Suchergebnisse

The purpose of this study is to analyse the normative character of custom in international humanitarian law (IHL), on the basis of the theory and jurisprudence of public international law, in order to arrive at a better understanding of the conduct of States in conflict situations. In so doing, an attempt will be made to determine the possibilities for developing custom in IHL, especially in view of the increasing concern shown by international public opinion for the plight of victims of armed conflicts. The paper will begin with a review of the questions raised by custom as an independent source of humanitarian law (point 1) and go on to take a closer look at the constituent elements of custom in humanitarian law (point 2). It will end with a comparative study of the two approaches to custom in IHL, concentrating on the consequences that the development of custom may have in the future (point 3).

In den letzten Jahren wird verstärkt die Einbindung der Nachfrageseite in die Forschungspolitik gefordert. Danach soll der Staat stärker als Nachfrager neuer Technologien auftreten. Allerdings wirft eine simple Nachfrage schaffende Politik viele Fragen auf. Es droht zum einen die Gefahr, dass vor allem diejenigen Technologien nachfrageseitig gefördert werden, die schon Forschungsförderung erhalten haben, allein um die Erfolgsquote der Forschungsförderung zu erhöhen. Zum anderen ist zu fragen, ob dem Staat die Aufgabe zufallen soll, das für die gesamte Gesellschaft beste Technologiedesign auszuwählen anstatt das dem Wettbewerb im Markt zu überlassen. Es ist vor allem zu klären ob der Staat nicht nur den lokalen sondern auch den internationalen Erfolg lokaler Technologien fördern kann oder nicht etwa konterkariert. In diesem Beitrag wird argumentiert, dass eine simple Version einer nachfrageorientierten Forschungspolitik zu sehr an einer veralteten Vorstellung des technischen Fortschritts hängt. Eine moderne Technologiepolitik hat den Trend hin zur Öffnung der des Innovationsgeschehens in Großunternehmen und der zu beobachtenden "Demokratisierung" von Innovation ernst zu nehmen. Die zukünftige Rolle des Staates sollte nicht darin zu sehen sein, als früher Nachfrager neuer Technologien aufzutreten, sondern die Partizipation breiter Anwenderschichten an der Technologieentwicklung zu ermöglichen und zu unterstützen. Das Lead- Lag-Modell international erfolgreicher Innovationen zeigt zudem Ansatzpunkte auf, die Rolle der lokalen Marktnachfrage bei der internationalen Durchsetzung von heimischen Innovationen zu stärken ohne selbst als Nachfrager auftreten zu müssen. ; Research and Technology policy has been under scrutiny to produce commercially successful innovations. It has been suggested that governments should support this goal by inducing the adoption of new technologies with demand side policies such as public procurement. However, there are several problems associated with a simple demand sided policy. First of all it is prone to be used predominantly for the same technologies that have received considerable public research funds in order increase the success rate of supply side policies. Secondly, if the trend is set towards an opening- up of the innovation process in large corporations towards society, sometimes called innovation "democratization", the role of the government should be to facilitate the participation of broad strata of the society instead of selecting the dominant technology designs. Thirdly, the international success of a domestic technology might be inhibited by domestic demand-side policies. The lead-lag model offers an alternative perspective on demand-side policies that largely take the factors into consideration that render a domestically successful technological design an international commercial success. The role of the public institutions is to strengthen the nation-specific attributes of a country that increases the ability of a country market to lead, so that there are incentives at place for other countries to follow and adopt the same technological designs.

Defence date: 12 June 2015 ; Examining Board: Professor Kiran Klaus Patel, Maastricht University (external supervisor); Professor Federico Romero, European University Institute (second reader); Professor Sven Beckert, Harvard University; Professor Gary Gerstle, University of Cambridge. ; How do non-governmental actors exert power beyond the confines of nation-states? Examining the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) and its network of European foreign policy elites, I argue that non-governmental actors developed transnational political agendas in part to counter the democratizing and social shifts of the early 20th century. Throughout the interwar period the CEIP emerged as a key participant in cultural internationalism by providing financial and logistical aid for transnational outreach. Well connected to social elites in several countries, the CEIP's emergence illustrates how internationalism was inexorably structured by economic, social and cultural capital. As formerly marginalized social groups—e.g. women, organized labor and ethnic minorities became more integrated into national decision-making processes, traditional elites began to erect new barriers around transnational spaces to preserve existing power structures. The project investigates how the CEIP fostered the construction, transformation and circulation of expertise among the technical experts. Starting in the mid-1920s, the foundation promoted networking between economists, international lawyers and other specialists who staffed foreign ministries and international organizations such as the League of Nations, the International Labor Organization and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The CEIP used these connections and the power of the purse to stimulate the development of professional communities with the ultimate goal of reaching policy consensus on the divisive issues of the time thus in effect promoting the development of alternative governance mechanisms. This attempt to construct a techncratic "international mind" faltered with the beginning of the Second World War. Yet, tracing the careers of CEIP-connected experts into the post-war planning projects, the thesis ultimately challenges "creationist" narratives of international financial, human rights and security regimes after 1945. Many of the international policies implemented in the second half of the 1940s did not represent a clean break with a failed past. They were legacies of an attempt to make the world safe for a return to the liberal capitalist order that had marked the long 19th century.

The first full-length session of the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization since the seventh session of the Assembly opened in Montreal on October 7, 1953. Members and chairmen of the Council's subsidiary organs were appointed by the Council upon the nomination of ICAO members: Walter Binaghi (Argentina) was reappointed chairman of the Air Navigation Commission; Enrique Loaeza (Mexico) was appointed chairman of the Air Transport Committee; and Joaquim de Brito Subtil (Portugal) chairman of the Committee on Joint Support of Air Navigation Services.

International legal process (ILP) emphasizes understanding how international law works. It concentrates not so much on the exposition of rules and their content as on how international legal rules are actually used by the makers of foreign policy. It is a more limited methodology than some others discussed in the symposium in that it did not, as originally developed, expose the normative values of the methodology, or how the methodology could be used to achieve those values. Nevertheless, ILP, as a study of international law in its actual operation and the consideration of how international law could work better, has had a significant influence on American international law scholarship.

The United Nations General Assembly on December 9, 1948, adopted a resolution reciting that "in the course of development of the international community, there will be an increasing need of an international judicial organ for the trial of certain crimes under international law," and therefore inviting the International Law Commission to study the desirability and possibility of establishing such a judicial organ, in particular as "a Criminal Chamber of the International Court of Justice." Further, in approving the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on December 10, 1948, the General Assembly endorsed a principle of the greatest import for the codification of international criminal law: that of nullum crimen sine lege, nulla poena sine lege.

358 p. ; This thesis aims to understand the impact of the internal factors (internal production structures and conflicts between interest groups) for the international economic integration of Russia. The research combines the analysis in terms of international economics with that of international political economy (IPE). The former allows a detailed analysis of Russia's international specialisation in exchanges of goods and capital, while the latter provides the analytical framework for analysing the pattern of changes. Firstly, we show a growing dependency on the export of natural resources, independent of the geographical (political) circle of countries analyzed. Secondly, we argue that the analytical framework of the IPE should be adapted to the Russian context. So, the period of the 1990s is characterized by a large scope of personal arrangements and individualized relations within a captured and fragmented State. After the beginning of the 2000s, this situation is reversed given the centralization of the central State and a quest for more institutionalized relations between the State and firms. This thesis contains three parts. The first part presents an economic analysis of the integration of Russia into the world economy. The second part studies the evolution of Russia's internal institutional context. The third part compares the internal preferences towards economic integration with those of Russia's main trade partners, which are i) the Commonwealth of Independent States, ii) the European Union and iii) China and the United States. ; L'objet de la thèse est de comprendre l'impact des facteurs internes (structures de production internes, conflits de groupes d'intérêt domestiques) sur l'insertion économique internationale de la Russie. La recherche combine l'approche de l'économie internationale et celle de l'économie politique internationale (EPI). La première permet de construire une présentation pointue de la spécialisation internationale de la Russie dans les échanges de biens et de capitaux et de ses évolutions alors que la deuxième en fournit une maquette d'analyse. Premièrement, l'on constate une dépendance croissante à l'égard des exportations de ressources naturelles, et ce, indépendamment du cercle géographique (ou politique) de partenaires étudié. Deuxièmement, l'on démontre la nécessité d'adapter la maquette de l'EPI au contexte russe. Ainsi, les années 1990 se caractérisent par l'ampleur des arrangements personnels et des relations individualisées dans un Etat capturé et fragmenté. A partir du début des années 2000, cette situation est remise en question avec une recentralisation de l'Etat et une recherche de relations institutionnalisées entre le décideur public et les entreprises. La thèse comporte trois parties. La première partie présente une analyse de la dimension économique de l'ouverture internationale de la Russie. La deuxième partie étudie l'évolution de son contexte institutionnel interne, notamment sa politique d'ouverture. La troisième partie met en relation les préférences internes à l'égard de l'ouverture avec les préférences des principaux partenaires économiques de la Russie, à savoir i) la Communauté des Etats Indépendants, ii) l'Union Européenne et iii) la Chine et les Etats-Unis.

The Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization held its 19th meeting in Montreal, Canada, from April 29 to May 22 and June 10 to 12, 1953. Nineteen of the twenty-one members of the Council attended the session. The Council made several decisions concerning ICAO's relations with other international organizations. After considering the president's report on discussions with the International Telecommunication Union on the subject of Class B messages, the Council approved a proposal sponsored by the United States that the president of the Council should be authorized to continue such consultations at his own discretion. A United Kingdom proposal that an interagency study committee be appointed was rejected. Concerning the invitation of the Council of Europe to ICAO to convene a conference on the coordination of European air transport, the Council of ICAO felt that the successful outcome of such a conference would be expedited if careful preparation were made before the conference was actually convened. It therefore proposed that the following steps be taken: 1) that Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom be invited to nominate representatives to a preparatory committee which would study the agenda and questions which might arise on the agenda of the proposed conference and report to the Council; 2) that the president of the Council ascertain whether the proposed action was acceptable to the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, with the understanding that if ICAO accepted responsibility for convening the conference, the results of the conference would be made available to all ICAO members; and 3) that the Secretary-General of ICAO undertake the necessary preparatorywork for the conference should the other arrangements be concluded satisfactorily. The Council also approved a new text of arrangements for liaison between ICAO and the World Meteorological Organization. The recommendations of the Air Navigation Commission concerning the dates and locations of the second Air Navigation Conference, the fifth session of the COM Division and the fourth session of the MET Division were approved. The invitation of Spain that the second African Indian Ocean Regional Air Navigation Meeting be held at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Canary Islands, was accepted by the Council, which set November 17, 1953, as the date on which the meeting would convene.