lula la UNASUR debe tener su propia corte.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/unasur-debe-tener-su-corte-lula-da-silva-/14933175 Universidad gratis fue la respuesta de Bachelet a una caída de su imagen.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749562-universidad-gratis-la-respuesta-de-bachelet-a-una-caida-de-su-imagen Venezuela: imputan a la líder opositora Corina Machado por un supuesto plan para matar a Maduro.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/04/world/americas/venezuela-assassination-plot-maduro-machado.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749175-venezuela-imputan-a-la-lider-opositora-corina-machado-por-un-presunto-plan-para-matar-a-maduro Colombia: el militar liberado por las FARC renunció al ejército.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748651-colombia-el-militar-liberado-por-las-farc-renuncio-al-ejercito En Brasil los legisladores desoyen la señal de ajuste.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1750720-en-brasil-los-legisladores-desoyen-la-senal-de-ajuste Senado estadounidense aprueba sanciones contra Venezuela.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-30393198 Cambia el viento en la región: el freno económico fuerza una era de reformas.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748899-cambia-el-viento-en-la-region-el-freno-economico-fuerza-una-era-de-reformas Juegos Olímpicos de Río 2016 obliga a reformular estructura urbana.Para más información: http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/americas/article4376989.html Maduro anuncia un recorte de gastos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748902-maduro-anuncia-un-recorte-de-gastos ESTADOS UNIDOS /CANADÁ Se difunde informe sobre torturas durante la era Bush.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-cia-torture-report-global-reaction-20141209-story.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/mundo/video_fotos/2014/12/141209_video_boletin_noticias_np http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/12/09/tortures-de-la-cia-les-dessous-d-un-rapport-controverse_4537503_3222.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/defiende-bush-papel-cia-en-su-gobierno-1060314.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/10/world/senate-intelligence-committee-cia-torture-report.html?ref=world http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1750746-tension-en-eeuu-antes-de-la-difusion-del-informe-sobre-las-torturas-durante-la-era-bush http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/12/09/tortures-de-la-cia-les-dessous-d-un-rapport-controverse_4537503_3222.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-12/10/content_19054019.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418144432_841703.html http://www.nbcnews.com/news/latino/first-remains-identified-missing-mexican-students-n264356 http://www.economist.com/blogs/democracyinamerica/2014/12/american-intelligence-and-torture Tensión racial en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-12/09/content_19052913.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749135-nueva-york-otro-policia-blanco-acusado-de-matar-a-un-hombre-negro-no-sera-procesado http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/nuevo-jurado-en-ee-uu-por-otra-muerte-de-joven-negro/14937601 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/impreso/hombre-negro-hombre-blanco-justicia-desigual-89137.html Kerry pidió al Congreso de Estados Unidos el permiso para la guerra contra el Estado Islámico.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2014/12/09/kerry-demande-au-congres-americain-l-autorisation-de-faire-la-guerre-a-l-ei_4537626_3222.html#dKEaGkvVaAYvZzLp.99 http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/10/us/politics/kerry-warns-senate-against-curbs-on-fighting-isis.html?ref=world Barack Obama nominó a Ashton Carter como nuevo secretario de Defensa.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749776-barack-obama-nomino-a-ashton-carter-como-nuevo-secretario-de-defensa http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/ee-uu-y-canada/ashton-carter-el-nominado-de-obama-como-secretario-de-defensa-/14935615 Estado Islámico lanza amenazas a Canadá.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/estado-islamico-amenaza-a-canada/14947444 EUROPA Merkel es reelegida con el 96,7% de los votos como líder de los cristianodemócratas.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/10/world/europe/merkel-unchallenged-is-re-elected-leader-of-her-party-in-germany.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2014/12/09/au-congres-de-la-cdu-angela-merkel-tend-la-main-aux-verts_4537412_3214.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418148783_720642.html Vladimir Putin acusó a los gobiernos occidentales de crear "una realidad paralela" sobre Ucrania a través de los medios.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749800-vladimir-putin-acuso-a-los-gobiernos-occidentales-de-crear-una-realidad-paralela-sobre-ucrania-a-traves-de-los-medios http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/vladimir-putin-elegido-personaje-internacional-del-2014/14942118 Unión Europea llega a acuerdo por prepuesto del 2015.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418155558_405995.html Crisis de Ucrania: alto el fuego mantiene conversaciones.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30384665 Bruselas busca alternativas para el gasoducto del sur que Putin anuló.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418159758_078533.html Familia real española a la espera de condena por caso de corrupción.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1750665-urdangarin-frente-a-una-pena-historica http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/fiscalia-pedira-19-anios-carcel-urdangarin-1060368.html Llegan a Holanda restos del avión derribado en Ucrania.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418117429_928131.html Se rescata a 200 inmigrantes en el Mediterráneo.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418157591_833698.html 16 personas mueren en un ataque de rebeldes en Chechenia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/mueren-al-menos-16-personas-en-un-ataque-de-rebeldes-en-chechenia/14930298 Gobierno griego propone a Stavros Dimas como candidato a la presidencia.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-12/09/content_19052920.htm http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/08/actualidad/1418063488_941099.html Aerolínea alemana anula más de 40 vuelos por huelga de pilotos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/aerolinea-alemana-anula-mas-de-40-vuelos-por-nueva-huelga-de-pilotos/14929315 El desbloqueo institucional de Kosovo alienta las conversaciones con Serbia.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418124895_670729.html Llegan a Holanda restos del avión derribado en Ucrania.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418117429_928131.html Hollande anuncia la liberación del último rehén francés en el mundo.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-30396903 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418128238_974384.html http://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/article4380860.html http://www.latimes.com/world/africa/la-fg-french-hostage-al-qaeda-20141209-story.html Kosovo competirá en los Juegos Olímpicos de Río 2016 tras reconocimiento del Comité Olímpico Internacional.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/sport/0/olympics/30394918 ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTE La guerra en Siria ya dejó más de 200.000 muertos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748787-la-guerra-en-siria-ya-dejo-mas-de-200000-muertos Tifón Hagupit deja al menos 27 muertos en su paso por Filipinas.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/tifon-hagupit-pasa-por-filipinas/14945935 http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-philippines-storm-weakens-20141207-story.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/el-tifon-en-filipinas-se-debilita-deja-21-muertos-1060179.html http://www.nbcnews.com/nightly-news/super-typhoon-hagupit-continues-devastate-philippines-n264171 Continúa la amenaza del Estado Islámico.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2014/12/08/la-coalition-en-quete-d-une-strategie-commune-contre-l-etat-islamique_4536398_3218.html#UHdsGAsB5g5bjzSV.99 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/coalicion-contra-ei-mil-500-soldados-irak-1060395.html http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749196-con-bombardeos-profundiza-iran-su-ataque-a-los-jihadistas Al menos 4 muertos y 13 heridos en ataque con granada en boda afgana.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/al-menos-4-muertos-y-13-heridos-en-ataque-con-granada-en-boda-afgana/14942615 China afila su arma global más efectiva: la diplomacia del ferrocarril.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749962-china-afila-su-arma-global-mas-efectiva-la-diplomacia-del-ferrocarril Volvió la violencia a Hong Kong y tuvo que cerrar la sede de gobierno.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/news/china/21635515-dissatisfaction-china-hong-kong-and-taiwan-shows-up-streets-and-polls http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-30390595 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/hong-kong-court-orders-umbrella-movement-protest-sites-cleared-n264301 http://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-hong-kong-protests-20141209-story.html http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/10/world/asia/hong-kong-protests.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/policia-de-hong-kong-dispuesta-a-desocupar-a-los-manifestantes/14942616 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/el-mundo/2014/hong-kong-policia-dispuesta-a-desocupar-campamentos-1060004.html Un video convierte a dos indias en las nuevas heroínas contra los abusos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748776-un-video-convierte-a-dos-indias-en-las-nuevas-heroinas-contra-los-abusos Activistas saudíes reclaman por la liberación de mujer detenida por conducir un automóvil.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/09/world/middleeast/saudi-activists-call-for-the-release-of-women-detained-for-driving.html?ref=world Kim Jong-un hay uno solo: por decreto nadie se podrá llamar como él en Corea del Norte.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749087-kim-jong-un-hay-uno-solo-por-decreto-nadie-se-podra-llamar-como-el-en-corea-del-norte Lanzado con éxito desde China un satélite sino-brasileño.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/lanzado-con-exito-desde-china-un-satelite-sino-brasileno-/14942596 Lo países del Golfo crean una fuerza naval conjunta.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2014/12/09/actualidad/1418159028_902503.html Una guerra fría submarina avanza en el Océano Índico.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749198-una-guerra-fria-submarina-avanza-en-el-oceano-indico Como en la época de Mao China quiere "reeducar" a sus artistas.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748872-china-emprende-una-ofensiva-de-reeducacion-cultural Israel disuelve el parlamento y se reprograman las elecciones.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-12/09/content_19048288.htm http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-israel-parliament-disband-20141208-story.html Países occidentales aceptarían más refugiados sirios.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30393308 Ejército paquistaní aseguró haber matado al jefe de operaciones exteriores de Al Qaeda.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ejercito-paquistani-mata-al-jefe-de-operaciones-exteriores-de-al-qaeda/14939757 Rescate fallido de Estados Unidos en Yemen finaliza con dos rehenes muertos.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-us-hostage-in-yemen-killed-20141206-story.html#page=1 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/hallan-muerto-a-rehen-estadounidense-en-yemen/14939755 ÁFRICA Sierra Leona amenazada por el ébola.Para más información: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30387906 http://www.miamiherald.com/living/health-fitness/article4380805.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2014-12/09/content_19049099.htm Corte Penal Internacional retira cargos contra el presidente de Kenia.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/la-cpi-retira-cargos-contra-el-presidente-de-kenia/14934897 Kenia: los bebes fruto del incesto que son condenados a muerte.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748593-los-bebes-fruto-del-incesto-que-son-condenados-a-muerte http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2014/12/09/victoire-pour-le-kenya-a-la-cour-penale-internationale_4537601_3232.html#AAYqb7156xrRwWtK.99 Otro ataque brutal de Boko Haram: por lo menos 150 muertos en Nigeria.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749049-otro-ataque-brutal-de-boko-haram-por-lo-menos-150-muertos-en-nigeria Los sudafricanos recuerdan a Nelson Mandela a un año de su muerte.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1749759-en-fotos-los-sudafricanos-recuerdan-a-nelson-mandela-a-un-ano-de-su-muerte http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/sudafrica-conmemora-el-primer-aniversario-de-la-muerte-de-mandela/14934435 Presidente de Zimbabue se deshace de sus posibles rivales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2014/12/10/world/africa/mugabe-said-to-fire-vice-president-and-7-ministers-in-zimbabwe.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2014/12/09/le-president-du-zimbabwe-limoge-ses-opposants-potentiels_4537598_3212.html#ZwxgeSE1STCQBtGU.99 http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-30400178 OTRAS Impacto para la economía global: el crudo está en su nivel más bajo en 5 años.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1748711-impacto-para-la-economia-global-el-crudo-en-su-nivel-mas-bajo-en-5-anos http://www.economist.com/news/business-and-finance/21635798-predicting-oil-gluts-late-1970s El 2014 fue un año 'devastador' para los niños, afirma Unicef.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/ninos-en-conflictos-armados/14946177 http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/unicef-declares-2014-most-brutal-year-worlds-children-n263971 "The Economsit" publica su informe: "Business this week".Para más información:http://www.economist.com/news/world-week/21635604-business-week

Zusammenfassung Das in der westlichen Hälfte der Insel Neuguinea liegende Papua unterliegt einer raschen, unzureichend geplanten sozialen und ökonomischen Entwicklung. Zunehmende Umweltzerstörung (Habitatdegradierung) bedroht den hohen Artenreichtum und die einheimische Biodiversität. Süßwasserökosysteme sind sehr stark bedroht durch Umweltverschmutzung, Habitatsveränderung und das Einschleppen von fremden Arten. Bisher wurde dieser menschliche Einfluss an den Süßwasserarten unzureichend erforscht, speziell an den Fischen in stehenden und fliessenden Gewässern in Papua. Der Sentani See liegt in Nordpapua, in der Nähe von Jayapura, der Hauptstadt der Provinz Papua. Es repräsentiert das größte Süßwasserökosystem in Papua und spielt somit eine wichtige Rolle für das Überleben der Menschen und anderer Lebewesen in dieser Gegend. Menschliche Aktivitäten beeinflussen die lokale Flora und Fauna, insbesondere solche mit engem Verbreitungsgebieten wie z.B. Regenbogenfische Chilatherinasentaniensis und Glossolepisincisus, und der Sentani Goby. (Glossogobius sp.) Der See liegt nahe an urbanen Zentren, sodass in allen Himmelsrichtungen Umweltverschmutzungen aller Art stattfinden., dies betrifft insbesondere Veränderungen im Uferbereich und das Einschleppen fremder Arten. Trotz dieser Bedenken und der Bedeutung für die lokale Regierung findet das Thema kaum Beachtung im Hinblick auf Erhalt des Ökosystems. Trotz einiger Forschung in Richtung Mollusken, Phytoplankton und Limnologie, und Wasserqualität des Sees gibt es keine spezifischen Untersuchungen über die Korrelation zwischen menschlichen Aktivitäten und der Artenveränderung im See. Deshalb ist das Ziel dieser Arbeit die Ökologie des roten Regenbogenfisches als einem der meistbedrohten endemischen Fischarten im Sentanisee sowie den menschlichen Einfluss auf sein Habitat zu dokumentieren. Im Speziellen beschreibt diese Arbeit den Einfluss auf die Häufigkeit, Größe, Geschlechterverteilung und Populationsveränderung nach Einführung fremder Arten. Um den menschlichen Faktor zu messen, wurden acht physiochemische Parameter untersucht, von denen der größte Einfluss auf die Häufigkeit des Vorkommens beschrieben wird in neun verschiedenen Gegenden dreier verschiedener Zonen. Die Gegenden wurden nach Kriterien unterschiedlicher menschlicher Aktivität ausgesucht unter der Hypothese, dass eine höhere menschlicher Population einen entsprechenden Einfluss auf die Fischpopulation hat. Zone I beschreibt hohen menschlichen Einfluss, Zone II mittelmäßige menschliche Aktivität, Zone III hat die niedrigste menschliche Aktivität und wurde als "Kontrollgegend" genutzt. Diese Gegenden wurden später neu eingeteilt gemäß der physiochemischen Parameter des Wassers. Fisch und Wasserproben wurden entlang des Ufers gesammelt, in bis zu zwei Meter Tiefe. Fisch wurde morgens in jeder Zone gefangen. Dies wurde dreimal an anderen Tagen wiederholt, sodass 27 verschieden Daten für jede Zone zusammenkamen, insgesamt 81 Daten für drei Zonen innerhalb eines Jahres, und somit 243 Daten in drei Jahren. Die gesammelten Regenbogenfische wurden nach Geschlecht gezählt, gemessen und wieder freigelassen. Wasserproben wurden nach dem gleichen Muster entnommen, dreimal täglich; morgens (6.00 – 9.00am), mittags (11.00 bis 13.00pm) und nachmittags (16.00 – 18.00pm) und dreimal in jeder Zone an drei weiteren Tagen gesammelt. So wurden ebenfalls 81 Wasserproben gewonnen. Die Wasserparameter, Nitrate, Nitrite, Phosphate, der biologische Sauerstoffbedarf und der chemische Sauerstoffbedarf wurden in einem Labor analysiert, während Wassertemperatur, PH Wert und gelöster Sauerstoff direkt vor Ort gemessen wurden. Dann wurde das Umfeld des Regenbogenfisches beschreibend analysiert, um die Habitatpräferenzen einschliesslich Substrat, Typ, Wassertiefe, Wasserbewegung und Vegetation kennezulernen. Um die physiochemischen Parameter des Wassers zu analysieren, wurde das RStatistikanalyse Programm benutzt., um somit Verbreitung und Größe des Regenbogenfisches in jeder Probe, und somit eine Korrelation zwischen den Wasserparametern und der Größe und Verteilung des Regenbogenfisches zu entdecken. Nachdem der Grad der Wasserverschmutzung bestimmt worden war, wurden die Fischproben in drei Gruppen eingeteilt, je nach Verschmutzungsgrad der Gebiete. Das Analysetool in Excel 2007 und die Version von SPSS 17.0 wurden genutzt, um die Fischgröße jeder Gruppe, sowie den Unterscheid der Gruppen zueinander, das Verhältnis der Anzahl der Fische zur Zahl der eingeführten fremden Fische, sowie die Korrelation der Zahl der Regenbogenfische zur Nitratkonzentration zu bestimmen. Basierend auf den bereits erwähnten Wasserparametern wurden die Untersuchungsgebiete in drei Gruppen geteilt. 1 und 2 mit hohem menschlichen Einfluss, 3 mit geringem menschlichem Impact. Es gab signifikante Unterschiede bei bestimmten Wasserparametern innerhalb der Gruppen, insbesondere bei Nitraten und Nitriten, Phosphate, biologischem Sauerstoffbedarf und chemischen Sauerstoffbedarf. Die erste Gruppe hatte die höchste Konzentration an Nitraten und Nitriten, Gruppe II hatte die höchste Konzentration an Phosphaten, biologischem, sowie chemischen Sauerstoffbedarf . Gruppe drei hatte die beste Wasserqualität und niedere bis mittlere Konzentration der obengenannten Parameter. Die Phosphatlevel übersteigen den in Indonesien staatlich zugelassenen Grenzwert von Phosphat in Trinkwasser und Fischereiwasser. Nitrat und Nitritbelastung liegen unter den zulässigen Grenzwerten. Es wurde kein Bereich ohne nachweisbaren menschlichen Einfluss gefunden, nicht mal bei so geringer Bev.dichte wie 2Menschen /km2; Diese Ergebnisse zeigen die deutliche Verschmutzung des Sentani Sees durch die Menschen. Die Anzahl des roten Regenbogenfisches war in allen Gruppen gleich, ausser es wurde nach Geschlecht getrennt gezählt. Die männlichen Fische war in allen Gruppen ähnlich, während die Anzahl weinblichen Fische in der Gruppe drei niedriger war. Nitrat war der einzige Parameter, dem ein direkter inverser Zusammenhang mit der Anzahl der Regenbogenfische nachgewiesen werden konnte. Die Körperlänge der Fische war signifikant unterschiedlich in den einzelnen Gruppen. Gruppe drei hatte das durchschnittlich größte Körpermass. Phosphat war der einzige Parameter mit Einfluss auf die Körperlänge, obwohl nicht signifikant. Die Anzahl der Fremdfische korrelierte schwach mit der Anzahl der Regenbogenfische. Gruppe zwei hatte eine leicht negative Korrelation, Gruppe eins und drei waren leicht positiv korreliert. Das bedeutet, dass die Anzahl der Fremdfische keinen Einfluss auf die Zahl der Regenbogenfische hat. Die Zahl der männliche Regenbogenfische war in der Flachwasserzone am Ufer höher, während die weiblichen mehr in den tiefen Wassern gefunden wurden. Diese Korrelation war ähnlich in Gruppe eins und zwei, während in der dritten weniger verschmutzten Gruppe eine höhere Anzahl männlicher Fische war. Die unterschiedliche Geschlechterverteilung war abhängig von Habitat, Licht und Temperaturpräferenzen. Grundsätzlich bevorzugen rote Regenbogenfische klares, flaches Wasser mit Sand, Kiesel und Steinsubstrat und halten sich gerne auf zwischen Hydrilla verticillata, Valisneria americana, Eichhornia crassipes, Metroxylon sagu und Gräsern. Das Angebot von Futter war ebenfalls attraktiv für die Fische, insbesondere unter traditionellen Pfahlhäusern, den Wurzeln einiger Pflanzen, Schmutz, Abfall und Holzresten. Pollen und Insekten waren ebenfalls eine bedeutende Nahrungsquelle für die Fische, sowie auch die Larven von Wasserinsekten und Algen. Pflanzwurzeln waren ebenfalls als Rückzugs- und Aufzuchtsgebiet sowie als Spielplatz attraktiv für die Fische. Die Fische vermieden Bereiche mit hohen Lichtintensitäten und zogen schattige Gebiete in tiefem Wasser vor. Diese Faktoren beeinflussten die Verbreitung der Regenbogenfische in den Habitaten und konsequenterweise auch ihre Anzahl. Menschliche Aktivitäten haben Einfluss auf die Qualität des Habitats und des Wassers in und um den Sentanisee. Obwohl die Wasserqualität keinen signifikanten Einfluss auf die Verbreitung der Regenbogenfische hat, dank seiner Fähigkeit, sich auch an schlechtere Konditionen anzupassen, wird eine zunehmende Verschmutzung doch als Bedrohung gewertet. Zunehmende Verschmutzung des Wassers wird sich in einer Verschlechterung des Ökosystems zeigen und wird dazu führen, dass die Arten um geringere Ressourcen konkurrieren müssen. Das wird ultimativ zum Aussterben von endemischen Arten führen, von denen der rote Regenbogenfisch nur ein Vertreter ist. Deshalb sollte der Sentani See prioriär als Naturschutzgebiet in Papua behandelt werden, um einheimische und endemische Arten zu schützen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie liefern Grundlagen Daten für den Schutz des roten Regenbogenfisches im Sentani See. Somit erhalten Politiker Strategien zum Erhalt des Habitats, Möglichkeiten Verschmutzung einzudämmen, und Kommunen zum Naturschutz zu motivieren. Weitere Studien werden benötigt, um das Verhältnis des roten Regenbogenfisches und seine Vorlieben, sowie seine Anfälligkeiten bestimmten Noxen gegenüber zu erforschen. Verschiedene Möglichkeiten der Kontrolle der Verschmutzung sollten ebenfalls erforscht werden. Andere Regionen des Sees, die in dieser Studie nicht erforscht werden konnten, sollten überwacht werden. Unabhängig von den bearbeiteten Untersuchungen am Ökosystem des "Sentani Sees" als Teil eines ganzheitlichen "Sentani See Programms" sollten weitere Studien zur Wasserqualität und insbesondere zum Einfluß anthropogener Umweltverschmutzung auf Flora und Fauna angestellt werden. Eine Überwachung des gesamten Sees zur Bestimmung der Ökologie wäre sinnvoll, damit ein Gesamtprogramm zur ökologischen Rehabilitation folgen kann. ; Summary Located in the western half of New Guinea, Papua is facing rapid and poorly-planned social and economic development, increasing habitat degradation and threatening its high level of species richness and endemicity. Freshwater ecosystems, more than any other biotope in Papua, face the worst consequences from human development through sedimentation, habitat alteration, pollution, and the introduction of exotic species. However, little research has been conducted on the impact of human activities on aquatic species, and specifically fish in lentic and lotic ecosystems, in Papua. Lake Sentani is located in northern Papua, near Jayapura, the capital of Papua Province. It is the largest lowland lake in Papua, and plays a critical role in the survival of the humans and organisms living in and around it. Human activities are negatively affecting its local flora and fauna, especially those with very narrow distributions, such as the rainbowfishes, Chilatherina sentaniensis and Glossolepis incisus, and the Sentani Goby (Glossogobius sp.). The lake is located close to an urban center and heavy development occurs in the north, east, and northeast, while other threats include non-point pollution of human activities, habitat alteration along the shoreline, and introduced species. Despite these concerns, and its proximity to the local government, the lake has received no attention in terms conserving its ecosystem. Moreover, although there is some research on the mollusks, phytoplankton, limnological aspects, and water quality of the lake, none exists specifically on the correlation between human activities and the lake's inhabitants. Therefore, the aim of this study was to document the ecology of the Red Rainbowfish (Glossolepis incisus), one of the threatened endemic fishes in Lake Sentani, and the impact of human activities on its habitats. Specifically, this study was designed to focus on the impact of human activities on the abundance of the Red Rainbowfish, its body length, and sex ratio, and the abundance of introduced fishes and correlation between their abundance and Red Rainbowfish abundance. Assessing the impact of human activities was done by measuring eight water physicochemical parameters that were reported to have the most potential influence on the abundance of the Red Rainbowfish, in nine locations from three zones. The zones were predetermined based on visual assessments of the level of human activities, where higher numbers of people were assumed to have higher impacts on the environment. Zone I's locations had heavy human activity, Zone II's locations had medium human activity, and Zone III's locations had the lowest human activity and was considered a "control area". These zones' locations were later regrouped following analyses of the water physicochemical parameters. Fish and water samples were collected along the shoreline, at depths of up to two meters. Fish were sampled in the morning at each sampling site of a single location, and replicated three times on alternate days, yielding 27 data sets for each zone, or 81 data sets for all three zones within a year, and a total 243 data sets in three years. Collected rainbowfish were differentiated by sex, counted, measured, and released. Water parameters were measured in the same sites in which fish sampling was conducted, three times a day—morning (06.00–09.00 am), midday (11.00 am–13.00 pm), and afternoon (16.00–18.00 pm)—and repeated three times in each sampling site on three alternate days. Thus, a total of 81 water parameter data sets were collected. Water parameters, including nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, biological oxygen demand, and chemical oxygen demand were analyzed in a laboratory, while water temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen were directly measured in the field. Then, the ecology of the rainbowfish was descriptively analyzed to assess the preferred habitat of the fish, including substrate type, water depth, turbidity, and vegetation. The R statistical analysis program was used to analyze the water physicochemical parameters in order to determine the level of pollution in the water, abundance of Red Rainbowfish in each sampling group, and correlation between water physicochemical parameters and Red Rainbowfish abundance and body size. After the level of water pollution was determined, fish samples were arranged into three groups based on the level of pollution in their location. The Analysis Toolpak in Microsoft Excel 2007, and SPSS version 17.0 were used to calculate Red Rainbowfish body length for each group, as well as the difference between groups, correlation between Red Rainbowfish abundance and introduced fish abundance, and Red Rainbowfish abundance and nitrate concentration. Based on the aforementioned water physicochemical parameters, the sampling sites were distinguished into three groups: Groups 1 and 2 indicated heavy pollution (human impact) and Group 3 indicated low pollution (human impact) with fairly good water quality. There were significant differences in certain physicochemical parameters between groups, specifically in nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, BOD, and COD. Group 1 had the highest concentrations of nitrate and nitrite, while Group 2 had the highest concentrations of phosphate, BOD and COD. Group 3 had the best water quality of the three groups, with low to medium concentrations of each parameter. Phosphate levels in all three groups exceeded the Indonesian government's phosphate limit in drinking water and fisheries, with BOD and COD. Nitrate and nitrite were both still within the limit. No area with zero human impact was found, even in sites with a population as low as two people. These results indicate that Lake Sentani already suffers from a high level of organic matter, which enters the lake as the result of human activities around it. Red Rainbowfish abundance was not different between groups, except when fish were counted based on their sex. Male abundance remained similar across groups, whereas female abundance was similar in Groups 1 and 2, but much lower in Group 3. Nitrate was the only water parameter significantly correlating negatively with Red Rainbowfish abundance, suggesting that increased nitrate levels had an effect in decreasing fish abundance in Lake Sentani, although the impact was still low. Red Rainbowfish body length was significantly different between groups, with Group 3 having the longest mean body length. Phosphate was the only parameter found to contribute to Red Rainbowfish body length, albeit non-significantly. Introduced fish abundance correlated weakly with Red Rainbowfish abundance. While Group 2 showed a weak negative correlation, Group 1 and Group 3 revealed a weak positive correlation, suggesting that, whether positive or negative, introduced fish species had a very low influence on the abundance of the Red Rainbowfish. Male Red Rainbowfish were more abundant than females in the shallow waters along the shoreline, the latter being found more commonly in deeper waters. This ratio was similar in Groups 1 and 2, whereas Group 3, whose habitats were the least polluted, had a higher ratio of males. The disparity in sex ratio was possibly caused by their different habitat preferences, as well as light and temperature preferences. The overall habitat preference of the Red Rainbowfish was clear, shallow water, sand, gravel, and cobble substrate, and shoaling amidst Hydrilla verticillata, Valisneria americana, Eichhornia crassipes, Metroxylon sagu, and grasses. The availability of food also attracted fish to certain areas, such as under traditional stilt houses, roots of some plants, litter, and wood debris. The pollen of terrestrial plants, as well as terrestrial insects, also served as a food source for the fish, along with the larvae of aquatic insects and algae. Roots of plants were also important for refuge, and as nursery and playing grounds. Moreover, the fish avoided high light intensities by moving to shaded areas or deeper water. These factors influenced the Red Rainbowfish's distribution and habitat selection, and consequently, its abundance. Human activities in and around Lake Sentani have impacted the quality of its habitats and water. Although water quality did not have a significant influence on the Red Rainbowfish, owing to its ability to adapt to changes in water quality, changes to its habitat will have a significant impact on its ability to survive in Lake Sentani. The outcome of the present rate of pollution of its water will be further and more serious deterioration of its ecosystem, force its inhabitants to compete for increasingly fewer resources, and ultimately result in the extinction of its endemic species, of which the Red Rainbowfish is just one example. Therefore, Lake Sentani should be made a priority in Papuan conservation and management efforts, especially for native and endemic species. The results of this study provide baseline data for Red Rainbowfish conservation in Lake Sentani, and will allow policy-makers to pursue the protection of its habitats, create a strategy to control pollutants, and encourage community-based environmental management. Further research is needed on the correlation between the Red Rainbowfish and its preferences, and its susceptibility to certain types and concentrations of pollutants. Different strategies of pollution control should also be investigated. Other parts of Lake Sentani that were beyond the scope of this research should also be surveyed, along with a lake-wide program examining the exact condition of Lake Sentani's ecosystem, whether it be the quality of its water or the response of its flora and fauna to ongoing anthropogenic disturbance, after which a more comprehensive rehabilitation program may follow.

Dentro de los usos que se puede ofrecer a los lodos EDAR, debido a que contienen una cantidad elevada de materia orgánica y un más que aceptable contenido en elementos nutricionales, es su consideración (siempre que no hayan elementos en contra que introduzcan toxicidad) como enmiendas orgánicas o incluso, como fertilizantes orgánicos, susceptibles de ser reciclados en los suelos y conseguir para los mismos una mejora en productividad, fertilidad, y por tanto un su calidad. Precisamente, en zonas como la Región de Murcia donde existen una continua degradación de suelos que les lleva a perder materia orgánica, así como productividad desde un punto de vista agronómico, la posibilidad de disponer de fuentes exógenas de materia orgánica como los lodos EDAR, que puedan ser recicladas en los suelos, es algo muy a tener presente. Por tanto, una posible solución mejorar la calidad de suelos agrícolas sería entonces emplear como fuente de materia orgánica para ellos aquella contenida en los lodos EDAR, consiguiendo de este modo, por una parte, mejorar la fertilidad de dichos suelos, y por otra, eliminar racionalmente los residuos mediante su reciclado en dichos suelos (conversión de un Residuo en un Recurso). En este contexto, esta Tesis Doctoral se propuso como Objetivo principal generar conocimiento sobre una gran cantidad de lodos producidos en nuestra Comunidad Autónoma, con ánimo de comprobar sus posibilidades para reciclarlos en suelo desde un punto de vista agronómico, e incluso ambiental. Este estudio valora parámetros de índole agronómico que pueden justificar la consideración de los lodos como "enmiendas orgánicas" o incluso "fertilizantes orgánicos", ya que la finalidad de este estudio es conocer la posibilidad de reciclar lodos en los suelos agrícolas de la Región de Murcia. Para alcanzar este Objetivo General, la Tesis Doctoral ha llevado a cabo una parte experimental consistente en una amplia serie de analíticas, realizadas sobre lodos EDAR producidos en un conjunto de depuradoras de tratamiento de aguas urbanas situadas en la Comunidad Autónoma de Murcia (30 en total), cerca del 90 % del total de lodos que se producen en nuestra Región. La mencionada parte experimental ha consistido en los correspondientes muestreos (tres al año, para poder comprobar la posible variabilidad estacional de los lodos), así como la determinación en todas las muestras de un set de parámetros al objeto de monitorizar su comportamiento cara a poder reciclar lodos EDAR en los suelos desde una perspectiva agronómica. Se han estudiado parámetros de tipo físico (contenido en humedad), parámetros físico-químicos (pH y CE), nutricionales (macro y micronutrientes), y otros de índole ambiental (metales pesados, contaminantes orgánicos como bifenilos, LAS, nonifenoles y, PAH,s). También se ha llevado a cabo un estudio sobre parámetros indicativos de la actividad y la biomasa microbiana de los lodos, tanto de índole "general", tales como la respiración de suelo, el contenido de adenosín trifosfato (ATP) y de carbono de la biomasa microbiana, como de índole "especifico" entre los que citaremos a diversas actividades enzimáticas (oxidorreductasas como la actividad deshidrogenasa, como hidrolasas: ureasas, fosfatasas y b-glucosidasas). Asimismo, se han determinado parámetros referidos a su problemática microbiológica ligada a microorganismos patógenos contenidos en los lodos estudiados. Esta fase del estudio se consideró de interés debido a la importancia que el grado de higienización de los lodos puede tener en un futuro. Por último, se estudió la ecotoxicidad de los residuos, empleando un bioensayo de luminiscencia con la bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. La evaluación de la fitotoxicidad de los lodos mediante ensayos de germinación (test de plantas) de dos especies vegetales de diferente grado de sensibilidad a los efectos de la contaminación: cebada (Hordeum vulgare L.) y berro (Lepidium sativum L.) se ha considerado adecuada en este estudio. Todas las muestras, tomadas en las condiciones adecuadas de muestreo, se muestrearon por triplicado para poder someter las mismas a tratamiento estadístico. La CONCLUSION GENERAL a este estudio, es que la mayor parte de los lodos EDAR estudiados por nosotros pueden ser usados como una fuente de materia orgánica apropiada para ser adicionada a suelos con ánimo de conseguir mejorar en los mismos su productividad y fertilidad. Sin embargo, la salinidad que pueden aportar, así como elementos tóxicos tales como metales pesados puede suponer también una traba, y por ello interesa que contengan una cantidad mínima de los mismos. Se recuerda en este punto, que para el uso agrícola de lodos se sigue la legislación marcada en el Real Decreto 1310/1990, en donde se señalan las cantidades máximas de metal pesado que pueden contener los lodos para poder ser usados en agricultura. Por supuesto, otros aspectos como los contenidos en microorganismos patogénicos, o incluso compuestos carbonados difícilmente volatilizables deben ser considerados más que por la problemática inmediata, por su potencialidad en el futuro. Se concluye pues que hay que conocer mediante una exhaustiva analítica, el material que será reciclado en un suelo (en este caso, los lodos), para así comprobar que está exento de riesgos. Hemos asimismo de señalar que no se detectan efectos negativos en algunos parámetros de calidad, como los relacionados con actividad microbiana. Sin embargo, hemos de tener presente que se ponen de manifiesto efectos positivos derivados de la carga orgánica de los lodos (biota), y otros negativos derivados de su posible contaminación; si los positivos superan a los negativos, éstos últimos no se manifiestan, pero no indica que no estén presentes. Algo también a tener presente es el antagonismo o sinergismo que puede darse entre diversos metales o contaminantes, los cuales pueden marcar una pauta de comportamiento. Todo esto confirma la necesidad de conocer de la manera más adecuada posible, la calidad de la enmienda o fertilizante orgánico que se puede usar. El tratamiento al que se someten los lodos en la planta de tratamiento tiene incidencia sobre algunos de los parámetros estudiados en este Memoria; pero la calidad de las aguas entrantes, o incluso la zona donde se sitúan las depuradoras (zona con intervenciones metálicas, por ejemplo), es más incidente en muchos de los casos, que el propio tratamiento. De manera complementaria y al igual que ocurre con el Programa de Caracterización de Lodos de Depuradoras Generados en España publicado por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente en 2009 y el Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora integrado dentro del Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015, con esta Memoria se ha pretendido mejorar el conocimiento sobre la composición de los lodos de las depuradoras de aguas residuales en la Comunidad Autónoma de la Región de Murcia y por ende del Estado Español (metales pesados, parámetros agronómicos, patógenos y contaminantes orgánicos), con la finalidad última de utilizar los conocimientos derivados de esta Tesis para la revisión del Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora integrado dentro del Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015.SUMMARY Due to the significant quantities of organic matter and nutritional elements that WWTP sludges contain, the most important potential application of this waste is as an organic amendment or even as an organic fertilizer (provided it does not contain toxic elements as well). Such sludges can be recycled in the soil and thus improve the productivity, fertility and, ultimately, the quality of the soil. In areas like the Region of Murcia where soil degradation is incessant, resulting in lost organic matter and lost agricultural productivity, the possibility of obtaining exogenous sources of organic matter like WWTP sludges that can be recycled in the soil is particularly attractive. Using WWTP sludges as a source of organic matter is therefore one possible solution for improving the quality of agricultural soils. This would not only improve soil fertility, but also provide a means to rationally eliminate waste by recycling it in degraded soils (thus converting Waste into a Resource). Nevertheless, this recycling process should be able to be carried out without posing a risk to the soil on account of the excessive toxic elements that sludges sometimes contain. When the toxic elements in sludges reach levels that constitute a risk to the soils where they are to be recycled, their use as an amendment should be prohibited. The main goal of this Doctoral Thesis was to generate knowledge about a significant number of the sludges produced in our Region in order to assess their potential for being recycled in the soil from an agricultural as well as environmental point of view. Given this ultimate purpose – to determine the possibility of recycling sludges in agricultural soils in the Region of Murcia – agronomic parameters were evaluated that could be used to justify the use of sludges as "organic amendments" or even as "organic fertilizers". The treatment processes the sludges were submitted to (mainly anaerobic or prolonged aerobic) were also considered as variables in some of the parameters studied. To achieve this Overall Goal, this Doctoral Thesis includes an experimental component in which a wide range of analyses were performed on WWTP sludges produced in a group of urban wastewater treatment plants located in the Region of Murcia (a total of 30). These treatment plants generate about 90% of the total sludge produced in the Region. The experimental component of the Thesis involved collecting samples at three different times of the year (in order to evaluate for possible seasonal variability among the sludges) and determining a set of parameters in all samples in order to monitor their behaviour and thus assess the possibility of recycling WWTP sludges in agricultural soils. The following parameters were studied: physical parameters (moisture content); physical-chemical parameters (pH and EC); nutritional parameters (macro and micronutrients); and other parameters of an environmental nature (heavy metals, organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls, LAS, nonylphenols and PAHs). A study was also conducted on parameters indicative of the microbial activity and biomass of the different sludges, both of a "general" nature, such as soil respiration and the Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and carbon content of the microbial biomass, and of a "specific" nature, including various enzymatic activities (of oxidoreductases, such as dehydrogenases; and of hydrolases, such as ureases, phosphatases and -glucosidases). Furthermore, parameters were determined for microbiological problems linked to the pathogens contained in the sludges studied. This phase of the study was deemed of interest given the potential importance that the degree to which sludges are sanitised may have in the future. Finally, the ecotoxicity of the wastes was studied by means of a bioassay using the luminescent bacteria Photobacterium phosphoreum. For the purposes of this study, it was considered adequate to assess the phytotoxicity of the sludges by means of germination assays (a test using plant seeds) of two plant species displaying different degrees of sensitivity to the effects of sludge phytotoxicity, as are barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and cress (Lepidium sativum L.). All samples, taken in appropriate sampling conditions, were collected in triplicate so they could be submitted to statistical treatment. The GENERAL CONCLUSION of this Thesis is that most of the WWTP sludges studied can be used as a suitable source of organic matter for amending soils with the goal of improving soil productivity and fertility. However, sludges can also pose a threat to the soil by adding salinity and toxic elements such as heavy metals. It is thus important that sludges contain minimum amounts of these substances. It is worth recalling that the agricultural use of sludges is currently regulated by legislation in Spain, by the Royal Decree 1310/1990, which indicates the maximum amounts of heavy metal that sludges can contain for agricultural use. In determining this quality, it is also of course important to take other aspects into consideration such as pathogenic microorganism content and even the amount of minimally volatile carbon compounds, and not just for the immediate problems they pose, but also due to their potential to cause problems in the future. It is therefore essential to perform comprehensive analyses of materials that are to be recycled in soils (in this case, sludges) to ensure they are free of risk. It is of note that no adverse effects were detected in some of the quality parameters studied, such as those linked to microbial activity. However, we must keep in mind that the organic content of sludges (biota) demonstrates positive effects but that it can also have negative effects resulting from possible contamination. If the positives outweigh the negatives, the latter do not show up, but this does not mean they are not present. Another thing to consider is the antagonism or synergism that can occur between different metals or contaminants, both of which can set a behavioural pattern. All of these concerns accentuate the need to understand to the greatest extent possible the quality of the amendments or organic fertilizers that are to be used in the soil. The treatment processes sludges went through in the treatment plant influenced some of the parameters studied in this Thesis. Nevertheless, the quality of incoming water or even the location of the treatment plants (areas with metal operations, for example) had an even greater impact in many cases than the treatment process itself. The goal of this Thesis was to improve knowledge about the composition of the sludges produced in wastewater treatment plants in the Autonomous Community of the Region of Murcia and, ultimately, in Spain as a whole (heavy metals, agronomic parameters, pathogens and organic contaminants). This objective complements the Programa de Caracterización de Lodos de Depuradoras Generados en España published by the Ministry of Environment in 2009 and the Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora , which is part of the Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015 . The ultimate aim of this Thesis is to apply the knowledge acquired to revising the Plan Nacional de Lodos de Depuradora (part of the Plan Nacional Integrado de Residuos 2008-2015).

AMÉRICA LATINAHuracán Ernesto golpea costas latinoamericanas.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-19161991 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48547729/ns/weather/#.UCHRrqDMqw4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862872.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/06/world/americas/tropical-weather/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Brasil emprende una purga histórica: la justicia pone en marcha el mayor juicio contra la corrupción.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/world/americas/brazil-corruption-trial/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/02/actualidad/1343896640_718618.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-brazil-feud-20120805,0,7450497.story Aumentan las deportaciones de guatemaltecos desde Estados Unidos y México.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/aumentan-las-deportaciones-de-guatemaltecos-desde-eeuu-y-mxico_12097444-4La muerte de un obispo argentino persigue a Videla.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344123707_429512.htmlMéxico: 83 mil muertos por violencia narco. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/83952799-D1C3-44FA-A1FA-0CC735028829.htm?id={83952799-D1C3-44FA-A1FA-0CC735028829} http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=156510584Un mes después de los comicios, la guerra electoral sigue en México.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/03/actualidad/1343948993_785278.htmlAbuelas de Mayo encuentran al hijo número 106 desaparecido durante la dictadura argentina.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/avos-de-maio-encontram-106-filho-de-desaparecido-na-ditadura-5715080#ixzz22v3yejZh Ex Presidente paraguayo Lugo dice que podría ser candidato en 2013. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/E59F987C-EF61-489D-91CD-32E845208D25.htm?id={E59F987C-EF61-489D-91CD-32E845208D25} Brasil retrocede en la protección de la Amazonia.Para más información: http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/cnews.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=156510584 "El País" de Madrid analiza: "La Iglesia, oposición en Sudamérica".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/03/actualidad/1344007108_431382.html Chile inicia la expulsión de 720 presos extranjeros.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1497216-chile-inicia-la-expulsion-de-720-presos-extranjeros#comentar Un crimen pone en vilo a la embajada de Venezuela en Kenia y salpica a Chávez.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/quenia-investiga-elo-entre-trafico-morte-de-diplomata-venezuelana-5712477#ixzz22v3rid17 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1497101-un-crimen-pone-en-vilo-a-la-embajada-de-venezuela-en-kenia-y-salpica-a-chavezFernández compara a Europa con la Argentina del 'corralito'.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/03/actualidad/1343961843_982301.html Ministro de Finanzas hondureño renuncia tras arresto a su esposa.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/world/americas/honduras-finance-minister/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 Apoyo a Santos cae diez puntos y llega al 43,9%. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-colombia-santos-20120802,0,6099586.story http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/0F68A2E0-6A00-462B-9EBC-BC6C0457BF7C.htm?id={0F68A2E0-6A00-462B-9EBC-BC6C0457BF7C}Viajeros argentinos tendrán más restricciones para comprar dólares.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/argentinos-con-ms-restricciones-para-comprar-dlares_12104607-4Giro de la Argentina en la relación con Damasco.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1496976-giro-de-la-argentina-en-la-relacion-con-damasco#comentar Estados Unidos sanciona a socios de capo mexicano 'Chapo' Guzmán en Belice.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/ee-uu-sanciona-a-socios-de-capo-mexicano-chapo-guzmn-en-belice_12105924-4Descarrilamiento de tren deja decenas de heridos en Argentina.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/descarrilamiento-de-tren-deja-decenas-de-heridos-en-argentina_12102261-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁNuevo tiroteo deja siete muertos en templo sij en Estados Unidos. Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2012/08/06/le-tueur-du-wisconsin-etait-un-supremaciste-blanc_1743010_3222.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/matanza-en-templo-indigna-a-ee-uu_12099103-4 http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/policia-tratara-atentado-em-templo-sikh-como-terrorismo-domestico-5696705#ixzz22v3jpmi7 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1496969-un-ex-militar-fue-el-autor-de-la-masacre-en-el-templo-de-eeuu#comentar http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862926.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/_portada/noticias/E26275C9-D6CC-4C65-AC5F-369DAD81DE26.htm?id={E26275C9-D6CC-4C65-AC5F-369DAD81DE26} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344195195_587429.html Sequía en Estados Unidos podría alcanzar a los pobres del mundo: expertos.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/sequa-en-estados-unidos_12104604-4 Obama elude hablar de nuevas leyes de armas. Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862888.html"The Economist" analiza situación del mercado de trabajo estadounidense.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2012/08/americas-jobless-recovery Varios medios analizan campaña electoral estadounidense.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-08/08/content_15651722.htm http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862949.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/31/politics/romney-trip-success-saster/index.html?hpt=wo_bn9 http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/ http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344183820_620169.htmlAutor de tiroteo en Tucson que dejó seis muertos se declara culpable.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-19167320 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/jared-loughner-se-declara-culpable-de-tiroteo-en-tucson_12106601-4 Clinton realiza visita a Sudán del Sur durante su gira por África. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/31/world/africa/clinton-africa-trip/index.html?hpt=wo_bn10 Robot de la NASA en Marte.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2012/08/06/suivez-l-atterrissage-de-curiosity-sur-mars-en-direct_1742760_3244.html EUROPA"The Economist" analiza vinculo del Banco Central Europeo y la crisis del euro.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2012/08/ecb-and-euro-crisis Monti teme que la crisis de la deuda lleve a la "disolución" de Europa.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/monti-teme-que-la-crisis-de-la-deuda-lleve-a-la-disolucin-de-europa_12097101-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1497098-italia-se-hunde-en-la-recesion-volvio-a-caer-el-pbi#comentar http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/CDD7EC92-7FB8-4598-941E-7A7A75888A51.htm?id={CDD7EC92-7FB8-4598-941E-7A7A75888A51}Los griegos viven su quinto verano de recesión entre la resignación y el anhelo de salir adelante.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/world/europe/greece-says-progress-made-in-talks-with-troika.html?ref=world http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344120321_837535.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344119487_714008.html Inspectores troika concluyen visita a Grecia, volverán en septiembre.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/inspectores-troika-concluyen-visita-a-grecia-volvern-en-septiembre_12097081-4Grecia continúa ofensiva contra inmigrantes ilegales.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/grecia-continua-ofensiva-contra-imigrantes-fecha-bordeis-ilegais-5718901#ixzz22v8RKIjO Por el freno a una reforma política peligra la coalición de Cameron.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1496971-por-el-freno-a-una-reforma-politica-peligra-la-coalicion-de-camero Acusan en Estados Unidos a banco británico de ocultar más de 250 mil millones de dólares iraníes.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/08/06/la-banque-britannique-scb-accusee-de-travailler-avec-l-iran_1743058_3234.html http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862911.html http://bottomline.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/07/13157019-ny-regulator-may-pull-license-of-rogue-uk-bank-over- Type%20to%20Content=Earne1786482España: saquearon supermercados en protesta por la crisis.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1497157-espana-desocupados-y-sindicalistas-saqueraron-supermercados-en-protesta-por-la-crisis#comentarBielorrusia expulsa al embajador de Suecia y Estocolmo rechazará la llegada de un nuevo jefe de la diplomacia de Minsk.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/03/actualidad/1344011534_422262.html Choque de trenes en España.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-08/08/content_15651672.htm Una veintena de muertos en un ataque kurdo a un puesto militar de Turquía. Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344169768_293333.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/8341878E-F784-4E29-AD5D-AB32CCFA2379.htm?id={8341878E-F784-4E29-AD5D-AB32CCFA2379} Ucrania: Timoshenko cumple un año en prisión. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/8A52376C-7BB3-4CE9-B1A0-EB33F7D0D872.htm?id={8A52376C-7BB3-4CE9-B1A0-EB33F7D0D872} Prisión para banda punk opositora del presidente Putin.Para más información: http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/07/13162029-russian-prosecutors-seek-3-year-sentences-for-pussy-riot- k=1786482 Un año después de los disturbios Londres deja atrás su peor pesadilla. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/12ABF7B7-7155-4091-A22F-B5F0414A87BD.htm?id={12ABF7B7-7155-4091-A22F-B5F0414A87BD} Célula de Al Qaeda tenía como objetivo Gibraltar. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/05/world/europe/spain-terror-arrests/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Berlusconi entra en la lista de los diez políticos más peligrosos.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/berlusconi-entra-na-lista-dos-dez-politicos-mais-perigosos-5716592#ixzz22v8OI3K9 Rusia e India inician ejercicios conjuntos para frenar posibles ataques terroristas. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-08/07/content_15650476.htm ASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEContinúa la guerra civil en Siria.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/07/world/middleeast/syrian-state-tv-reportedly-attacked-as-propaganda-war-unfolds.html?ref=world http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/08/06/pilonnage-et-combats-a-alep-avant-la-bataille-decisive_1742762_3218.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/06/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/_portada/noticias/5A80508E-AAC3-46B8-9A35-C9E069683F54.htm?id={5A80508E-AAC3-46B8-9A35-C9E069683F54} http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1496977-escapar-una-decision-peligrosa-y-expuesta-a-brutales-represalias# http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-19174257 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/48550900/ns/technology_and_science-security/#.UCHU3qDMqw5 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/siria-est-decidida-a-aplastar-a-la-rebelin-contra-su-rgimen_12105821-4 http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-08/08/content_15651023.htm http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/siria-refuerza-alianza-con-iran_12106935-4Los rebeldes afirman que Siria tiene como rehenes miembros del régimen iraní.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-kidnap-20120805,0,7290703.story http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344162267_629819.htmlOjos sobre Irán y Siria, Israel fortalece escudo misiles.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ojos-sobre-irn-y-siria-israel-fortalece-escudo-misiles_12097331-4 La ONU enviará ayuda alimentaria a Corea del Norte tras las inundaciones.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/04/actualidad/1344075184_634182.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/03/world/asia/north-korea-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7 En Vietnam se realizó la primera marcha de orgullo gay.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/video/2012/08/06/au-vietnam-les-homosexuels-ont-organise-leur-premiere-gay-pride_1743043_3216.htmlEl sultán "infalible" de Brunei.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/03/actualidad/1344015358_067412.html Cinco muertos en un atentado con explosivos en Pakistán.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/cinco-muertos-en-un-atentado-con-explosivos-en-pakistn_12097162-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/06/world/asia/pakistan-nato-convoy-attack/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Ataque suicida en Yemen. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/world/middleeast/yemen-suicide-attacks-toll-rises.html?ref=world 2 ciclones tropicales golpean costa china.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/03/world/asia/china-storms/index.html?hpt=wo_bn7 El alcalde que quiere cambiar el rostro de Irán. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/5915C0FA-940E-4A26-AB1C-74DDAC97A0FF.htm?id={5915C0FA-940E-4A26-AB1C-74DDAC97A0FF} Ante sanciones a programa nuclear, Irán sube precios del petróleo. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/alvo-de-sancoes-por-programa-nuclear-ira-vive-alta-de-precos-5721672#ixzz22v9vEqtF Japón recuerda a víctimas de Hiroshima, 67 años después.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/862825.html7Ocho muertos en ataque en autopista en Kabul.Para más información: http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/07/13162500-eight-dead-from-roadside-bomb-attack-in- 256598600 Inundaciones en Manila.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-19174538 http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/07/13153253-its-like-waterworld-monsoon-rains-swas.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=1786482 Conflicto en Asia por dominio de mar al sur de China.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2012/08/south-china-sea Volcán que estuvo 'dormido' 115 años hace erupción en Nueva Zelanda.Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/vulcao-na-nova-zelandia-desperta-apos-mais-de-cem-anos-5718120#ixzz22v9xZNJk http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/06/13149078-new-zealands-mount-tongariro-volcanbcnews.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=1786482 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/oceania/volcan-hace-erupcion-en-nueva-zelanda_12106946-4ÁFRICAUn ataque terrorista mata a 16 policías egipcios en el Sinaí. Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-dangerous-sinai-20120807,0,5046412.story http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/06/actualidad/1344246636_797818.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/08/06/internacional/internacional/noticias/D980D4BF-B1EE-41DA-9F2F-59C02F60FFED.htm?id={D980D4BF-B1EE-41DA-9F2F-59C02F60FFED} http://edition.cnn.com/2012/08/06/world/africa/egypt-violence/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/08/06/attaque-meurtriere-a-la-frontiere-israelo-egyptienne_1742756_3212.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/05/actualidad/1344198380_107482.html http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ataque-en-sinai-pone-a-prueba-a-egipto_12106929-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/yihadistas-matan-a-16-soldados-egipcios_12099107-4 Muere tiroteado un empleado de la ONU en el sur de Sudán.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/muere-tiroteado-un-empleado-de-la-onu-en-el-sur-de-sudn_12097141-4 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/world/middleeast/gunmen-storm-egyptian-base-killing-15-soldiers.html?ref=world Clinton visita a Mandela.Para más información: http://worldnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/06/13144620-clinton-visits-mandela-94-at-home-duringbcnews.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=156510584 Sudán y Sudán del Sur llegan a un acuerdo sobre las exportaciones de crudo.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/08/04/actualidad/1344082739_899518.html http://worldnews.nbcnews.co5375.|8=Earned%20By=msnbc|cover=1^12=Landing%20Content=Mixed=1^13=Landing%20Hostname=www.nbcnews.com=1^30=Visit%20Type%20to%20Content=Earned%20to%20Mixed=1&__utmk=156510584OTRAS"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21559678

Pierwszy globalny konflikt międzynarodowy w XX wieku doprowadził do rozbioru Turcji. Nowy układ sił usankcjonowany został wprowadzeniem systemu mandatowego będącego w rzeczywistości jedynie zawoalowaną formą kolonialnego charakteru zaboru arabskiej części tego państwa. Porozumienia między Wielką Brytanią i Francją dotyczące podziału stref wpływów na tym obszarze powierzało pieczę nad Mezopotamią władzom w Londynie. Umowa otwierała drogę do powstania na tym terytorium odrębnego państwa. Powołana przez Wielką Brytanię do życia monarchia iracka o powierzchni o 1/3 większej od obszaru dzisiejszej Polski była całkowicie sztucznym tworem politycznym, niewydzielonym tradycją historyczną konglomeratem etniczno–wyznaniowym, stanowiącym poza okręgami północnymi wykrojony z świata arabskiego fragment mający jedynie czytelną, opartą w przybliżeniu na kryterium narodowościowym granicę na wschodzie. Protektorzy i polityczni budowniczowie tego quasi–państwa, desygnując na tron króla Fajsala, ustanawiając powolne rządy i sterując procesem legislacyjnym, zapewnili tu sobie niemal nieograniczone wpływy . Nadzorowali politykę zagraniczną i obronną Iraku, a przede wszystkim tutejsze złoża ropy naftowej. Zmagania zbrojne II wojny światowej wykazały, jak bardzo ważne dla odniesienia sukcesu militarnego było zapewnienie nieograniczonego dostępu do źródeł tego surowca. Międzynarodowa ranga Iraku wyraźnie wzrosła. Zawiadywanie znajdującymi się na jego terytorium zasobami naturalnymi nabrało teraz dodatkowo zupełnie nowego, nie w pełni docenianego dotąd pozaekonomicznego wymiaru. Stały się one bowiem elementem strategicznym. Równie istotne zaczęło być samo położenie geopolityczne tego kraju. Oba te faktory, łącząc się w jedną całość, czyniły Irak niezwykle ważnym państwem bliskowschodnim. Posiadanie dominujących w nim wpływów pozwalało kształtować nie tylko rozmiary produkcji ropy ale przez długie lata ze względu na istniejącą infrastrukturę także cały prowadzony za pośrednictwem rurociągów transfer naftowy do arabskich portów Zatoki Perskiej i Morza Śródziemnego. W konsekwencji Irak pozostawał w ścisłym spektrum zainteresowania światowych mocarstw, a za takie uchodzić będą tu: Wielka Brytania, Stany Zjednoczone, Związek Radziecki oraz przez wzgląd na silne wpływy w świecie arabskim także Francja. Rezultaty agresywnej polityki tych potęg wobec Iraku, całkowicie determinujące sytuację i stan stosunków międzynarodowych w skali makroregionalnej a pośrednio globalnej, z różnych względów nie zostały jednak dotąd opracowane. Podstawowym celem badawczym pracy było zatem ustalenie wpływu, jaki wywierała w analizowanym okresie polityka mocarstw na sytuację wewnętrzną i zewnętrzną Iraku, a także ukazanie konsekwencji zajmowanego wobec tego państwa stanowiska dla stanu istniejących stosunków w obszarze Bliskiego i Środkowego Wschodu oraz globalnych relacji międzynarodowych. ; The analysis of the material confirms a wide range of political actions lead by Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union towards Iraq. The main reasons for such a state of affairs were Iraq's geopolitical location, and rich and easy to develop Iraqi oil fields. It was also the infrastructure enabling transit of home stock to Mediterranean ports and, in prospect, sending oil of Saudi, Kuwaian and Irani origin forward. As a result, in the time of post-war monarchy (1945 – 1958) Iraq was completely deprived of any influence on forming its own internal situation and international position. In the first case, the existence of such a situation was clearly expressed by the court's dependence on Great Britain and personal relationships between the king's family and the members of the government, and local political establishment. A similar evidence of inability to make independent decisions was Iraqi political parties financed by British and American groups of interest. They also manipulated, through the Iraqi offices, the work of both local legislatures and, at the same time, they helped each succeeding Baghdad cabinet in every respect. An equally obvious proof of Iraqi government dependence was their consultations on home affairs with representatives of Downing Street and the White House, as well as British forces stationing in Iraq and American military presence. Much the same should be judged from the fact that the basic branches of economy were under control of companies representing former mandatories and the treaties signed at that time. The external supervision reached even the political underground, which was kept under surveilance and secretely supported by the Soviet Union. Iraq was made a centre of British influence in the region, and was given a crucial role in all preparations to accomplish projects serving to restore British influence in the Middle East, which also shows Iraq's independence in the sphere of political relations. Equally visible symptom of this phenomenon was dubious attitude of Iraqi government during Sues Crisis. It included providing with weapon and fuel for planes taking off British airports to shell Egypt, protection for oil instalation and oil pipelines, planning Syria neutralization in the case it took any offensive actions against Israel – clearly contrasting to attitude of other Arabian countries. We can give the same explanation to Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact strictly connected with the rest of British plans to get back the domination in the Middle East. The strong influence of western powers, especially Great Britain, on Iraqi government contributed significantly to support of political tension in the Middle East. Returning attempts to accomplish the Fertile Crescent unification under rule of probritish Hashimids favouring monopolization of oil transit towards Mediterranean coast destabilized the situation in Syria, Lebanon and Jordan making even Kuwait an object of potential expansion. These attempts also met a firm counteraction of remaining powers and authorities in Kuwait and Riyadh, which were unfavorable to british-iraqi aspirations. A seroius consequence of subjecting Iraq to strong external pressure, apart from ruinous results for stabilisation, was its destructive influence on the process of political integration of the Arabian world. It efficiently hampered introduction of existing unification ideas, which lay in the interest of each power. It is also worth to pay attention to the consequences of Iraqi membership in Baghdad Pact. Through the influence of western powers it became one of the bases of antirussian military pact by breaking the existing east Arabian neutrality and making it a new front of the Cold War confrontation. The changes in external situation and international Iraq position brought about by the revolution of July 14, 1958, were not only the effect of the Soviet Union's actions. Each power applied a completely different policy towards Iraq. The division lines of existing rivalry for this country were drawn not only along the standing bipolar confrontation border between east and west but first of all within the sphere of this last pole. Great Britain and the United States cooperation was limited to a very small range of issues. Political activity of American administration during presidencies of H. Truman and D. D. Eisenhower in relation to Iraq was directed towards changing the face of things in that country and replacing British interests by American ones. It proved totally inefficient. By destroying the existing balance it contributed significantly to loss of American influence, and, unable fill the empty space, it only prepared the political ground for Soviet penetration in Iraq. The Cremlin supported Arabian aspirations favouring independence. As a result, the western powers were deprived of their previous possibilities to influence this country. The revolution raised Iraqi independence on a new quality status. During the first decade of the republican government (1958 – 1967) the world powers retained their significant influence on Iraq. They interfered into the country's affairs in two ways: through economic relations and through oppositional groups. Both forms of the pressure used turned out to be very effective and forced the local government to take into consideration interests of Great Britain and the Soviet Union when making any decisions important for the country. The strength of this reaction was reflected in both trade deals, and mass riots and demonstrations started by Kurds. As a result not only the country's international position but its internal affairs as well were defined by the policy of the world powers towards Iraq. Pains of Iraqi leaders aimed at weakening the relations which cramped the country's independence were stopped by their deaths. A.K. Kasim was murdered whereas S. A. Arif died in a mysterious plane crash, which shows the complexity of this problem. The main reason which let the world powers influence strongly the Republic of Iraq during the years of 1958 – 1967 were the huge debts of this country in the face of the eastern block, whereas its income – due to the way in which the concession treaties based on proportional share in oil sale were written – came from the western oil consortiums and depended on the level of production. It gave both sides unlimited possibilities of political manipulations. It was only the nationalization of the Iraq's biggest company– Iraq Petroleum Company - on July 1, 1972, and of some of the other oil giants – Mosul Petroleum Company, Standard Oil of New Jersey, Mobil Oil, Gulbekian and a significant part of Royal Dutch shares during the next year – together with steep crude oil price boost and introduction of embargo on its deliveries to western countries by Arabian countries that granted a unique opportunity for the then Iraqi regime to limit radically foreign influence for more than a quarter of a century. Резюме Анализ подтвердил широкий спектр политический действий, предпринимавшихся Великобританией, Соединенными Штатами и Советским Союзом в отношении Ирака. Главной причиной такой ситуации стало геополитическое положение Ирака, богатые, не представляющие трудностей при добыче нефтяные месторождения и инфраструктура, позволяющая транспортировать сырье к портам Средиземного моря, а в перспективе – пересылать нефть из Ирана, Кувейта и Саудовской Аравии. Итак, в период послевоенной монархии (1945–1958) Ирак был полностью лишен возможности оказывать влияние как на ситуацию внутри страны, так и на международное положение. В первом случае это выражалось в зависимости дворцовых кругов от Великобритании и личных связях королевской семьи и членов правительства Ирака c английским политическим истеблишментом. О невозможности самостоятельного принятия решений свидетельствует также финансирование английскими и американскими деловыми кругами иракских парламентских партий, манипуляция с их помощью деятельностью обеих законодательных палат и оказание всесторонней поддержки со стороны западных держав очередным иракским правительствам. Очевидным симптомом зависимости иракских властей были консультации с представителями Великобритании и США относительно внутриполитических проблем, размещение на своей территории английских вооруженных сил и присутствие постоянной американской военной миссии. Подобным же образом нужно, по всей видимости, расценивать и тот факт, что основная отрасль экономики оставалась под контролем компаний, представляющих интересы бывших мандатариев, а также относящееся к тому же времени заключение международных договоров. Внешний контроль простирался даже на политическое подполье, контролируемое и тайно финансируемое Советским Союзом. Значимым для подчиненного положения в сфере международных отношений было выделение Ираку роли центра английского воздействия в регионе и подготовки разнообразных проектов, имеющих целью восстановление влияния этой державы на Ближнем Востоке. Заметным симптомом названного явления стала неоднозначная позиция иракского правительства во время Суэцкого кризиса: снабжение оружием и топливом вылетающих с местных аэродромов для бомбардировки Египта британских самолетов, защита установок и нефтепроводов, планы нейтрализации Сирии в случае, если она вступит в войну против Израиля – все это ярко контрастировало с позицией остальных арабских государств. Подобным образом объясняется и проблема иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте, тесно связанная с британскими намерениями вернуть себе господство на Ближнем Востоке. Сильное влияние западных держав, особенно Великобритании, на иракское правительство способствовало поддержанию политической напряженности в ближневосточном регионе. Постоянные попытки осуществить объединение "Благодатного Полумесяца" под властью пробританской династии Хашимидов, содействовали монополизации транзита нефти к средиземноморскому побережью, дестабилизировали ситуацию в Сирии, Ливане и Иордании, превращая даже Кувейт в объект потенциальной экспансии. Одновременно попытки эти сталкивались с решительным противоборством остальных мировых держав, каирских и риядских властей, не приветствовавших британо-иракские планы. Серьезным последствием того, что Ирак подвергался сильному внешнему давлению, кроме пагубных для региональной стабилизации результатов, было сильное деструктивное влияние на процесс политической интеграции арабского мира. Оно успешно тормозило распространение объединительных концепций, что, как следует подчеркнуть, было выгодно каждой из держав. Необходимо обратить внимание и на последствия иракского участия в Багдадском Пакте: силами западных стран Ирак стал одной из опор антисоветского военного соглашения, нарушив существовавшую до сих пор нейтральность арабского востока и превратив его в новый фронт холодной войны. Перемены во внутренней ситуации и международном положении Ирака, пришедшие с революцией 14 июля 1958 года, не были результатом только лишь эффективных действий Советского Союза, что следует отметить со всей решительностью. Каждая держава осуществляла особую политику в отношении этого ближневосточного государства. Линии раздела влияния проходили не только вдоль существовавшей тогда биполярной конфронтации Восток – Запад, но, прежде всего, внутри самого последнего полюса. Великобритания и Соединенные Штаты сотрудничали только в очень ограниченной сфере вопросов. Дипломатическая деятельность американской администрации президентов Г. Трумэна и Д.Д. Эйзенхауэра по отношению к Ираку, ориентированная на осуществление "смены караула" в этой стране и замещение британских интересов своими собственными, оказалась совершенно безрезультатной. Нарушая установившееся равновесие, она в значительной степени способствовала потере британцами влияния, но, не сумев заполнить образовавшуюся пустоту, лишь приготовила политическую почву для советского проникновения в Ирак. Кремль в нужный момент поддержал стремление арабов к независимости, в результате чего западные державы оказались лишены прежних способов воздействия. Революция вывела иракскую суверенность на качественно новый уровень. В первой декаде республиканского правления (1958–1967) мировые державы продолжали оказывать значительное влияние на ситуацию в стране. Вмешательство во внутренние дела осуществлялось двумя способами: через использование экономических связей и оппозиционных группировок. Обе формы воздействия были весьма эффективны, заставляя местные власти при принятии важных для страны решений учитывать интересы Советского Союза или той же Великобритании. Силу этого воздействия отражали то торговые договора, то массовые беспорядки и демонстрации или курдские восстания. В результате не только международное положение Ирака, но и отношения внутри страны определялись позицией мировых держав. Старания иракских лидеров, направленные на ограничение связывающих самостоятельность страны факторов, обрывались с их смертью: А.К. Касем был убит, а А.С. Ариф погиб в авиакатастрофе, произошедшей при загадочных обстоятельствах, что, по сути, отражает уровень сложности проблемы. Основной причиной, позволяющей мировым державам оказывать сильное влияние на Иракскую Республику в 1958–1967 гг. были огромные задолженности государства восточному блоку, а полученные доходы, из-за формулировок концессионных договоров, опиравшихся на процентное участие в продаже нефти, шли от западных монополий и зависели от размера добычи. Это давало обеим сторонам неограниченные возможности политических манипуляций. Лишь национализация 1 июня 1972 года самого крупного на территории Ирака предприятия Иракской Нефтяной Компании, а через год и других видных представителей отрасли: Мосульской Нефтяной Компании, Standard Oil of New Jersy, Mobil Oil, Gulbelkian и значительной части капитала Royal Dutch при одновременном резком повышении цен на сырье и введении арабскими странами эмбарго на поставки в западные страны предоставило тогдашнему иракскому режиму исключительный шанс, чтобы радикально ограничить внешнее воздействие на более чем четверть века. ; Piotr Kwiatkiewicz