Suchergebnisse

To analyze the existing air transportation infrastructure that could potentially benefit from the Canadian Northern Corridor, a list of remote communities was obtained and investigated. A total of 182 communities have been assessed by Transport Canada or the provinces and territories, of which 146 are located inside the proposed Canadian Northern Corridor area. These communities are the focus of our study to answer the following questions:


What is the current level of air transportation infrastructure and services?
What are the existing federal and territorial regarding northern and arctic air connectivity?
What is the potential impact of climate change on air transportation systems in northern Canada?


Policies and Legislation

In Canada, air transportation is regulated by the federal government. As such, there are no provincial or territorial policies regarding air transportation. Air transportation services in Canada are not subject to any economic regulations. Airlines and aircraft operators in general are free to set routes and fares as they wish – subject to operational safety regulations. As such, air services in the North are generally subject to supply and demand.
The Airport Transfer (Miscellaneous Matters) Act that created the National Airports System made no special provisions for airports in Northern Canada.
The Civil Air Navigation Services Commercialisation Act transferred the operation of air navigation services to a private, not-for-profit corporation named NAV Canada. The act includes provisions for the continuance of air navigation services in northern and remote communities, requiring NAV Canada to give advance notice of any changes in service that could affect those communities. If the communities affected reject the proposed change, it will require approval by the Minister of Transportation.
In 2016, the Government of Canada has initiated discussions to set a framework for a specific policy for Canada's Arctic and Northern Region. The work on that framework has identified better airport facilities as one of the key infrastructure needs in the region. To the time of writing of this report, no specific policies had been set to address these needs.


Accessibility of Remote Communities to Nearby Airports

140 of the 146 remote communities in this study are served by an airport nearby. Three communities are served by water aerodromes. Only three communities in BC were found to not have an airport or aerodrome nearby.
Most communities have paved and/or gravel road access to the airport. Communities which were identified with nearby airports have fair distances to their respective airports, ranging from 0 to 20 km. The exceptions are the remote communities of Keno, which is more than 50 km away from Mayo Airport in the Yukon; and Iskut, located 86 km from Dease Lake Airport.

Airport Infrastructure

In general, the existing airport infrastructure provides adequate service to the remote communities in Northern Canada. Three of the 146 communities included in this study do not have access to a nearby airport, and three others can only be accessed by seaplanes. Two are accessible by road with distances between 50 and 90 km. All other 138 communities are served by an airport located within 20 km or less.
Improvements may be required to several airports to ensure year-round, all-weather accessibility and convenience. 58% of the airports are not equipped for instrument flights and can only be used under visual flight conditions. It should be noted that the mere availability of instrument approach procedures does not guarantee service, as those procedures also require trained pilots and aircraft equipped with instruments. Only 85% of the runways are not paved, which affects aircraft maintenance and durability. 30% of the airports do not offer winter maintenance, which can affect their availability during and after snow and ice storms. 20% of the airports do not feature a terminal building, leaving the processing of passengers and cargo subject to inclement weather. The costs and benefits of such improvements are likely to vary from airport to airport and should be evaluated in more detail on a case-by-case basis.

Air Connectivity

Compared to other communities, the majority of the remote communities in the northern parts of the provinces are generally well connected, with scheduled services connecting them to regional and international airports. There are, however, several airports with limited or no commercial services. 18% of the airports in this study have no commercial services that connect them regularly to other communities. 7 airports are only served by charter services. Even in the case of the 109 airports that do have regularly scheduled services, the flights are infrequent and costly – it should be noted, however, that this study did not include an assessment of the prices of air tickets serving the Northern remote communities.
One other limitation of this study is the absence of information on cargo and ambulance services. For the latter, the existing runway infrastructure – in terms of length and surface – is sufficient to accommodate aircraft with enough ranges to connect them to a larger airport and/or community. Cargo, however, is severely limited by the size of the aircraft that can operate on the existing runways. Only 44% of the airports can accommodate jet and larger turboprop aircraft. Once more, an economic analysis of cargo operations and the improvements required to improve them is beyond the scope of this study.
This study is also limited to an evaluation of air services in Northern remote communities from a purely air services perspective. Even though a large portion of the communities have adequate services from that point of view, it should be noted that this by no means implies that their transportation needs are being met. Even in large communities and urban settlements, the transportation of goods and people relies mostly on ground transportation, with air transportation providing faster connections for higher valued travel.
For future studies, we recommend a deeper comparison of the costs and benefits of implementing a Northern Corridor with the existing air services.

Impact of climate change on northern air operations

A weather study conducted for 21 select airports using cloud ceiling data – one of the critical factors in determining the ability of pilots to land at an airport – showed no evidence of impact of climate change in airport operational availability over the last 17 years. At 60% of the airports, the number of annual inoperative hours shows a slight negative trend. In the summer, 60% of the airports have shown a slight increase in the number of inoperative hours, whereas in the winter the trend is mixed, with 50% of the airports with a negative trend and the other 50% showing a positive trend.
Flying an aircraft is a very complex operation that is affected by many factors. Climate change can affect not only cloud coverage but also runway visual range, precipitation (snow and rain), runway surface condition such as snow and ice, wind speed and direction, and other factors that can affect an aircraft's ability to operate at an airport. However, most of these conditions are correlated. Although a deeper investigation may find stronger evidence that climate change has impacted airport operations in other ways, the fact that cloud ceiling was not found to be affected does not indicate that climate change has significantly affected air access to the Northern remote communities.

France was still largely a rural country in the 19th century, yet historiography seems to have favoured a thorough study of the bourgeoisie in towns while neglecting to turn its attention to the bourgeoisie in villages. Drawing on public archives, private sources and extensive correspondence, this research seeks to draw together all aspects of bourgeois family life as lived year-round in the countryside. More than a social grouping of the middle class, the rural bourgeoisie can be defined through its position at the heart of rural communities over an extended period of time, in continuity with the social order of the 18th century. "To be bourgeois" strongly implies prosperity and in most cases the ownership of land and property. The notion of work may be essential to a definition of the city bourgeois, but makes less sense in villages where the range of available professions is limited. On the other hand, correspondence reveals the active nature of life for the ladies of the rural bourgeoisie, reaching well beyond the domestic sphere. Life in the countryside engenders a type of bourgeois who is close to his land and to nature. Daily life follows the rhythm of farming, tending the vines, managing the estate, trading wine, animal husbandry and local fairs. Village bourgeois are confronted with the brutality of their rural surroundings: the body and the senses are put to the test. This study explores the history of experience of noises, smells, the cold, local travel and longer journeys, the passage of time and the handling of a pervasive environment.The family home takes on particular importance as a symbol of the village bourgeois' value and prestige. It is a stage on which the family's position and heredity are played out. The implied lifestyle within is one assisted by servants, with whom close yet distant relationships exist. In the countryside, bourgeois ladies and gentlemen differ from their urban counterparts in their uninhibited discussion of many subjects relating to hygiene, intimacy, sexuality. We will explore their use of outward appearance to project a certain image, their nuanced attitudes towards religion, their enjoyment of free time often in contrast to gender stereotypes, their mealtime rituals and their political engagements. Each phase of a rural bourgeois' life will be portrayed, from childhood to death, from education to the making of a marriage, from health to old age. We shall also investigate the bourgeois' relationship with others, in a wine-growing area where the extremely poor as well as with the landed aristocracy can be encountered. His social circle is wider than that of the urban bourgeois, because of his relative isolation in the country, and stretches far beyond the bourgeoisie to encompass his rural neighbours. This study concentrates particularly on the psychology of the bourgeois' relationship with others. Conditioned as he is to be at ease in any social situation, he is able to operate on many different levels and create his own ecosystem.Following the collapse in land revenue and the outbreak of the phylloxera blight, by 1880 the rural bourgeoisie, more concerned with the past than the future, had all but disappeared. A new bourgeoisie came to replace them in the villages. A quite unexpected vocabulary emerges from the correspondence, revealing a particular semantic apparatus and offering detailed insights into many aspects of rural bourgeois life in the 19th century wine-growing Jura. ; Alors que la France est largement rurale au XIXe siècle, l'historiographie a négligé l'observation de la bourgeoisie des villages qui se distingue d'une bourgeoisie des villes amplement explorée. A partir de sources publiques et privées, et particulièrement plusieurs fonds importants de correspondances, cette recherche permet d'approcher toutes les facettes de la famille bourgeoise qui vit à l'année à la campagne. Plus que par son appartenance à un groupe social, c'est par sa position au sein de la société rurale que se définit le bourgeois rural, dans un temps long et selon un ordre social en continuité avec le XVIIIe siècle. « Être bourgeois » implique avant tout un avoir bourgeois et se confond souvent par « être propriétaire ». La notion de travail pour les hommes, essentielle dans la définition du bourgeois urbain, est nuancée pour le bourgeois rural car l'éventail de professions à sa disposition au village est réduit. En revanche, les correspondances révèlent des femmes bourgeoises actives, et pas seulement dans la sphère domestique.La vie à la campagne induit un type de bourgeois proche de ses terres et de la nature. Les cultures, les vignes, les fermages, les ventes de vins, les animaux de la ferme et les foires régissent le quotidien. Les bourgeois des villages sont confrontés à la brutalité de l'univers rural qui les entoure : les corps sont mis à l'épreuve, tout autant que les sens. L'histoire du ressenti aux bruits, aux odeurs, au froid, aux déplacements, aux voyages, au temps et à la maîtrise d'un environnement prégnant est ici abordée. La maison de famille prend une valeur symbolique et de prestige pour la bourgeoisie de village. Sa mise en scène reflète la position et l'ancrage héréditaire, et indique un mode de vie facilité par des domestiques à la fois proches et distants. A la campagne, les bourgeois hommes et femmes se distinguent de leurs contemporains citadins et évoquent sans tabou de nombreux sujets liés à l'hygiène, à l'intimité, à la sexualité. L'image qu'ils souhaitent projeter dans leur apparence, leur attitude pondérée vis-à-vis de la religion, l'emploi de leur temps libre souvent loin des stéréotypes genrés, les rites de la table, leur engagement politique sont autant de thèmes approfondis. De sa petite enfance à sa mort, en passant par son éducation, la construction de son mariage, sa santé et sa vieillesse, chaque phase de la vie du bourgeois rural est décrite. Sa relation aux autres est tout autant interrogée. Dans une région viticole mêlant toutes les strates de la société rurale, il compose aussi bien avec la pauvreté extrême qu'avec l'aristocratie foncière. Du fait de son relatif isolement à la campagne, une particularité que ne connaît pas le bourgeois urbain, sa sociabilité est large. Elle dépasse grandement le cercle bourgeois et s'oriente sur son voisinage rural. Cette étude s'attarde sur la psychologie du bourgeois dans son rapport à l'autre. Parce qu'il est conditionné à être à l'aise dans la relation sociale, il est capable de gérer plusieurs strates de relations et se crée son propre écosystème.La chute de la rente de la terre, associée au désastre du phylloxéra, entraîne dès 1880 la quasi-disparition d'une bourgeoisie rurale plus tournée vers le passé que vers le futur. Elle est remplacée au village par de nouvelles familles bourgeoises. Un champ lexical inattendu découvert dans les courriers et la sémantique sui generis qui en découle permettent à chaque étape une analyse fine, au plus près du bourgeois rural dans le vignoble du Jura au XIXe siècle.

France was still largely a rural country in the 19th century, yet historiography seems to have favoured a thorough study of the bourgeoisie in towns while neglecting to turn its attention to the bourgeoisie in villages. Drawing on public archives, private sources and extensive correspondence, this research seeks to draw together all aspects of bourgeois family life as lived year-round in the countryside. More than a social grouping of the middle class, the rural bourgeoisie can be defined through its position at the heart of rural communities over an extended period of time, in continuity with the social order of the 18th century. "To be bourgeois" strongly implies prosperity and in most cases the ownership of land and property. The notion of work may be essential to a definition of the city bourgeois, but makes less sense in villages where the range of available professions is limited. On the other hand, correspondence reveals the active nature of life for the ladies of the rural bourgeoisie, reaching well beyond the domestic sphere. Life in the countryside engenders a type of bourgeois who is close to his land and to nature. Daily life follows the rhythm of farming, tending the vines, managing the estate, trading wine, animal husbandry and local fairs. Village bourgeois are confronted with the brutality of their rural surroundings: the body and the senses are put to the test. This study explores the history of experience of noises, smells, the cold, local travel and longer journeys, the passage of time and the handling of a pervasive environment.The family home takes on particular importance as a symbol of the village bourgeois' value and prestige. It is a stage on which the family's position and heredity are played out. The implied lifestyle within is one assisted by servants, with whom close yet distant relationships exist. In the countryside, bourgeois ladies and gentlemen differ from their urban counterparts in their uninhibited discussion of many subjects relating to hygiene, intimacy, sexuality. We will explore their use of outward appearance to project a certain image, their nuanced attitudes towards religion, their enjoyment of free time often in contrast to gender stereotypes, their mealtime rituals and their political engagements. Each phase of a rural bourgeois' life will be portrayed, from childhood to death, from education to the making of a marriage, from health to old age. We shall also investigate the bourgeois' relationship with others, in a wine-growing area where the extremely poor as well as with the landed aristocracy can be encountered. His social circle is wider than that of the urban bourgeois, because of his relative isolation in the country, and stretches far beyond the bourgeoisie to encompass his rural neighbours. This study concentrates particularly on the psychology of the bourgeois' relationship with others. Conditioned as he is to be at ease in any social situation, he is able to operate on many different levels and create his own ecosystem.Following the collapse in land revenue and the outbreak of the phylloxera blight, by 1880 the rural bourgeoisie, more concerned with the past than the future, had all but disappeared. A new bourgeoisie came to replace them in the villages. A quite unexpected vocabulary emerges from the correspondence, revealing a particular semantic apparatus and offering detailed insights into many aspects of rural bourgeois life in the 19th century wine-growing Jura. ; Alors que la France est largement rurale au XIXe siècle, l'historiographie a négligé l'observation de la bourgeoisie des villages qui se distingue d'une bourgeoisie des villes amplement explorée. A partir de sources publiques et privées, et particulièrement plusieurs fonds importants de correspondances, cette recherche permet d'approcher toutes les facettes de la famille bourgeoise qui vit à l'année à la campagne. Plus que par son appartenance à un groupe social, c'est par sa position au sein de la société rurale que se définit le bourgeois rural, dans un temps long et selon un ordre social en continuité avec le XVIIIe siècle. « Être bourgeois » implique avant tout un avoir bourgeois et se confond souvent par « être propriétaire ». La notion de travail pour les hommes, essentielle dans la définition du bourgeois urbain, est nuancée pour le bourgeois rural car l'éventail de professions à sa disposition au village est réduit. En revanche, les correspondances révèlent des femmes bourgeoises actives, et pas seulement dans la sphère domestique.La vie à la campagne induit un type de bourgeois proche de ses terres et de la nature. Les cultures, les vignes, les fermages, les ventes de vins, les animaux de la ferme et les foires régissent le quotidien. Les bourgeois des villages sont confrontés à la brutalité de l'univers rural qui les entoure : les corps sont mis à l'épreuve, tout autant que les sens. L'histoire du ressenti aux bruits, aux odeurs, au froid, aux déplacements, aux voyages, au temps et à la maîtrise d'un environnement prégnant est ici abordée. La maison de famille prend une valeur symbolique et de prestige pour la bourgeoisie de village. Sa mise en scène reflète la position et l'ancrage héréditaire, et indique un mode de vie facilité par des domestiques à la fois proches et distants. A la campagne, les bourgeois hommes et femmes se distinguent de leurs contemporains citadins et évoquent sans tabou de nombreux sujets liés à l'hygiène, à l'intimité, à la sexualité. L'image qu'ils souhaitent projeter dans leur apparence, leur attitude pondérée vis-à-vis de la religion, l'emploi de leur temps libre souvent loin des stéréotypes genrés, les rites de la table, leur engagement politique sont autant de thèmes approfondis. De sa petite enfance à sa mort, en passant par son éducation, la construction de son mariage, sa santé et sa vieillesse, chaque phase de la vie du bourgeois rural est décrite. Sa relation aux autres est tout autant interrogée. Dans une région viticole mêlant toutes les strates de la société rurale, il compose aussi bien avec la pauvreté extrême qu'avec l'aristocratie foncière. Du fait de son relatif isolement à la campagne, une particularité que ne connaît pas le bourgeois urbain, sa sociabilité est large. Elle dépasse grandement le cercle bourgeois et s'oriente sur son voisinage rural. Cette étude s'attarde sur la psychologie du bourgeois dans son rapport à l'autre. Parce qu'il est conditionné à être à l'aise dans la relation sociale, il est capable de gérer plusieurs strates de relations et se crée son propre écosystème.La chute de la rente de la terre, associée au désastre du phylloxéra, entraîne dès 1880 la quasi-disparition d'une bourgeoisie rurale plus tournée vers le passé que vers le futur. Elle est remplacée au village par de nouvelles familles bourgeoises. Un champ lexical inattendu découvert dans les courriers et la sémantique sui generis qui en découle permettent à chaque étape une analyse fine, au plus près du bourgeois rural dans le vignoble du Jura au XIXe siècle.

The Problem setting. Due to the rapid development of digital technologies, the issue of status settlement and the use of artificial intelligence technologies is especially relevant. This fact indicates the need and importance of finding answers to the question and aims to intensify and unite the efforts of the scientific community to address relevant issues. One of the areas of scientific research is the doctrinal development of new phenomena and processes that have arisen and are taking place in the state and legal sphere under the influence of digitalization of economics, management and law. The tasks of scientific research are to comprehend the impact of the digitization process on the state and legal sphere of society; law as such; assessment of the transformations that are taking place and identification of trends in their dynamics; forecasting the state of these phenomena in the future; formulation of fundamental and applied problems of legal science in terms of doctrinal development of the laws of development and functioning of law, state and legal sphere of society in the conditions of digital reality, determination of approaches to their solution. Recent research and publications analysis. An analysis of recent research and publications shows that scientific research on this issue is carried out mainly within the economic, political, computer, legal sciences, although the problems and prospects of digitization of law require a deep and thorough philosophical, including philosophical and legal understanding. The rapid development of new technologies, in particular artificial intelligence technologies, the Internet of Things, cloud technologies, etc., is contributing to changes in current legislation. Today, advanced economies are already pondering the question of regulating the status and use of AI technologies. While these are only the first bold steps, in the future, all of these can affect global changes in the legal system - perhaps full-fledged comprehensive institutions of law, even the branches of law. Paper objectiv. The purpose of this article is a philosophical and legal understanding of the impact of digitalization on the state and legal sphere of society and law as such. Paper main body. One of the practical aspects of digitalization is the manifestation of the state's ability to provide various services. If necessary, citizens receive certificates, records, statements, responses to electronic inquiries, electronic payments. Other practical aspects, provided that these technologies are used wisely, can improve welfare in education, public safety, and health. In addition, digital imaging can also help address common global issues, such as climate change and greater access to health care and mobility. At the same time, according to many researchers, along with the benefits of digital technologies, including artificial intelligence, new types of ethical issues are being raised, namely compliance with legal ethics standards by artificial intelligence systems and justice, the most important of which are respect for human rights and democratic values. , as well as the danger of transferring prejudices from the analog to the digital world. Researchers have linked the legal challenges of using artificial intelligence technologies in legal practice to a number of issues. In particular, with such as: ensuring data confidentiality; access to confidential law enforcement information; lack of regulatory framework for the use of artificial intelligence systems in legal practice; protection of intellectual property; risk assessment of the use of artificial intelligence systems by a lawyer when working with a client; other potential problems of lawyer's liability; dangers of unauthorized access and modification of artificial intelligence systems by attackers; damage to artificial intelligence systems by malicious virus programs; violation of the terms of providing advice from artificial intelligence systems in case of technical problems, etc. Therefore, the development of systems that transparently use artificial intelligence and are responsible for their results is critical. Artificial intelligence systems must function properly and safely. According to experts, the unresolved in Ukraine of many political and legal issues related to the rapid development of the information and communication sphere with the advent of digital technologies has become dangerous. It is obvious that the transformations in society associated with these processes require new approaches to the development of national policies for the digitalization of society, which should be based on international agreements. Due to these transformations, there is a need to develop strategic documents that will regulate this area. These documents should be flexible and designed to take into account the maximum amount of data, as well as ensure the free development of innovative technologies and prevent possible risks. Issues of development of the digital economy and society of Ukraine do not fully meet today's conditions, not enough account is taken of the transformations that have emerged and are currently taking place both in law and in the field of legal regulation under the influence of digitalization. Digital technologies are able to change the image of law, to influence its regulatory potential and efficiency, to open the way or to block its action in new dimensions of social reality. Traditional rather than digital vision of law, legal technologies and certain types of legal activity by legislators is a consequence of the lack of relevant scientific developments that will identify and explain the impact of the digitization process on the law and the legal sphere of society. The practical need for this kind of research is now greater than ever. In order to satisfy it, scientists should intensify work in this direction. Conclusions of the research. The new digital reality puts forward new requirements for legal science and legal practice, including the development of effective tools and models of legal regulation of various spheres of public life. In modern conditions, law becomes not only a means, a tool that provides digitalization of the economy, government and other segments of social life, but also the object of digitalization. With the development of digital technologies, the contradiction between the need for quality both in terms of form and content of regulations, as well as the ability to meet it in a short time. The task of the state is both to provide favorable conditions conducive to digitalization and to create opportunities for their implementation. ; В статье осуществлено осмысление влияния процесса цифровизации на право как таковое. Показано, что наряду с преимуществами цифровых технологий, в частности искусственного интеллекта, возникают новые типы этических проблем и вопросы справедливости. Обоснована необходимость определения подходов к решению новых задач юридической науки и совершенствования нормативно-правовой базы для защиты цифровых прав граждан. ; В статті здійснено осмислення впливу процесу цифровізації на право як таке. Показано, що поряд із перевагами цифрових технологій, зокрема штучного інтелекту, порушуються нові типи етичних проблем та питання справедливості. Обґрунтовано необхідність визначення підходів до розв'язання нових завдань юридичної науки та вдосконалення нормативно-правової бази для захисту цифрових прав громадян.

Everyday ethics – can you simply be good? is a work arising from reflection on the condition of contemporary ethical debate, as well as on the practice of morality and the policy of morality, which we observe and experience in everyday life at the beginning of the 21st century. The presented research is based on the belief that the ethical dimension of the reality in which we live and which we create remains deeply intertwined with the everyday form and practice of our life. At the same time, this position does not have to, should not and does not mean giving up the ideals born in the bosom of various cultures and minds that co-shape this everyday life. In this sense, it is also a record of the search for a path between consumerist nihilism and fundamentalist universalism, two ideologies of the modern world that dominate it and lead it in opposite directions. The work defends the thesis that every morality is a projection of a form of life, including language that creates this form and practices that embody this life. In this context, the basic research goal is the construction of a narrative that allows to ground moral beliefs in their actual place of origin – i.e. everyday life – in a way that at the same time eliminates the typical complexes of subjectivity and locality. This perspective, in turn, allows for establishing a dialogue between the authentic values present in the life of an individual with the tyranny of ethical systems claiming profundity and universality. It is therefore also an attempt to escape from the symbolic violence of the dominant 369 Roland Zarzycki ideological discourses and to restore morality to its ordinary use in accordance with Wittgenstein's postulate to return to everyday life. Among the research questions that organize the whole reflection, the most important ones concern the strict practice of life, i.e. the relationship between the local form of life and the local morality. How do life forms dictate the rules of morality games? What connection is there between the present-day form of consumerist society and its globalized reality, and the morality games that function today? How does the mystical dimension of ethics emerge in the current of everyday practice, in the mechanism of social training? How does consciousness evolve that exceeds not only the value of individual life, but also itself in the selfdestructive act of questioning the criterion of the mechanism of natural selection, of creating a value higher than the survival of the species? Are arbitrariness, egoism and the subjectivity of beliefs appropriate analytical categories for considering morality? How do fantasy and ideology penetrate the sphere of moral reflection, and in particular, is it possible to have a coherent view of morality that is free from the notions of freedom, dignity and purposefulness? Is taking into account the suffering of the Other an indispensable part of all possible morality? If so, who would the Other be? The book is also devoted to the analysis of the feedback emerging in the course of this reflection and an attempt to understand today's forms of life from the perspective of moral problems plaguing the present day. The culmination of this journey is reflection on the condition of modern man. In the background of these investigations there is a sense of a deep dissonance between the abstract sphere of declared morality and everyday practices, between the intention or appearance of intention and its everyday translation, also between moral fantasy, moral ideology and moral reality. 370 Summary The structure of the work is based on three chapters, the first of which is devoted to the reconstruction of Ludwig Wittgenstein's philosophy of morality, the second to highlighting selected aspects of the sociology of morality, including in particular Pierre Bourdieu's concept of sociology, and the third to the synthesis of the preceding considerations, the designation of new tools of description and narration as well as the analysis of practical aspects of the functioning of moral belief systems in today's world. The first chapter contains a kind of philosophical preliminaries aimed at briefly delineating and explaining those aspects of Wittgenstein's thought that will play a key role in considering ethics. In particular, therefore, it introduces the categories of language games, vision as and forms of life, central to the whole work, which at the same time constitute a peculiar conceptualization of Wittgenstein's considerations on anthropology, sociology and the history of culture. The grammatical connection of consciousness with all possible ethics is signaled in the context of the discussion on the possible understanding of the arbitrariness of morality and ethical invariants. Explaining the consubstantiality of language and human views and moral beliefs allows us to show the complementary role of everyday life and awareness for the developed ethical concept. The second chapter describes the ethics of everyday life from a sociological perspective, formulating a wide range of approaches to it, both affirmative and critical. Thanks to the coupling of these many views, a perspective is developed that allows to problematize the issues under consideration in terms of the categories of purpose, dignity and freedom. The last of these categories also opens up a wide field of reflection on the role, determinism and freedom of the cognitive models themselves. Ultimately, the key stage of this part of the discussion is the application of Pierre Bourdieu's reflective sociology and his concept of 371 Roland Zarzycki social games to formulate the concept of moral capital and further research into the ethics of everyday life. In particular, it helps to explain how, in the socio-political context, morality functions as the title commodity, weapon and distinction. An important theme is also the approach to Jeffrey Goldfarb's policy of small matters as a discourse appropriate to the ethics of everyday life. The last part contains both a summary, conclusions from previous investigations, as well as autonomous considerations aimed at a more complete conceptualization of everyday ethics and determining the place of the concept of a form of life in the practice of contemporary social sciences. The practical and theoretical conditions of the possibilities of everyday ethics as well as the mechanisms by which its authentically and immanently social and everyday character are manifested are consecutively considered. These results are a stimulus for further research into the theory of relativity of morality. Then, selected aspects of the interference of ethics and politics are outlined, crucial for understanding the phenomenon of morality, including the influence of the veils of fantasy and ideology on the very political functioning of morality. In the area of reflection on the economy of morality, moral distance, loyalty distance and the calculation of recognition are indicated as three components that define the vector of moral action. The final part of the text attempts to identify the pivotal features of contemporary life forms, which shape not only the shape of contemporary morality, but also the world: the tyranny of individualism, interpassivity, and then the resulting atrophy of trust, which in turn drives the mechanisms specific to the commodification of morality and the development of forms of hypermorality.

The Problem setting. Due to the rapid development of digital technologies, the issue of status settlement and the use of artificial intelligence technologies is especially relevant. This fact indicates the need and importance of finding answers to the question and aims to intensify and unite the efforts of the scientific community to address relevant issues. One of the areas of scientific research is the doctrinal development of new phenomena and processes that have arisen and are taking place in the state and legal sphere under the influence of digitalization of economics, management and law. The tasks of scientific research are to comprehend the impact of the digitization process on the state and legal sphere of society; law as such; assessment of the transformations that are taking place and identification of trends in their dynamics; forecasting the state of these phenomena in the future; formulation of fundamental and applied problems of legal science in terms of doctrinal development of the laws of development and functioning of law, state and legal sphere of society in the conditions of digital reality, determination of approaches to their solution. Recent research and publications analysis. An analysis of recent research and publications shows that scientific research on this issue is carried out mainly within the economic, political, computer, legal sciences, although the problems and prospects of digitization of law require a deep and thorough philosophical, including philosophical and legal understanding. The rapid development of new technologies, in particular artificial intelligence technologies, the Internet of Things, cloud technologies, etc., is contributing to changes in current legislation. Today, advanced economies are already pondering the question of regulating the status and use of AI technologies. While these are only the first bold steps, in the future, all of these can affect global changes in the legal system - perhaps full-fledged comprehensive institutions of law, even the branches of law. Paper objectiv. The purpose of this article is a philosophical and legal understanding of the impact of digitalization on the state and legal sphere of society and law as such. Paper main body. One of the practical aspects of digitalization is the manifestation of the state's ability to provide various services. If necessary, citizens receive certificates, records, statements, responses to electronic inquiries, electronic payments. Other practical aspects, provided that these technologies are used wisely, can improve welfare in education, public safety, and health. In addition, digital imaging can also help address common global issues, such as climate change and greater access to health care and mobility. At the same time, according to many researchers, along with the benefits of digital technologies, including artificial intelligence, new types of ethical issues are being raised, namely compliance with legal ethics standards by artificial intelligence systems and justice, the most important of which are respect for human rights and democratic values. , as well as the danger of transferring prejudices from the analog to the digital world. Researchers have linked the legal challenges of using artificial intelligence technologies in legal practice to a number of issues. In particular, with such as: ensuring data confidentiality; access to confidential law enforcement information; lack of regulatory framework for the use of artificial intelligence systems in legal practice; protection of intellectual property; risk assessment of the use of artificial intelligence systems by a lawyer when working with a client; other potential problems of lawyer's liability; dangers of unauthorized access and modification of artificial intelligence systems by attackers; damage to artificial intelligence systems by malicious virus programs; violation of the terms of providing advice from artificial intelligence systems in case of technical problems, etc. Therefore, the development of systems that transparently use artificial intelligence and are responsible for their results is critical. Artificial intelligence systems must function properly and safely. According to experts, the unresolved in Ukraine of many political and legal issues related to the rapid development of the information and communication sphere with the advent of digital technologies has become dangerous. It is obvious that the transformations in society associated with these processes require new approaches to the development of national policies for the digitalization of society, which should be based on international agreements. Due to these transformations, there is a need to develop strategic documents that will regulate this area. These documents should be flexible and designed to take into account the maximum amount of data, as well as ensure the free development of innovative technologies and prevent possible risks. Issues of development of the digital economy and society of Ukraine do not fully meet today's conditions, not enough account is taken of the transformations that have emerged and are currently taking place both in law and in the field of legal regulation under the influence of digitalization. Digital technologies are able to change the image of law, to influence its regulatory potential and efficiency, to open the way or to block its action in new dimensions of social reality. Traditional rather than digital vision of law, legal technologies and certain types of legal activity by legislators is a consequence of the lack of relevant scientific developments that will identify and explain the impact of the digitization process on the law and the legal sphere of society. The practical need for this kind of research is now greater than ever. In order to satisfy it, scientists should intensify work in this direction. Conclusions of the research. The new digital reality puts forward new requirements for legal science and legal practice, including the development of effective tools and models of legal regulation of various spheres of public life. In modern conditions, law becomes not only a means, a tool that provides digitalization of the economy, government and other segments of social life, but also the object of digitalization. With the development of digital technologies, the contradiction between the need for quality both in terms of form and content of regulations, as well as the ability to meet it in a short time. The task of the state is both to provide favorable conditions conducive to digitalization and to create opportunities for their implementation. ; В статье осуществлено осмысление влияния процесса цифровизации на право как таковое. Показано, что наряду с преимуществами цифровых технологий, в частности искусственного интеллекта, возникают новые типы этических проблем и вопросы справедливости. Обоснована необходимость определения подходов к решению новых задач юридической науки и совершенствования нормативно-правовой базы для защиты цифровых прав граждан. ; В статті здійснено осмислення впливу процесу цифровізації на право як таке. Показано, що поряд із перевагами цифрових технологій, зокрема штучного інтелекту, порушуються нові типи етичних проблем та питання справедливості. Обґрунтовано необхідність визначення підходів до розв'язання нових завдань юридичної науки та вдосконалення нормативно-правової бази для захисту цифрових прав громадян.

Actuality of research theme. In the current context of reforming the education sector, the problem of financial support for the initiated reforms needs special attention, since its success depends on the degree of its sufficiency. This fully applies to the system of vocational education, as in recent years the problem of shortage of workers has been actualized. It is possible to solve the problem of providing the leading branches of the national economy with personnel only in the conditions of sufficient level of financing of education in general and profesional-technical in particular.Problem statement. The issue of managing the reform process and decentralizing power to ensure the country's sustainable development is intrinsically linked to the educational reform process, so finding effective reform mechanisms and funding levels requires particular attention and in-depth theoretical and practical research. Analysis of the last researches and publications. Significant contribution to the consideration of the problem of development of education and its financing were made by Burkovskaya Ya. G., Vovkanych S., Petrenko V.P., Palekhova V.A., Semov L. [1-4] and others. Selection of unexplored parts of general issue. The formation of conditions for the sustainable development of the national economy depends on the level of provision of the necessary personnel, compliance with the level of their preparation to the requirements of the present, which cannot be ensured without sufficient level of education funding. Therefore, there is a need to study the effectiveness of funding mechanisms for profesional-technical education in Ukraine in the context of decentralization and reform of the administrative and territorial structure in the country. Task statement, research aim. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the level and mechanisms of financing the process of reforming and developing profesional-technical education in Ukraine. Method or methodology of realization of research. In the process of realization researches drawn on scientific (analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, analytical grouping) and special (abstracting, economical-mathematical design, etc.) methods of study of the economic phenomena and processes. Exposition of basic material (job performances). This paper analyzes the dynamics and mechanisms of financing the reform of profesional-technical education in Ukraine.As a result of the analysis of the structure of funding sources, it has been established that in recent years there has been a shift in the financial burden for the maintenance of profesional-technical education institutions from the state to local budgets.It is shown that according to the actual and planned indicators of financing, there is a coincidence in relation to the state budget with systematic failure to meet the planned indicators by local budgets.The effectiveness of financial support for the decentralization of profesional-technical education reforms has been analyzed. The results show that at the initial stage of reforms, their success was threatened by the under-financing by their local governments. At the state level, the problem was solved in 2016 through a stabilization grant.According to the analysis of the dynamics of the state budget subvention volumes to the local budgets for the modernization and updating of the technical and technical base of the profesional-technical institutions, its distribution between the regions of Ukraine and the level of implementation of the planned indicators, it has been found that during 2016-2018, its volumes increased from UAH 50 million to 100 million, and in 2019 decreased to the level of 2016. The actual amount of the subvention was lower than planned, which resulted in a total underfunding of UAH 11 million 235.3 thousand.The analysis showed that during 2016-2019, the regional funding priorities had changed, but the subsidy volumes did not depend on the size of the oblast and the corresponding amount of profesional-technical institutions in them.The conducted analysis showed that the highest level of subsidizing the modernization and updating of the material and technical base of vocational schools during the 2016-2019 years was received by Kharkiv, Kirovograd, Kherson, Dnipropetrovsk, Odessa, Ternopil and Kyiv regions. Poltava and Transcarpathian regions received the lowest subsidies in these years.Consequently, the imbalances in the distribution of subsidies are not justified and the subsidy mechanism needs a more prudent approach, since among the regions that have not received subsidies are those where there is a significant need for staffing.The foregoing makes it possible to conclude on the establishment of a system of financing vocational services, in particular continuous, non-deficit ways, taking into account regional needs of the labor market and the level of provision of educational services. It will be advisable in further studies to look for mechanisms to further attract financial resources for the development of profesional-technical education on public-private partnerships. It is promising to study the procedures for compensation of interest on credit resources by banking institutions in cooperation with stakeholders to improve educational services.Conclusions. The analysis of the dynamics and mechanisms of financing the reform of profesional-technical education in Ukraine shows that in recent years there has been a shift in financial burden for the maintenance of profesional-technical institutions from state to local budgets.It is established that there is a coincidence of actual and planned indicators of funding in the state budget and a discrepancy in local budgets.The level and effectiveness of financial support for the decentralization of profesional-technical education reforms have been analyzed. It has been shown that due to the underfunding of local budgets at the initial stage of reforms, their extension was in jeopardy. The situation was corrected by the use of a stabilization grant from the state budget.According to the results of analysis of the dynamics of the state budget subvention volumes to the local budgets for modernization and updating of the technical and technical base of the profesional-technical institutions, its distribution between the regions of Ukraine and the level of implementation of the planned indicators, it was established that during 2016-2019 the regional priorities for financing changed, but the volumes of the subvention did not depend the size of the area and the corresponding amount of profesional-technical institutions in them. The analysis showed that there are imbalances in the distribution of subsidies between regions, which is not justified, so the subsidy mechanism needs a more prudent approach, since among the regions that received subsidies are those where there is a significant need for staffing. The above makes it possible to conclude the establishment of a system of financing profesional-technical services, including continuous, deficit-free ways, taking into account the regional needs of the labor market and the level of provision of educational services (involvement of teaching staff of qualified specialists, exchange of experience, international internships, extension of the list educational services, etc.).

Investigating the factors which determine bank profitability has been a hot topic for decades, however, there is still no consensus among researchers, practitioners, or policymakers regarding the set of factors that affect bank profitability due to the differences in social, economic, legal, and technical contexts across banking systems all over the world which give rise to the existence of many econometric specifications and samples design. In this paper, we survey 65 studies on bank profitability which covers the banking systems in three major blocs; the US, the EU, and the rest of the world (RoW). We followed two approaches; the first is to classify the surveyed studies into subgroups based on the used measure of profitability (ROA or ROE), sample size (small or large), and the time frame (the period) that data covers in each study (short or long). We then trace the impact of each of the factors of profitability (defined earlier) on the measure of profitability within the aforementioned subgroups across the different geographical areas. We call this approach "between blocks". The second approach was to trace the impact of each factor on ROA or ROE within each geographical area; namely the US, EU, and RoW. We call this approach the "within blocks". Factors are said to have an impact on ROA or ROE based on a set of rules we design within the paper. Based on "between blocks", we find three factors with consistent impact on ROA in all subgroups (CAP, CE, and GGDP) which are all positively related to ROA; One factor (CR) was found to have a negative impact on ROA in three subgroups. Comparing the impact of each factor on ROE across the three subgroups, we find only one factor (CE) that is positively related to ROE in three subgroups. Based on "within blocks", and within the US, factors that are found to be positively related to ROA are CAP, CE, GGDP, and INF, while CR is negatively related to ROA. On the other hand, factors that are found to be positively related to ROE are CE and NII, while CR and LIQ are negatively related to ROE. In the EU, factors that are found to be positively related to ROA are CAP, CE, and GGDP, while CR, LIQ, BSD, and INF are found to be negatively related to ROA. On the other hand, factors that are found to be positively related to ROE are CE and GGDP, while CR is the only factor with a negative impact on ROE. Finally, factors that are found to have a positive impact on ROA within RoW are CAP and CE, while CR and LIQ are negatively related to ROA. When it comes to ROE, CE and GGDP have a positive impact while LIQ is negatively related to ROE. To check for the robustness of our findings, we decided to account for the "quality" of each of the surveyed papers to assure that they are equally weighted in terms of each paper's quality. Hence, we have to consider only the papers which come from top journals, or in some cases, bad journals but the papers are of high quality. To perform this task, we build a "quality index" which rules out all the papers that are of scholarly low quality by defining some rules. As a result of applying this index, our surveyed studies were downsized from 65 to only 45 studies. Our findings confirm the results obtained before the index was applied which confirms that the inclusion of such index represents a special case of the approaches we developed in tracing the impacts of determinants of bank profitability internationally and, therefore, our results are robust. ; Using the fixed effect estimator, this paper analyzes the profitability of 11 private banks in Syria over the period from 2007:Q1 to 2018:Q4. To evaluate the impact of the Syrian crisis (civil war), we separately consider the pre-crisis period, 2007:Q1-2012:Q4, and the crisis period of 2013:Q1-2018:Q4. Our profitability determinants include bank-specific characteristics as well as industry-specific and macroeconomic factors, some of which have not been considered in previous studies. The inclusion of these additional factors as well as the separate consideration of the crisis years allow us to gain new insights into what determines the profitability of private banks in Syria. Our results clearly show that there exist large differences in profitability among our sample banks and that a significant amount of this variation can be explained by the factors included in our analyses. ; Unlike the past literature which focuses on studying the effects of bank efficiency on the bank performance (in the same period) using different methodologies to assess how differences in the efficiencies obtained across the different methods lead to different impacts, we test the impacts of bank efficiency of the Syrian banking sector in normal times on bank performance (risk & profitability) during the subsequent crisis. We extend the work of Assaf et al. (2019) by opting to use two different methodologies; Stochastic Frontier Analysis (SFA) and Free Distribution Approach (FDA) to estimate cost and profit efficiencies during normal times and assess how the different methodologies lead to different impacts of the estimated efficiencies on bank performance during crisis times assuming two scenarios for the estimation of inefficiencies; the first is a time-invariant inefficiency while the second is a time-varying inefficiency. With respect to bank risk, we find that cost efficiency during normal times was translated into increasing banks risk, under time-invariant and time-varying inefficiency. However, we find that profit efficiency has a negative impact on bank risk during the subsequent crisis under timeinvariant and time-varying inefficiency. This suggests that cost efficiency may better proxy management quality, while profit efficiency may partially reflect temporary high returns during normal times from low-risk investments that are reversed during the subsequent crisis. With respect to bank profitability, we find that cost efficiency, during normal times, was translated into helping banks to increase their profitability under the time-invariant inefficiency. However, the results were contradictory under the time-varying inefficiency. On the other hand, profit efficiency in the pre-crisis period seems to be conclusive with respect to its negative impact on profitability during the subsequent crisis. This was proven based on the results of two models under time-invariant inefficiency and one model under timevarying inefficiency suggesting that bank managers were tending to engage in high revenues-low risk activities in the period prior to the outbreak of the Syrian crisis. Findings have policy implications and imply policymakers, regulators and supervisors should consider more sophisticated means of monitoring and surveillance of banks characterized with high-cost efficiency as early as possible in order to decrease and minimize the occurrence of potential problems that might surface during future financial crises. In addition, bank managers should focus on utilizing policies and procedures that promote and foster cost efficiency, which may drive better bank performance and enhance the response of banks to possible negative shocks during any subsequent crises.

The chief purpose of BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale, and Voice of America in the Context of International Communication: From Propaganda to Public Diplomacy is to analyse the role radio stations fulfil for international communication nowadays in the light of the roles they served in the past (that is, the times when radio dominated). During the interwar period and right before World War II, new radio stations came to being that aimed at broadcasting content targeted at the listeners abroad. Initially, these radio stations were transmitting mostly official messages or functioning as private point-to-point communication; in both cases, they functioned similarly to telegraphs (assuming one addresser and one addressee). Along with not only the development of the transmitting and receiving devices but also the widening of our knowledge on radio waves, radio turned into a mass medium, thanks to various "freaks," including investors and other radio lovers. Having access to the network of correspondents and a powerful radio signal, radio stations back then were able to provide live coverage of the events that interested listeners all around the globe. The capacities of radio were significant during World War II as well; precisely, it ceased to serve communication purposes exclusively, and was included into military arsenal (used not only in operations and diversion actions, but also for jamming and scouting). This military conflict showed that the possibility of reaching listeners abroad – that is, the citizens of adversary, allied, and neutral states – had been of enormous importance, whereas the ability of shaping the opinions of foreign citizens had become a crucial part of contemporary warfare. The relevance of radio for international communication was indisputable also during the Cold War. Radio Free Europe, Radio Liberty, Voice of America, BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale, Deutsche Welle, Radio Madrid, Radio Moskwa, and Radio China International were fundamentally engaged in both ideological war and public diplomacy. Simultaneously, various international processes changed the position radio occupied among other media; the "Golden Age of Radio" reached a significant decline in the 1950s, when the dominance of radio gave way to the advent of television, whereas from late 1990s on the situation of all media was revolutionised by the birth of the Internet. As a result, digitalisation, convergence, shifts in reception and use of media – not to mention other broader phenomena, including the dominance of audiovisual culture – affected not only listeners and their preferences (inclining to fragmented radio programmes), but also ratings and marketability of radio stations. Finally, since political communication has privileged the audiovisual paradigm, and domestic policy has gradually become a media issue, radio has withdrawn in this area as well, giving primacy to television and new media. Because of the aforementioned factors and shifts, it becomes vital to carefully reconsider the contemporary and international status of radio. After all, one might be tempted to think that radio is no longer in its heyday, whereas both governments and individual listeners do not deem it as a genuine informative medium or a means capable of reaching the foreign public opinion. This book, therefore, explores how Radio France Internationale, Voice of America, and BBC World Service changed diachronically in reference to other radio stations alike, points to rules they follow and formats their programmes take, and analyses their recent activity in international communication between 2014 and 2018. Chapter 1 introduces theoretical vocabulary international communication relies on, and juxtaposes its various definitions with related cultural phenomena, including transcultural communication, political communication, propaganda, public diplomacy, cultural diplomacy, media diplomacy, and soft power. Aside from analysing these concepts, this chapter also proposes an innovative definition of international communication and its graphic model. Chapter 2 is diachronic, and it focuses on the discovery of radio waves and the invention of radio read from the technical perspective, which determines the position of radio for international communication. Moreover, the early forms of radio are recalled with regard to their significance for foreign communication. Finally, the development of radio and broadcasting in France, United Kingdom, and the USA is presented with an emphasis put on the differences between their broadcasting models. Chapter 3 is devoted to the development of international broadcasting, dividing it into three stages: 1) the early 20th century (until the 1930s), when radio waves were being tested, the first experimental stations came to being, and first international radio stations were founded, including those in Nauen and Zessen (Germany), Sainte-Assise and Le Post Colonial (France), Eindhoven and Heuzen (Netherlands), Chelmsford (United Kingdom); 2) the World War II period, in which the uses of radio for international military communication are analysed in reference to propaganda radio stations (Radio Berlin, Radio Hamburg, Radio Stuttgart, Radio Tokio) and its prominent figures (William Joyce ("Lord Haw-Haw"), Paul Ferdonnet ("the Stuttgart Traitor"), Mildred Gillars ("Axis Sally"), Ive Togure ("Tokyo Rose")), British pirate radio stations functioning in response to the Axis propaganda (for instance, Gustav Siegfried Eins), the radio stations of French Resistance with a special emphasis put on Radio Brazzaville, that is, Charles de Gaulle's chief means of international communication, and, finally, Voice of America serving for public diplomacy purposes; 3) the Cold War period, in which the objectives, assumptions, and strategies of international broadcasting posed by France, United Kingdom, the United States of America between 1945 and late 1980s are examined. The last chapter is entirely dedicated to BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Voice of America nowadays, paying attention to their regulations, structures, and broadcasting services. These radio stations are understood as means used for public diplomacy of their countries, and their institutional and formal connections to government institutions are discussed. Consequently, this comparative chapter refers to the legal contexts, supported by acts and regulations of a given country, presents the principles and levels of funding, reconstructs the institutional positions of radio among other media, and characterises broadcasting in terms of services, directions, and programmes. The analysis of contemporary strategies and activities of the discussed radio stations makes it possible to claim that the use of radio for international communication has not lost its relevance, and currently is supported with television and the Internet, that is, the media that were invented later in the course of historical progress. Radio stations, therefore, are not held in media bubbles; rather, they are still significant means of foreign communication because of their specificities. Furthermore, radio communication complies with strategic foreign policies, which affects various parts of the world where levels of technological development diverge whilst the access to television or the Internet connection is not available. In the countries stricken with military conflicts or poverty, radio is still the predominant means of communication that serves numerous purposes; not only is it a source of information on military operations, epidemiological situations, climate and natural disasters, but also it educates its listeners on civil and human rights, especially women's rights. Finally, Voice of America, BBC World Service, and Radio France Internationale support policies against extremism and propaganda (for instance, fake news). The services of the discussed radio stations are related to the policies the United States of America, United Kingdom, and France put forward against ISIL and international terrorism, but also to those actions that support democratic changes in the countries affected by war and political unrest.

The attainment of food security remains an indispensable process to poverty reduction, economic growth and stability. It is a basic necessity and a human right as endorsed by article 25 of the Human Rights Charter. Strangely, millions of families across the globe suffer from hunger, despite streams of policy committments at global, regional and country level to eradicate it. Smallholder farmers who comprise nearly 80% of the Malawian population provide a vivid case study. In 2010, nearly 30% of smallholder farmers were food insecure, 15% were entirely food dependent and 40% lived the below the poverty line. In the midst of such, climate change is expected to exacerbate the already dire situation. This thesis is designed to analyse and provide insights and options that may lead to the eradication of hunger among smallholder farmers in Malawi. The study specifically analyses the role of: a) food governance systems; b) climate adaptation alternatives and land use change; c) crop, market diversification and tobacco substitution; and d) climate mitigation support mechanisms in relation to welfare of smallholder farmers in Malawi. Chapter one gives the background to the study area, highlighting the current and possible future challenges that smallholder farmers might face. The motivation of the study culminates from combination of the challenges faced by smallholder farmers and the basic necessity to achieve food security. Chapter one ends by highlighting the overall research objectives. Chapter two, deals with data sources and methods. The thesis methodology largely hedges on the development of the Malawi Agricultural Sector Model (MASM). MASM depicts the Malawian agricultural demand and supply side and is adapted or adjusted in subsequent chapters to address specific research questions. Chapter three discusses the role of alternative food governance systems and policy support mechanisms like input subsidy and market access in hunger eradication. The food governance systems are differentiated as sovereign and dependent. The sovereign system forces all the regions in Malawi to first attain a set minimum food production level before production of cash crops and restrict food export when such minimum levels are not met. The dependent system depicts farmers' free choice to grow any crops in order to maximise income and rely on food imports if the minimum set food requirements are not met. Chapter four focusses on future climate change impacts on crop productivity under different crop technologies from 2010 to 2070. Smallholder farmers are presented with the choice to adapt or not to adapt to climate change and its impact on the agricultural sector. To aid farmers' decision, a welfare sensitivity analysis and optimal land use adaptation options are presented for each decision and in different decades. Chapter five discusses one of the greatest dilemmas facing policy makers in Malawi. Tobacco is considered the "green gold" of Malawi. It contributes to over, 45% of the farmers' income, 75% of the government total foreign exchange earnings (forex) and 20% of government tax base. However, at global level, there are strong campaigns to curtail tobacco production due to health and environmental concerns. The dilemma arises in taking a policy decision to curtail tobacco without risking welfare and producer revenue losses. Chapter five, therefore analyses potential susbsitute crops to replace tobacco with minimal welfare, producer revenue and forex losses. Chapter six is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibility under the Kyoto protocol. Smallholder farmers constitute the majority of the population in sub-Saharan Africa and Malawi. Yet, their participation in mitigation targets is not well known or supported. Chapter six thus, analyses technology support mechanisms for smallholder farmers to optimally contribute to mitigation targets without compromising food security targets. Chapter seven gives general conclusions and recommendations of the thesis. Seeking income maximisation does not necessarily lead to food security. The food sovereign system was found to be more efficient in hunger eradication than the dependent system among smallholder farmers in Malawi. If tobacco is to be curtailed, besides expansion of market opportunities for tobacco susbsitute crops, there should be prior complementary investments from other economic sectors. Otherwise, a curtailing of tobacco would result in huge producer revenue and government forex losses, which would consequently affect the entire Malawian economy. Promotion of environmentally friendly soil based technologies, like conservation agriculture, may not necessarily lead to increased mitigation. Subsidising conservation agriculture prompted farmers to increase cultivated areas which led to reduced fallow areas, and consequently reduced total soil organic carbon abatement. Even though taxes were more effective in soil organic carbon sequestration, they may not be implemented due to their negative effect on producer revenue. Agricultural planners and policy makers need to monitor technology support levels to avert unintended environmental negative consequences ; Die Erreichung der Ernährungssicherheit bleibt ein unverzichtbarer Prozess für Armutsbekämpfung, Wirtschaftswachstum und Stabilität. Ernährungssicherheit ist ein grundlegendes Bedürfnis und ein Menschenrecht, welches durch Artikel 25 der Menschenrechtscharta artikuliert wird. Bedauerlicherweise leiden Millionen von Familien auf der ganzen Welt unter Hunger, trotz vieler politischer Anstrengungen auf globaler, regionaler und auf Landesebene, Hunger zu beseitigen. Kleinbauern, die fast 80% der Malawischen Bevölkerung umfassen, veranschaulichen die Situation. Im Jahr 2010 waren fast 30% der Kleinbauern unzureichend ernährt, 15% waren vollständig abhängig von Lebensmittelzuteilungen und 40% lebten unterhalb der Armutsgrenze. Es wird befürchtet, dass der Klimawandel die schon jetzt schwierige Situation weiter verschärft. Die Analysen der vorliegenden Doktorarbeit sollen Erkenntnisse über Möglichkeiten liefern, die Hungersnot der Kleinbauern in Malawi zu mindern. Konkret analysiert die Arbeit die Bedeutung von: a) Lebensmittelverteilungssystemen; b) Landnutzungsänderungen und klimabedingter Anpassung; c) Sortenwahl und Marktdiversifizierung sowie Alternativen zu Tabakanbau; und d) Maßnahmen zur Unterstützung der Einkommen von Kleinbauern in Malawi. Kapitel 1 beschreibt das Studiengebiet und hebt die aktuellen und zukünftigen Herausforderungen der Kleinbauern in Malawi hervor. Die Motivation der Studie ergibt sich aus der Kombination von Herausforderungen, denen Kleinbauern ausgesetzt sind und der gesellschaftlichen Notwendigkeit die Ernährung der Bevölkerung zu sichern. Am Ende des ersten Kapitels werden die allgemeinen Forschungsziele hervorgehoben. Kapitel zwei befasst sich mit den Datenquellen und Methoden. Die Methodik der Doktorarbeit ist eng an die Entwicklung des Malawi Agrarsektormodells (MASM) gekoppelt. MASM simuliert Angebot und Nachfrage der Malawischen Landwirtschaft und wird in den nachfolgenden Kapiteln modifiziert, um spezifische Forschungsfragen zu lösen. Kapitel drei diskutiert die Rolle alternativer Lebensmittelverteilungssysteme und politischer Instrumente wie Düngemittelsubventionen und Vermarktungsunterstützung für die Ausrottung des Hungers. Die Verteilungssysteme werden in souveräne und abhängige Systeme unterschieden. Das souveräne System zwingt alle Regionen in Malawi, ein festgelegtes Mindestniveau an Nahrungsmittelproduktion zu erreichen und den Export von Lebensmitteln zu beschränken. Das abhängige System erlaubt Landwirten dagegen die freie Wahl der Anbaukulturen, um das Einkommen zu maximieren. Nahrungsmittelimporte dienen in diesem System zur Befriedigung der festgelegten Nahrungsmittelbedürfnisse. Kapitel 4 beschäftigt sich mit den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels auf die Ernteproduktivität verschiedener Anbautechnologien für den Zeitraum 2010 bis 2070. Kleinbauern können sich in verschiedener Weise an den Klimawandel anpassen und beeinflussen dadurch letztlich auch den Agrarsektor. Um die landwirtschaftlichen Entscheidungen besser zu verstehen, werden für jede Entscheidungsoption und für jedes Jahrzehnt Wohlfahrtssensibilitätsanalysen und optimale Anpassung der Landnutzung präsentiert. Kapitel 5 diskutiert eines der größten Dilemmas für Politiker in Malawi. Tabak gilt als das "grüne Gold" in Malawi. Es trägt zu über 45% der landwirtschaftlichen Einkommen, 75% der Exporteinnahmen und 20% der staatlichen Steuereinnahmen bei. Auf globaler Ebene gibt es jedoch starke Anstrengungen, die Tabakproduktion aufgrund von Gesundheits- und Umweltproblemen zu reduzieren. Das Problem besteht darin, eine politische Entscheidung zu treffen, welche die Tabakproduktion reduziert, ohne die Wohlfahrt und die Einnahmen der Produzenten zu gefährden. Kapitel fünf analysiert daher potenzielle Ersatzpflanzen, um Tabak mit minimalen Verlusten an Wohlstand, Produzenteneinkommen und Exporterlösen zu ersetzen. Kapitel 6 basiert auf dem Prinzip der gemeinsamen, aber differenzierten Verantwortung im Rahmen des Kyoto-Protokolls. Kleinbauern bilden die Mehrheit der Bevölkerung in Sub-Sahara Afrika und Malawi. Dennoch ist ihr Beitrag zur Erreichung der Klimaschutzziele weder bekannt noch gefördert. Kapitel sechs analysiert mögliche technologische Unterstützungen für Kleinbauern, um einen Beitrag zu Emissionsminderungszielen zu leisten, ohne dass die Ernährungssicherheit kompromittiert wird. Kapitel 7 enthält allgemeine Schlussfolgerungen und Empfehlungen der Arbeit. Die Maximierung des Einkommens führt nicht unbedingt zu Ernährungssicherheit. Das souveräne Nahrungsmittelverteilungssystem ist effizienter in der Ausrottung des Hungers als das abhängige System. Sollte der Tabakanbau gekürzt werden, müssten neben dem Ausbau der Marktchancen für Ersatzpflanzen auch ergänzende Investitionen aus anderen Wirtschaftszweigen erfolgen. Andernfalls würde eine Drosselung der Tabakproduktion zu großen Verlusten der Produzenteneinnahmen und Exporterlöse führen und infolgedessen die Wirtschaft Malawis beeinträchtigen. Die Doktorarbeit schlussfolgert auch, dass die Förderung umweltfreundlicher Anbautechnologien, wie die konservierende Bodenbearbeitung, nicht unbedingt die Emissionen mindert. Die Subventionierung der konservierenden Bodenbearbeitung führte zu einer Steigerung der Gesamtanbaufläche zu Lasten von Brachflächen mit dem Ergebnis einer geringeren organischen Kohlenstoffspeicherung im Boden. Während Technologiesteuern für die Kohlenstoffspeicherung wirksamer sind, haben sie negative Auswirkungen auf die Erzeugereinnahmen und werden daher nicht bevorzugt. Landwirtschaftliche und politische Entscheidungsträger sollten das Niveau der Technologiesubventionen kontrollieren, um unbeabsichtigte negative Konsequenzen zu vermeiden

Цель. Институционализм набирает силу как доминирующая точка зрения на мир. Его философской основой является постулат о неопределенности развития, которая приходит на смену неоклассической определенности, характерной для индустриального общества. Постулат неопределенности теснейшим образом соединен с идеей субъективизации и индивидуализации постиндустриального общества. Все это очень важные компоненты новой парадигмы, хотя они и не исчерпывают проблемы. В центре постмодерна стоит массовая личность как духовная субстанция, тогда как еще совсем недавно человек массы реализовывала себя как природное и социальное существо. Личность обладает абсолютной свободой в приятии и неприятии культуры и цивилизации, она плюралистична в своих действиях и в своем сознании, она субъект истории и как таковой должен стать творческим потенциалом, свободно осваивает все достижения культуры. Методология. Диалог системы Постмодерна, которая находится в основе общения человека с другим человеком, человека с обществом является моделью конвергентного становления мирового сообщества и мировой экономики. Моделью же рационализма и адекватного ему индустриального общества является монолог, от которого легко возводится мост к насилию, даже если оно осуществляется во имя человека и за ним стоит пафос возвеличивания человека как носителя неограниченных возможностей созидания. Однако очень важно не просто модифицировать рационализм, а понять его цивилизационные истоки. Научная новизна. Эпоха постмодерна начинается непросто. Модерн обороняется, используя все свои резервы: общественную жажду справедливости, приоритетность рационального начала (по крайней мере в экономике), монологичность общественных структур и политиков в отличие от диалогичности постмодерна, императив модальности в духовном существовании человека вместо свободы. Наконец, мировому сообществу история устроила ловушку антропологическую парадигму формирования идеологии глобализации. В этой парадигме человек видится материалистической рациональной мере построения космоса и общества, т. е. природным и социальным существом, а не духовной личностью. Все это ярко проявляется в ходе трансформации в Украине. Главные ее слабости очевидны. Это сужает поле массового участия в рынке или, по принятой нами символике, поле субъектности. Населению предлагается ждать и терпеть, т. е. отводится роль объекта политического и экономического манипулирования. Еще более неприемлема монополизация субъектности государством, для которого все и вся рассматривается как предмет государственного регулирования. Выводы. Для цивилизации кардинальной чертой является обращение к человеку как к субъекту истории. Из этого вытекает необходимость по мере развития цивилизации повышение степени субъектности в экономике, где человек может проявить себя свободно и ответственно через систему отношений частной собственности: экономический субъект есть субъект собственности. В политике повышение роли человека и развитие принципа субъектности означают углубление демократических основ государственного устройства. В социальной сфере субъектность выражается в индивидуализации общественного существования человека и в персонификации общественных связей и реализуется через механизмы либеральных институтов. Нам представляется, что цивилизационное единство экономики, демократического государства и либерального общества имеет в настоящее время значение научной парадигмы. Какими бы ни были велики культурные вершины постмодерна, главные процессы нового общества складываются у его подножия: в сфере формирования общественного сознания и общественных преференций с участием массового индивида, в экономике (с вовлечением массового индивида в общественное производство на уровне финансовых отношений, которые позволяют в максимальной степени включить в экономику свободный выбор), в области государственного строительства и формирования общественных институтов на принципах самодеятельного участия населения. ; Purpose. Institutionalism is gaining strength as a dominant point of view on the world. Its philosophical basis is the postulate of the uncertainty of the development, which comes to replace the neoclassical certainty characteristic of industrial society. The postulate of uncertainty is closely connected with the idea of subjectivization and individualization of post-industrial society. All these were very important components of the new paradigm, although they do not exhaust the problem. In the heart of postmodernism is a mass identity as a spiritual substance, while the more recently mass of people to realize themselves as natural and social beings. Person has absolute freedom in the acceptance and rejection of culture and civilization; it is pluralistic in their actions and in their consciousness. It is the subject of history and it should be creative, fluent mastering all the achievements of culture. Methodology. The dialogue system of the Postmodern, which is the basis of human communication with another person, human with society is a model of convergent formation of the world community and world economy. The same model of rationalism and adequate industrial society is a monologue, which is easily builds a bridge to violence, even if it is carried out in the name of the man behind him and the pathos of the exaltation of man as the bearer of unlimited creation possibilities. However, it is very important not just to modify rationalism, and to understand the origins of civilization. Scientific novelty. The postmodern era begins is not easy. Modern defending, using all their reserves: public thirst for justice, the priority of rationality (at least in the economy), monologist public agencies and politicians in contrast to the dialogic postmodern imperative modality in the spiritual existence of man instead the freedom. Finally, the world of the story is set a trap the anthropological paradigm of the globalization ideology formation. In this paradigm, people see materialistic rational measure of space and society building, i.e. the natural and social being, not a spiritual person. All this was evident in the course of transformation in Ukraine. Its main weakness is obvious. This narrows the field of mass participation in the market or by the adopted symbolism, the field of subjectivity. The population is invited to wait and endure, i.e. plays the role of the object of political and economic manipulation. Even more unacceptable monopolization of subjectivity government, for which everything is regarded as a subject of state regulation. Conclusions. For civilization of cardinal feature is the treatment of the person as the subject of history. The need for the development of civilization to increase the degree of subjectivity in an economy where people can express themselves freely and responsibly through a system of private property relations: economic entity is the subject of property. Policy enhancing the role of human rights and the development of the principle of subjectivity means deepening the democratic foundations of the state structure. In the social sphere the subjectivity is expressed in the individualization of the social existence of man and the personification of public relations and it is implemented through the mechanisms of liberal institutions. It seems that the civilizational unity of the economy, democratic state and liberal society has the value of a scientific paradigm. Whatever the great cultural peaks of the postmodern, the main processes of a new society formed at its foot: in the area of formation of public consciousness and public preferences with the mass participation of the individual in the economy (involving the mass of the individual in social production on the level of financial relations, which allow the maximum extent possible to include in the economy of free choice), in the field of state-building and the formation of social institutions on the principles of Amateur participation.

The contributions of this PhD dissertation are in three main areas. In the first main area, existing energy scenarios - The Danish Society of Engineer's IDA 2050, the large research project CEESA, and the Danish Climate Commission's CC2050 are compared. Second, energy system analyses for the important but uncertain areas biomass and flexible demand are performed. Thirdly, modelling-related issues are investigated with a focus on the effect of future forecasting assumption and differences between a predefined priority order and order determined by given efficiencies and constraints. Transformation from a conventional fossil-fueled energy system to a 100% renewable energy system is not an easy task, however, it is a necessary goal to be attained. Academic and governmental bodies in Denmark have released several projects on future scenarios free from fossil fuel by year 2050. Three existing energy scenarios commonly conclude that a 100% renewable energy system in 2050 is feasible both technologically and economically. The three scenarios assume similar technology options, but different rates of usage. For example, the IDA 2050 scenario establishes an energy system dependent on more biomass than the other scenarios but also a system more self-reliant in terms of electricity with the least international interconnection capacity. The CC2050 scenario builds a more electrified energy system through producing weather dependent, thus intermittent RES rather than biomass and integrating more closely with neighboring countries with the largest interconnection capacity among the three. The CEESA scenario is located between the two scenarios in that sense. Two scenarios, CEESA and IDA 2050, are compared by methodologies and results. Compared to IDA 2050, CEESA adopts three models external from the overall energy system model for analyzing three subjects which are important but uncertain areas in the future. The first model is a consequential LCA analysis for biomass potential. The second model targets transport demand due to uncertain technology development in the future transport sector. The third model addresses grid stability with a high time resolution. As a result of the consequential LCA, the potential of biomass is less than that of IDA2050. The reduced biomass potential in turn requires larger non-biomass RES capacity, which necessitates a larger capacity of flexible means as a chain effect. Especially, CEESA assumes a new technology more prevalent than IDA 2050 as a mean of reducing biomass in transport sector. The potential of biomass is regarded as one of the most influential factor in future energy system as explained. However the availability of biomass is uncertain since there might be limits on the environmental capacity and opposition against biomass usage for societal and political reasons in the future. For clarifying better usage of biomass in a 100% renewable energy system, biomass usage for either heat production or electricity generation is compared in this thesis by assuming a decrease of biomass availability for the electricity and heat sectors respectively. The base line scenario for reducing biomass is set to be IDA 2050. The results show that reduction of biomass use in the heat sector could reduce biomass consumption with less electricity exported than the reduction of biomass use in the electricity sector. The less cost solution is achieved through reducing biomass for heat production compared to reducing biomass for electricity production. Among the technologies supplying flexibility to the system in the future, this PhD dissertation focuses on flexible demand since this subject is less studied in a coherent energy system level than the other flexible means. The potential of flexible demand is assessed in two approaches. The first approach is a technical and bottom-up approach decomposing the electricity consumption into several processes and assesses the potential of flexibility within individual processes. The second approach is a top-down approach to find the level of flexible demand that makes a significant impact on the energy system. For the bottom-up approach the processes are categorized with three criteria; storability, controllability and whether process is interlocked with other processes or independent. The first two criteria are used for assessing flexible demand in residential and commercial sector, and the last criterion is added for the assessment for the industry processes. The results show that 24% of the electricity demand can be moved within a time frame of two hours and approx. 7% of the electricity demand can be moved within a time frame of 24 hours. The system benefit at the assessed amount of flexible demand is limited however. Results from the other analysis indicate that in order to have a significant impact on the energy system performance, more than a quarter of the classic electricity demand would need to be flexible within a month, which is highly unlikely to happen. For the investigation of the energy system model, EnergyPLAN, which is used for two scenario analyses, two questions are asked; "what is the value of future forecasting assumption in the model?", and "what is the difference between descriptive and prescriptive model?" For answering these questions, a linear optimization model is created with the ambition to emulate the EnergyPLAN model. The IDA 2050 scenario is used for common scenario for the emulation. Two of the main differences between EnergyPLAN and the created linear optimization model are a) that EnergyPLAN uses an endogen priority of technologies while priority in the linear model is given by efficiencies and b) the linear model could make use of the full set of exogenously given future hourly production and demand values if permitted by user. Regarding the comparison results of these two models, total fuel consumption for dispatchable plants in the linear optimization model is less than that of EnergyPLAN by 11%. Most of the difference comes from the difference in condensing mode power plants. Except in the condensing mode power plants, the fuel consumptions of CHPs and boilers, irrespective of which district heating grid, are similar in both models. Despite of the differences in the dispatch order for heat production of CHPs between two models, the overall results are similar since the electricity dispatch order override the heat generation dispatch order, and the electricity dispatch order is similar in the two models due to the chosen efficiencies. The linear optimization model assumes perfect knowledge about the future in any given situation, and the demands can hence to a greater extent be meet by efficient plants compared with non-perfect knowledge, which results in a reduced fuel consumption. EnergyPLAN bases its production on the specific conditions in each hour, and only uses a limited knowledge about future situations. When the time frame of future forecasting is reduced to a week from a year, the fuel consumption is increased from the one year time frame but less than the case of no future forecasting assumption.

L'agriculture et l'élevage occupent plus de 80% de la population des zones semi-arides de l'Afrique de l'Ouest. Ces populations en tirent l'essentiel de leur alimentation et de leurs revenus. L'un des problèmes de cette agriculture est la pauvreté des sols. Dans les pays comme le Niger où prédominent les agroécosystèmes culture élevage, le rôle du bétail dans le recyclage de la matière organique et des éléments minéraux azote, phosphore et potassium peut constituer un atout pour l'augmentation de la production agricole et animale et assurer une sécurité alimentaire durable. Les bilans et flux de ces matières organiques et éléments minéraux ont été utilisés comme indicateurs d'état qui caractérisent la durabilité des systèmes de production. Cette recherche porte sur l'évaluation de ces flux et bilans organiques et minéraux aux échelles de l'exploitation agricole et du terroir dans le sud-ouest du Niger et la mise au point d'un indicateur de risque d'épuisement de la fertilité des terres des exploitations. L'étude porte sur trois terroirs agropastoraux de cette région couvrant une superficie de 500 km2 et sur un échantillon de 461 exploitations agropastorales. Les trois terroirs diffèrent essentiellement par leur pression agricole sur les terres, et par l'importance de l'élevage. Dans ces systèmes mixtes culture-élevage, la dualité de l'organisation spatiale qui les caractérise avec une gestion des cultures à l'échelle parcellaire centralisée à l'échelle de l'exploitation agricole et une gestion de l'élevage liée aux ressources pastorales communautaires de tout le terroir, fait que les modèles classiques de gestion sont confrontés à cette intégration d'échelles. Deux modèles ont été donc été utilisés pour l'évaluation des flux et bilans partiels de N, P, K à des échelles différentes, celle de l'exploitation agricole et celle des occupations de sol à l'échelle du terroir. NUTMON, un modèle existant, est utilisé dans la détermination des flux à l'échelle de l'exploitation et de ses composants. La modélisation spatiale des flux à l'aide des systèmes d'information géographique est opérée par articulation de NUTMON avec l'outil NUTPAST développé dans cette thèse. Cet outil développé avec les systèmes d'information géographique prend en compte la dynamique spatio-temporelle de la végétation et du cheptel pour l'évaluation de l'ingestion et de l'excrétion animale à l'échelle de l'ensemble des occupations au sein d'un terroir. Un modèle de régression par quantile et de régression logistique polytomique on été utilisés pour la détermination d'un indicateur de risque. Cet indicateur de risque intégré d'épuisement de la fertilité des terres a été conçu par exploitation à partir de variables de viabilité biophysiques relatives à l'utilisation de l'espace communautaire et de variables socio-économiques en lien avec la propriété des terres et du cheptel. Les bilans partiels obtenus à l'échelle du terroir montrent globalement un équilibre entre les flux de gestion agricoles et de l'élevage à l'échelle des terres des exploitations, avec des valeurs de N,P,K moyens respectifs de 0.3 ± 0.6, 1.2 ±0.2, 0.9 ± 0.5 kg/ha. Ce bilan fait ressortir une grande disparité entre les exploitations qui montrent un bilan fortement positif chez les propriétaires de bétail et négatif chez les villageois ayant très peu de bétail. Les indicateurs de risque, basés sur les facteurs de pression sur les terres, les dotations en terres et bétail par habitant, laissent apparaître qu'en dépit d'une faible intensification par la fumure, la pression agricole sur les terres combinée à la faible dotation des exploitations agricoles en bétail est un facteur de risque d'épuisement relatif de la fertilité des sols très élevé à l'échelle des villages. Ce qui peut compromettre la durabilité de l'agriculture dans ces régions. Les problèmes d'utilisation des ressources communautaires au profit des seuls propriétaires de bétail posent le problème en termes de politique foncière dans ces agroécosystèmes. Avec la pression agricole actuelle, un autre mode d'intensification agricole est à rechercher avec une politique foncière d'accès aux ressources équitable. ; Agriculture (including crop and livestock) employs more than 80% of the work force in semi-arid regions of West Africa and provide most of the food requirements and incomes. In most developing countries, soil nutrient depletion is a major issue for soil degradation. Crop-livestock integration is an effective means by which nutrients can be rapidly recycled within and between farms. In West Niger, where mixed farming systems dominate, livestock's role in recycling organic matter and mineral nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) must be better assessed to increase production and ensure sustainable food security. Nutrient flows through forage uptake and excretion deposit by grazing livestock must be assessed at a wider scale than the farm. Organic matter and nutrients balance and fluxes were used as measurable criteria for sustainable agriculture production. This research focuses on these indicators assessments at farm, land use unit and village level. This study was conducted in three agropastoral territories in the Fakara region of western Niger (Dantiandou District) that lies between the Niger River to the west and the Dallol Boboye (Bosso), a fossil valley tributary of the Niger, to the east. The area has homogeneous geological characteristics and rainfall conditions, but land use history, human and animal population density and cropping intensity vary within the region. 461 farms were concerned. In the mixed crop-livestock systems, the duality of the spatial organization, crop management at field level and livestock management with communal rangeland is a major issue for nutrients balance and fertility management modeling. Two models were then used to assess flows and nutrients balances. The NUTMON Toolbox developed by Dutch researchers is used to assess agricultural fluxes at farm parcels level. Spatial modeling was done with NUTPAST, a GIS tool developed in this thesis framework to assess livestock intake and excretion fluxes at land use scale. This tool takes into account the spatiotemporal patterns of vegetation as well as livestock seasonal variation. Quantile regression analysis and multinomial polytomous logistic regression modeling was used to assess soil fertility depletion risk indicator based on farm agriculture viability variables and nutrients partial balance. The results obtained show a less negative partial nutrients balance than in previous studies when the livestock spatio-temporal effect is taken into account. The results bring functional improvement and analytical evaluation of flows and partial nutrients balance calculation, while taking into account the functions of livestock in the organic matter recycling. The overall partial balance of N, P, K are 0.3 ± 0.6, 1.2 ± 0.2, 0.9 ± 0.5 kg/ha. The review highlighted a wide disparity between farms which show a strongly positive balance among livestock owners and negative balance among Fakara small farmers with few land and livestock endowments. Owning animals allows some households to maintain soil fertility by capturing and mobilizing soil nutrients. Risk indicators, based on land pressure indicator at 3x3 km geographic grid level, livestock endowments and land per capita reveal that despite a slow intensification, the trend for a risk of relative depletion of soil fertility is very high. This trend may compromise the sahelian agriculture sustainability. The problems of unequal benefit from communal resources remain a big issue of the sahelian agriculture. With increasing pressure on land, it is necessary to look beyond the traditional free range communal grazing systems to more intensive alternatives and stronger land tenure policies.

The UN Convention on the rights of the child speaks not only about needs but about the rights of children from the moment of a birth. The Convention covers a wide scale of the rights consolidated in three basic categories: - The right to life, - The right for survival and development, - The right for protection and participation. The Convention provisions assume that children should live in the environment providing for realization of their rights starting from the right for a name and citizenship and ending with the medical and sanitary care and education. They have the right to shelter from torture, exploitation, arbitrary detention, and unreasonable deprivation of family care. Children have the right to participate in decisions concerning their lives and to participate in the life of the local community. The Convention is not the hierarchy of the rights and therefore, one right cannot possible have a higher priority in comparison with the other right. The Convention demonstrates that all rights of the child are equally important. Rights complement each other and provide for survival and development of the child. The countries-signatories to the Convention make a commitment to respect and ensure the whole complex of rights stipulated by the Convention for each child within the limits of the state jurisdiction without any discrimination (UN CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD 1989, ARTICLE 2(1)). The state and the family are responsible for guaranteeing, respecting, and realizing the rights of the child. It is widely accepted that the state has a central and a primarily beneficial role in the protection of young people. Therefore, even if children experience extreme abuse or are neglect from their families the state authorities are supposed to provide comfort to those children. In the field of childhood studies there has been plentiful debate about the role of the state in children´s lives. Less attention is given to the ways in which the state is a source of risk for children (BOYDEN 2007, P. 240). The present research tries to show that with an effort to limit the influx of illegal migrants to their own countries many governments fail to realize their obligations towards migrant children. In many cases for reasons of national security they try to limit the rights of the child, putting at stake a notion of childhood as a life phase free from political blemish: in legal terms at least, children are the bearers of rights that cannot be compromised or alienated by circumstance. There are 192 countries of the world ratified the UN Convention on the rights of the child, including five Central Asian states. (ALSTON/TOBIN 2005, P. 10) Having joined the UN CRC, Central Asian countries have undertaken a wide range of obligations requiring serious revision of the current legislation, of the corresponding mechanisms for coordination of the child protection system and monitoring of the rights´ implementation. However, the UN Committee on the rights of the child in the concluding observations to periodic reports provided by the countries marks that there are still a number of problems in this area: - In countries of Central Asia the national legislation does not always fully comply with principles of the UN Convention on the rights of the child; - Lack of necessary financial and human resources, lack of the comprehensive approach in the child protection hinders the work of coordinating structures involved in the child rights protection (UNICEF INNOCENTI RESEARCH CENTER 2006, P. 31). - Lack of the statistical data on children, first of all, about the most vulnerable groups of children, hinders monitoring of the Convention implementation. Due to these existing problems the issues of children especially in need of assistance fall out of the focus of the governments. These children become «invisible» which means that the rights of these children will not be satisfied even at the level of basic needs such as sufficient nutrition, health care, school education and family care. The reasons causing such situations are lack of the data about children in the state agency of statistics, lack of the records about these children during development of the state program, duplication of functions of various departments and ministries. In 2006, countries of Central Asian initiated the Forum on child protection to overcome these problems. Issues of social policy, protection and inclusion of children, creation of the social protection system and overcoming of fragmentation were discussed. The Forum has demonstrated that it is an effective instrument for interstate cooperation and exchange of experience. Hereafter, it can serve as an impulse to conduct the integrated Forums (Forum on education, Forum on maternity and child health, Forum on child protection). The regional analysis of child protection systems shows that there is a fragmentation of the current child care systems. There is a multitude of actors, not necessarily well coordinated that have to respond to complex family situations and different child protection problems. Reforms of current child care systems into a continuum of services that provide individualized responses, rather than collectivist responses is one of the important regional lessons learned to strengthen the current system response. There are many implications for governments in this work: - They must be driving the vision for change and articulate operational plans, guiding principles for the reform as well as targets for the coming years. - Governments also need to be active in enforcing what are the core responsibilities of the state. This includes setting standards for the operation for the system, carry out gate-keeping functions, accreditation, provide support to planning, costing and budgeting at regional and local levels, defining the minimum package of services; and development of targeted social policies to support most vulnerable families - To overcome fragmentation and ensure proper coordination of the work, governments are also responsible for bridging gaps between sectors, coordination and facilitating institutional and professional capacity development. This includes regulate allocation of resources (decentralization with equity), define obligations of the different sectors (including responsibilities of the professionals encompassed in job descriptions), ensure continuum of services between the different actors (includes identifying missing services and functions) and improve professional competencies (job descriptions, training, lessons learned, sharing potential good practices, etc.) - Finally, governments need to take full responsibility for review of quality of services provided through monitoring of services (beyond financial monitoring), development of methods for result-based management, support to systems for data collection, provide opportunities for "competition" in service provision between state actors and NGOs. Having signed the UN Convention on the rights of the child, the governments of all Central Asian countries have undertaken to respect the rights of children, including the right to the proper standard of living. The governments of Central Asia should be aware of necessity to input funds in development of children because children are the future. Since 1998, the region enjoyed economic growth while the economic recession was left behind. Taking the economic growth into the account as well as reduction of the birth rate, today all Central Asian countries have a unique chance to invest in education and public health for the future of their children. In the long-term prospect these investments will allow the younger generation to make their own investment.

A symposium on trends in legal learning covering the following country & area studies: (1) 'The Arab-Islamic World,' by Mohamed Sami Abdel-Hamid & Yassin Mohamed Tageldin, outlines the general theory of law in the Middle East, the subject-matter of legal sci, the relationship between the 'is' & the 'ought' (ethical & rational standards), & deals with the question by what intellectual process ought one to interpret & apply the law? The subject-matter of the history of law is reviewed. The relationship between law & society is discussed re both law & the nat'l society & law & internat'l society. The relationship between the law & men is defined in terms of human rights, rights of minorities, & law & the knowledge of man. It is concluded that trends of legal sci in the ArabIslamic world are not always in the same direction & indeed frequently run counter to one another as a result of the crisis through which Islamic civilization is passing; & it is almost impossible to predict which of the trends analyzed will prevail in the near or distant future. (2) 'Japan,' by Junichi Aomi, emphasizes the civil law background of the Japanese legal system. Post-war legislative reforms & developments in their org'al aspects are discussed. The primary sources of law are still considered to consist mainly of codes & other statuatory enactments of the Diet. Re legal thinking, the influence of the conceptualistic Sch's is strong. Lately, however, the value of value judgments & empirical inquiry into the realities of soc life is coming to the fore. The pluralism of Japanese legal philosophy is examined: natural law doctrine, Marxism, modern analytic philosophy, & neo-Kantian philosophy. Comparative studies of law are reviewed. The sudden outburst of lego-sociol'al literature following the end of the war is evaluated, which resulted in the conducting of empirical res on the efficacy of legislative reforms. The development of legal history in post-war Japan is characterized. (3) 'Mexico,' by Hector Fix Zamudio, draws attention to the fact that legal res in Mexico is predominantly personal & individualistic, due to the lack of a res instit dealing with the legal disciplines. There is an almost total absence of investigation into the techniques of legal res, analysis of instruments of sci'fic study & legal methodology. There has been a recent trend towards the application of the mathematical logic technique to legal res. The general theory of law is outlined re its axiological & juridical features & its general & formal logic aspects, including the influence of neo-Thomist thought & neo-Kantianism. Res trends in the history of law in Mexico are reviewed, which show a trend to isolated study of legal instit's & absence of a real historiography. Law & society is discussed re the adaptation of legal norms (too much value is placed in the normative virtue of the law & no serious investigation has been attempted re the appropriateness of specific provisions vis-a-vis the society they must govern), & law & democratic process. The relationship between law & man is examined re human rights, criminal law (many prominent works are cited here), & the law of civil procedure. Comparative law developments are then treated, & problems of the harmonization of internal & internat'l legal provisions concerning human rights. (4) 'Italy,' by Massimo Severo Giannini, points out that most Italian jurists belong to 1 or 2 tendencies: one Sch thinks that the jurist should know other disciplines, but refrain from making use of them in his legal work; the other Sch holds that the jurist must necessarily undertake work in the other disciplines as well. The methodology of Italian legal sci is highly individual. Legal sci in Italy has by no means adopted one single position on the factors of the legal phenomenon which are either determining or conditioning. The subject-matter of the history of Italian law is reviewed. The relationship between law & man is discussed in terms of the protection of the human personality, human rights, ethnic minorities, & law & the knowledge of man. Finally, re comparative law, the attitude of legal sci has been more reserved, since it is felt that a legal instit has no independent life but exists only in so far as it finds its place in a complex of other legal instit's. (5) 'Hungary,' by Zoltan Peteri, states that in the socialist system of soc sci's, legal studies are studied as a consolidated branch under the heading of legal & admin'ive sci's. There is no formal separation between legal & pol'al sci's. The state & law as soc phenomena constitute the main theme of res in legal & admin'ive studies & cover both their ideological & instit'al aspects. The central task is to examine how phenomena connected with the State & law are conditioned by society & the economy, & how these in turn react upon soc life. The point of departure is MarxismLeninism. The need to study soc practice has recently been emphasized. Studies in the history of law are limited to the sphere of statute law & do not extend to the history of any natural laws. Re law & society, res is mainly concerned with issues connected with the bourgeois & socialist interpretation of constitutionality, theoretical generalizations from experience gained in socialist constitutional evolution, & the outlining of perspectives of continued development. Res on soc or legal anthrop is not conducted in Hungary. The value of the study of comparative law is just beginning to be recognized. (6) 'United States of America,' by Max Rheinstein, stresses that in the US scholarly & practical concern about law are inextricably intertwined. The amount of legal writing is enormous, & its subject-matter is conceived broadly. Amer legal scholars are concerned with both the law as it is & the law as it ought to be. Legal scholars exert considerable influence not only upon the course of case law but also on that of legislation. The main trend is the exploration of the relationship between the facts of soc life & the law. The good society, for the elaboration of which the legal scholars regard themselves responsible, is the democratic society of active citizens having equal rights & opportunities in free, but controlled enterprise. The task of strengthening & extending the fundamental human & civil rights of all persons has occupied a prominent place. Legal scholars have also been firm in maintaining freedom of opinion, of information, of expression, of the press & of MM. The principle that internal law has to be in accord with internat'l law has also long been recognized in the US. It is traced how the transition to new methods was initiated by the writings of O. W. Holmes, R. Pound, Cardozo, T. Arnold, K. N. Llewellyn, which stressed study of society & use of the results. In conclusion the close relations which exist between law & sociol are detailed. E. Weiman.