Suchergebnisse

La présente thèse réalise un diagnostic comparé de trois chaines de valeur du riz dans la plaine de la Ruzizi partagée entre trois pays de la Communauté Economique des Pays de la Grands Lacs (CEPGL) à savoir le Burundi, la République Démocratique du Congo (RDC) et le Rwanda. Les trois chaines de valeurs sont appréhendées à travers des études menées dans la Plaine de l'Imbo pour le Burundi, au sein de la Plaine de la Ruzizi pour la RDC ainsi que dans la Plaine de Bugarama pour la chaine de valeur rwandaise. L'analyse a consisté à auditer le contexte dans lequel la riziculture est conduite (c'est-à-dire les politiques ainsi que les services d'appui auxquels ont accès les acteurs le long de la chaine de valeur), à analyser la performance économique de ces trois chaines de valeur et à identifier les facteurs pouvant favoriser le développement d'une chaine de valeur à potentiel régional. L'étude a privilégié l'approche terrain qui a permis de réaliser des investigations sur une période de 3 ans (de 2013 à 2015). La collecte des données a porté sur un échantillon de 228 acteurs repartis de manière équitable entre les trois pays et a combiné plusieurs techniques à savoir, des enquêtes directes auprès des acteurs (les producteurs, les transformateurs, les collecteurs, les commerçants grossistes et les détaillants), les interviews avec les différentes structures d'appui et services étatiques, les discussions focalisées avec des groupes de producteurs et représentants de leurs Organisations Paysannes. L'analyse de l'environnement de ces trois chaines de valeur du riz a mis en relation les politiques mises en œuvres dans chaque pays et l'accès par les acteurs directs à certains facteurs de production et services tels que la terre, l'eau, le crédit, l'utilisation d'intrants. Elle a également mise en évidence la question de la main d'œuvre salariale et les différents rôles qu'elle joue dans le secteur. Il s'observe que la politique foncière dans la plaine de Bugarama au Rwanda a permis de réduire à plus de la moitié le coût d'accès à la terre comparativement à la situation au Burundi et en RDC. Les limites du système foncier à Bugarama au Rwanda dans une approche de promotion des innovations entrepreneuriales se traduisent par les difficultés d`accroissement de la taille des exploitations (la superficie cultivée est de 0,23ha). Malgré le coût relativement élevé lié à l'accès et à la gestion de l'eau, la totalité des parcelles rizicoles ont accès à l'eau d'irrigation au Rwanda alors que le manque d'organisation et de bonne gestion de l'eau est l'un des facteurs à la base d'un faible rendement au Burundi et en RDC où respectivement 25% et 40 % des parcelles rizicoles peinent à accéder à l'eau. L`accès au financement demeure une contrainte majeure commune aux trois pays même au Rwanda où les services financiers sont disponibles. Les riziculteurs ayant accès aux crédits formels représentent une maigre portion de 8% (au Burundi), 10% (en RDC) et 37,5% (au Rwanda). Des contraintes liées à la disponibilité en main d'œuvre sont réelles dans les systèmes de production sous étude. En effet, la RDC est la zone déficitaire en main d'œuvre salariale à cause de l'exode rural et de la diversité d'activités économiques. 60% de la main d'œuvre rizicole utilisée dans la partie congolaise de la plaine est étrangère. 46% de cette main d`œuvre provient du Burundi et 14% vient du Rwanda. Cette mobilité de la main d'œuvre entraine des transferts de technologies, l'approvisionnement en intrants à moindre coût. Il joue également un rôle important dans la consolidation de la cohésion sociale dans un contexte post conflit. L'analyse économique de trois chaines de valeur révèle des coûts de production très élevés variant entre 292 et 388 USD/tonne amenuisant ainsi des perspectives de compétitivité internationale. Les coûts les plus élevés sont observés en RDC où paradoxalement se note une meilleure performance financière des acteurs. Au Rwanda où le riz est plus compétitif en termes de coûts de production, les producteurs sont soumis à des normes et restrictions (variété à cultiver, types de clients à qui vendre la production, prix de vente, etc.) qui influencent sensiblement leur performance. Les tests statistiques réalisés sur certains paramètres identifiés par l'analyse financière confirment l'inefficacité des politiques de subvention d'intrant et de financement agricole. En effet, il n'y a pas de différences significatives des moyennes entre les riziculteurs bénéficiant de ces politiques et ceux qui n'en bénéficient pas. Paradoxalement, les analyses statistiques révèlent que les riziculteurs qui ne subissent pas de politique de fixation de prix (ils ne sont pas preneurs de prix) ont une bonne performance financière en termes de revenus. Les trois zones étudiées sont complémentaires en termes de potentiels de développement. Des structures régionales favorables à la chaine de valeur régionale devront être relancées ou renforcées dans une logique de développement de la riziculture dans la plaine de la Ruzizi. ; This thesis aims at carrying out a comparative study of three rice value chains in the Ruzizi plain shared between three countries of the Economic Community of the Great Lakes Countries (CEPGL) namely Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Rwanda. These include the Burundi rice value chain (Imbo Plain), the Congolese rice value chain (Ruzizi Plain) and the Rwandan rice value chain (Bugarama Plain). The diagnostic analysis was about analyzing the rice-farming environment (ie policies and support services accessed by actors along the value chain), analyzing economic performance of these three value chains and to identify the factors that may foster the development of a value chain with a regional potential. For this purpose, the study adopted the field approach, which allowed carrying out investigations during three years (2013 to 2015). The data collection process involved a sample of 228 actors distributed equitably among the three countries. It combined several techniques, namely, direct stakeholder surveys (producers, processors, collectors, wholesalers and retailers), interviews with various support structures and state services, focus group discussions with producer groups and representatives of their organizations. The analysis of these three value chains driving conditions linked the policies implemented in each country and the access by the actors to certain production factors and services such as land, water, credit and the use of inputs. It also highlighted the issue of wage labor and its different roles in the sector. The analysis shows that land policy in Bugarama plain in Rwanda has reduced the cost of land to more than half compared to land costs in Burundi and the DRC. Moreover, this policy is accused by the producers of Bugarama of limiting their entrepreneurial innovations since they can not enlarge their farms (the cultivated area is 0.23 ha). Despite the high cost of water access and management, all rice plots access irrigation water in Rwanda, while the lack of organization and good water management is one of the factors behind low yields in Burundi and the DRC, where 25% and 40% of the rice plots have difficulties in accessing water. Regarding access to agricultural credit, the results reveal that the value chain of rice in the three countries experiences the lack of funding in spite of improvements observed in Rwanda. The rate of access to credit is 17.5% (in Burundi), 16% (in DRC) and 52.8% (in Rwanda), and among them rice farmers with access to formal credits account for only 8% (in Burundi), 10% (in the DRC) and 37.5% (in Rwanda). Analysis of the wage labour force shows that labor is not as widely available as was thought in the study area. Indeed, the DRC is the zone of deficit in wage labor due to the rural exodus and the diversity of economic activities. In the DRC, 60% of the rice workforce used is foreign, including 46% from Burundi and 14% from Rwanda. This mobility of the workforce leads to technology transfers, the supply of inputs at lower cost, but also to consolidate the social cohesion in a post-conflict context. The economic analysis of these three value chains reveals that production costs in the study area remain very high, varying between 292 and 388USD per ton. The highest costs are observed in the DRC where paradoxically there is a better financial performance in terms of profit and added value. The statistical tests carried out on certain parameters identified by the financial analysis undermines the policies regarding the inputs subsidies, agricultural financing and fixing sales prices. Indeed, there are no significant differences between the means of rice farmers who benefit from these policies and those who do not. Paradoxically, statistical analyzes reveal that rice farmers not affected by the pricing policy (they are not price takers) have a good financial performance in terms of income. The three studied areas are complementary in terms of the development potentials of a regional value chain. Indeed, Rwanda has modern underutilization peeling plants that are capable of responding almost entirely to the needs of the whole plain. In addition, Burundi and the DRC should develop land and water potentials to increase production. Several other regional structures in favor of the regional value chain have to be relaunched or strengthened in logic of rice development in the Ruzizi plain. These include the benefits of economic integration of the CEPGL countries.

En esta Tesis Doctoral se ha investigado la facultad didáctica que proporciona la dramatización para la formación en competencias para la vida. Es por ello que en ella se ha propuesto un modelo didáctico al respecto dirigido a la formación inicial del profesorado que es consecuente con el sentido de calidad imprescindible que a tales competencias le otorgan las instituciones promotoras de las mismas a escala internacional (OCDE y Comisión Europea) con la finalidad de transformar y mejorar las condiciones de sostenibilidad social tanto laborales como personales. El carácter innovador de esta investigación reside precisamente en su enfoque competencial, pues promueve la educación de la dramatización desde tareas didácticas auténticas, contextualizadas e imprevisibles que permiten afrontar estratégicamente y con éxito la compleja dinámica sociocultural del siglo XXI. Es por ello que el modelo, atento a una proyección científica interdisciplinar de la pedagogía teatral convergente en la semiótica de la comunicación, combina los aprendizajes formales o escolares con los informales o cotidianos y trata así de contribuir a la superación del problemático hábito academicista que reduce la dramatización a una práctica especializada por medio de ciertas técnicas conductistas. Antes bien, esta procura experiencias creativas propicias a la comunicación donde saber, saber hacer y saber ser se enmadejan para el autoconocimiento, la comprensión del otro y la transformación de la realidad. Por tanto, el objetivo general ha sido diseñar, aplicar y evaluar un modelo didáctico de la dramatización destinado al desarrollo de competencias para la vida en la formación del profesorado en educación. Y para hacer factible su consecución, los objetivos específicos han sido: primero, investigar las aportaciones científicas interdisciplinares incidentes en el cultivo de la dramatización desde un enfoque educativo basado en competencias; segundo, delimitar la operatividad conceptual y legal del teatro y la dramatización para su trasposición didáctica en la profesionalización docente; tercero, diseñar un modelo didáctico sobre la dramatización desde una metodología dialógica de aprendizaje cooperativo basado en tareas y proyectos destinados al desarrollo integrado de competencias para la vida en entornos formales e informales; cuarto, desarrollar una intervención didáctica en tres ciclos de investigación-acción con alumnado de Magisterio y de Grado en Educación donde se aplica el modelo didáctico competencial sobre la comunicación dramática: quinto, evaluar procesualmente los logros educativos de las producciones discentes y la calidad del modelo didáctico aplicado en el aula en atención a las competencias para la vida diseñadas en el mismo. La metodología empleada ha seguido, desde un enfoque cualitativo-interpretativo, el modelo procesual de la investigación-acción en el aula desarrollada en tres ciclos y ha escogido el aprendizaje cooperativo como dinámica apropiada para la práctica dramática así como la modalidad didáctica idónea para la educación basada en competencias, a saber: las tareas complejas y los proyectos compartidos. Consecuentemente, en el desarrollo de la investigación se refleja el proceso de investigación-acción efectuado durante el primer cuatrimestre de los cursos 2010-2011, 2011-2012 y 2012-2013 con estudiantes de Grado en Educación y egresados de Magisterio en la Facultad de Educación de la Universidad de Murcia dentro del marco institucional de tres cursos de Promoción Educativa auspiciados por Estudios Propios de esta Universidad. En estos cursos, tras un cuestionario inicial de detección de conocimientos previos y expectativas personales de los participantes, se han trabajado improvisaciones imaginativas sobre la vida cotidiana desde juegos dramáticos en los que ha existido introspección, socialización, fabricación de materiales didácticos, e invención discursiva de proyectos dramatúrgicos y didácticos atenta a las confluencias de diversas disciplinas en la puesta en escena. Esta última corona cada la intervención, en compañía del cuestionario final de valoración de los aprendizajes logrados. Los resultados de la investigación revelan que con el logro eficaz de los objetivos formulados se ha cumplido la hipótesis contributiva a la superación del problema considerado con el análisis de pruebas procesuales en las que han logrado resultados positivos las 9 competencias para la vida estipuladas por la OCDE de acuerdo con las macrocategorías instrumental, interpersonal, y sistémica del proyecto TUNING. Y afirman la viabilidad didáctica de la tesis original de esta investigación: la condición transversal de la dramatización para formar al profesorado de Lengua y Literatura y de cualquier otra disciplina en competencias para la vida. Ello se ha logrado porque el trabajo en el aula se ha desenvuelto en contextos de aprendizaje situado próximos a la pedagogía de la situación empleada en las prácticas dramáticas donde la improvisación ha dado rienda suelta a la singular acción personal en actos de convivencia democrática donde la imaginación ha gestionado la incertidumbre con sentido humano. ABSTRACT This PhD thesis has focused its research on the didactic values that drama provides for day to day life skills. For the aforementioned, a didactic model has been proposed, mainly aimed to early teacher training, being consequent with the essential quality sense, which was granted internationally by the promoting institutions (OECD and the European Commission) with the main target of transforming and improving both labour and personal social sustainability. The innovative nature of this research emerges from its competence focus, as it encourages drama education on real didactic tasks, happening in their context and being totally unforeseeable, which allows to strategically confront the sociocultural complex dynamic typical from the 21st century. This is the reason why the model of drama pedagogy focused on a scientific interdisciplinar approach, verging on communication semiotic, combines formal school learning and knowledge with daily and informal learning, and doing so, it attempts to contribute to the current type of academic learning, which reduces drama to a specialized practice through certain conductist techniques. Likewise, it provides creative experiences that lead to communication, in which knowing, knowing how to do, and knowing how to be, combine to reach self knowledge, understanding of others and reality transformation. Therefore, the general target has been designing, applying and assessing a didactic dramatization model, destined to life skill development through educational teacher training. In order to do so, the specific goals have been: firstly, to research the scientific interdisciplinar inputs, that have provided to drama from an educational skill approach; secondly, to delimit the conceptual and legal effectiveness in drama and acting, towards its didactic promotion to the teaching curriculum; thirdly, to design a didactic method about drama from a leaning cooperative dialogue, based on tasks and projects, destined to an integrated development of like skills in formal and informal environments; fourthly, to develop a didactic intervention in three cycles of investigation-action, with alumni from Education Degrees (old plan and Bolonia plan) where the competence didactic model is applied over dramatic communication; fifthly, to asses the process of the educational milestones through drama production results and the quality of the didactic method applied in the classrooms, to improve and work on the model proposed like skills. The implied method has followed, from a qualitative - interpretative focus, the process method of investigation - action in the classroom, developed in three cycles, and the cooperative learning has been chosen as an appropriate dynamic for the drama practice and as the ideal didactic method for education based on these competences: complex tasks and shared projects. Consequently, in the research progress, the process investigation - action can be seen happening during the first quarter of the years 2010 - 2011, 2011 - 2012 and 2012 - 2013 with students from an Education Degree and coming from the old three year plan degree in Murcia university, funded by the department of exclusive degrees in Murcia university. Throughout these terms, after giving the participants an initial questionnaire to detect previous knowledge and personal expectations, the concepts that were mainly practiced were imaginative improvisation about daily life, such as drama games using introspection, socialization, crafting didactic materials and discursive invention of drama and didactic projects that focused on paying attention to the different disciplines during the performance. This last activity happened alongside the final questionnaire to asses the achieved knowledge. The research results reveal that with the effective achievement of the presented targets, the hypothesis has been proven as positively contributing to overcoming the problem considered in the process proof analysis, in which positive results have been obtained from the 9 like skills presented by the OECD, according to the TUNING project's macrocategories: instrumental, interpersonal and systemic. They also confirm the didactic viability of the original thesis of this investigation: transversal condition of drama to train Spanish and Literature teachers and teachers of any other disciplines, in life competences and skills. This achievement took place thanks to the work in the classroom, that happened in learning contexts that are close enough to the pedagogy of the situations used in drama performances, where improvisation sets personal actions free in a democratic cohabitation in which, at the same time, imagination manages uncertainty with a human approach. TERMINOS CONCEPTOS TESAURO 570107 LENGUA Y LITERATURA 580300 FORMACION Y EMPLEO DE PROFESORES 580100 TEORIA Y METODOS EDUCATIVOS 620310 TEATRO

We all are conscious that along the history important changes have happened in our company to political, economic, cultural, ideological level, etc., especially in the last 25 years. It is obvious, that these changes have not left of a side to the family and to the school. Family and school have suffered modifications and transformations, for example, the family is nuclearizado and urbanized, there has been a great increase of single-parent families, a women's great increase that has joined to the labor world, the family has increased the number of hours dedicated to the leisure, is incorporating his children before in the school, etc. In the same line, Mañani and Sanchez (1997) expose that the family has been always the first agent of socialization in the life of the child. Traditionally this had been like that up to the school age, 6 years, where the school, as institution, was the manager of provided a more wide social context simultaneously that was transmitting the cultural own guidelines of the social environment of the child. But for a few years there have taken place a series of phenomena that have modified the action socializadora: the familiar core every time is more limited, giving him a minor number of brothers, grandparents, uncles in the familiar bosom; they coexist in urban spaces separated from the familiar core, it has increased considerably the number of single-parent families, the ages of beginning of the not obligatory education every time it is going forward more, for trade and familiar names, and progressively, major conscience is had every time of what implies, from the educational point of view, the existence of a son. It seems that these changes that have been taking place in the familiar organization, for some would bring negative consequences on the socialization of the children. Because for example, a percentage every time major of the married women works out of the home, which remains time of presence of the parents in the domicile and forces to the families when keepers use of diverse average for the care of his children, as day-care centers, in the house or relatives. The work of the mother out of the home affects the children in school age in the measure that is more frequent that they eat in the college, which they see obliged to follow out-of-school activities, etc. In the same way the bows with the relatives who do not form a part of the familiar core have tended to weaken, which he leads that the familiar socialization of the children is an almost exclusive responsibility of the parents. Another structural significant change is the increase of the rates of divorce in all the western countries, which has led to a notable increase in the number of single-parent families. But we have to have present that though all the changes that we have been mentioning take place, the family continues constituting a human group in which there come together the whole set of relations, experiences and personal interactions of difficult quantification. And though our company, our model of life, has been modifying progressively the familiar morphology, well by means of the reduction of the generational conviviality or across the flexibilización of the expositions favoring a coexistence between parents and children more permissive and tolerant, the family constitutes one of the social cores where a powerful influence is exercised on the individual. This perspective has been replaced in the last years with the idea of that school and family have superposed influences and shared responsibilities, with what both institutions must cooperate in the education of the children. Parents and teachers have to re-define his relations replacing the conflict with the collaboration. All this makes us think that the families have evolved and therefore they have other gun-sights, needs, etc. And, at the same time, another type of interests and relations with the school. The life of every time major number of children unrolls from very early age in two worlds, the relative and the student, that they affect in the development of the personality, acting simultaneously in time and sometimes in space. Bearing in mind the above mentioned premises we justify the need to establish a major rooting in the relations family - school. This reality concerns the educational institutions as the Fiscal school Not. 15 Adolfo Álvarez Escobar, where the independence of the parents and the school that takes place for diverse motives, concerns directly in the performance of his children, being necessary a restructuring by means of the conviviality family - school and community. ; Todos somos conscientes de que a lo largo de la historia se han sucedido importantes cambios en nuestra sociedad a nivel político, económico, cultural, ideológico, etc., sobre todo en los últimos 25 años. Es obvio, que estos cambios no han dejado de un lado a la familia y a la escuela. Familia y escuela han sufrido modificaciones y transformaciones, por ejemplo, la familia se ha nuclearizado y urbanizado, ha habido un gran incremento de familias monoparentales, un gran aumento de mujeres que se ha incorporado al mundo laboral, la familia ha incrementado el número de horas dedicado al ocio, está incorporando a sus hijos antes en la escuela, etc. En la misma línea, se expone que la familia ha sido siempre el primer agente de socialización en la vida del niño. Tradicionalmente esto había sido así hasta la edad escolar, los 6 años, donde la escuela, como institución, era la encargada de proporcionar un contexto social más amplio a la vez que transmitía las pautas culturales propias del entorno social del niño. Pero desde hace unos pocos años se han producido una serie de fenómenos que han modificado la acción socializadora: el núcleo familiar cada vez es más reducido, dándose un menor número de hermanos, abuelos, tíos en el seno familiar; conviven en espacios urbanos separados del núcleo familiar, ha aumentado considerablemente el número de familias monoparentales, las edades de inicio de la escolaridad no obligatoria cada vez se está adelantando más, por razones sociales y familiares, y progresivamente, se tiene cada vez mayor conciencia de lo que implica, desde el punto de vista educativo, la existencia de un hijo. Parece que estos cambios que se han ido produciendo en la organización familiar, para algunos traerían consecuencias negativas sobre la socialización de los niños. Porque por ejemplo, un porcentaje cada vez mayor de las mujeres casadas trabaja fuera del hogar, lo que resta tiempo de presencia de los padres en el domicilio y obliga a las familias a hacer uso de diversos medios para el cuidado de sus hijos, como guarderías, cuidadores en la casa o parientes. El trabajo de la madre fuera del hogar afecta a los niños en edad escolar en la medida que es más frecuente que coman en la escuela, que se vean obligados a seguir actividades extraescolares, etc. Del mismo modo los lazos con los parientes que no forman parte del núcleo familiar han tendido a debilitarse, lo que conduce a que la socialización familiar de los niños sea casi responsabilidad exclusiva de los padres. Otro cambio estructural significativo es el aumento de las tasas de divorcio en todos los países occidentales, lo que ha llevado a un notable incremento en el número de familias monoparentales. Pero hemos de tener presente que aunque todos los cambios que hemos ido mencionando están teniendo lugar, la familia sigue constituyendo un grupo humano en el que confluyen todo un conjunto de relaciones, vivencias e interacciones personales de difícil cuantificación. Y aunque nuestra sociedad, nuestro modelo de vida, ha ido modificando progresivamente la morfología familiar, bien mediante la reducción de la convivencia generacional o a través de la flexibilización de los planteamientos favoreciendo una coexistencia entre padres e hijos más permisiva y tolerante, la familia constituye uno de los núcleos sociales donde se ejerce una poderosa influencia sobre el individuo. Esta perspectiva ha sido sustituida en los últimos años por la idea de que escuela y familia tienen influencias superpuestas y responsabilidades compartidas, por lo que ambas instituciones deben cooperar en la educación de los niños. Padres y profesores tienen que redefinir sus relaciones sustituyendo el conflicto por la colaboración. Todo ello nos hace pensar que las familias han evolucionado y por tanto tienen otras miras, necesidades, etc. y, al mismo tiempo, otro tipo de intereses y relaciones con la escuela. La vida de cada vez mayor número de niños se desenvuelve desde muy temprana edad en dos mundos, el familiar y el escolar, que inciden en el desarrollo de la personalidad, actuando simultáneamente en tiempo y a veces en espacio. Teniendo presente dichas premisas justificamos la necesidad de establecer un arraigo mayor en las relaciones familia-escuela. Esta realidad afecta a las instituciones educativas como la escuela Fiscal No. 15 Adolfo Álvarez Escobar, donde la independencia de los padres y la escuela que se produce por diversos motivos, afecta directamente en el rendimiento de sus hijos, siendo necesario una reestructuración mediante la convivencia familia – escuela y comunidad.

Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab

Research problem It has been four decades since conclusion of the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties. The Convention included a provision that a treaty shall be inter-preted in good faith in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose. The customary status of this rule has been accepted by the International Court of Justice. Disregarding that, some question whether the rules, as opposed to principles, of interpretation are possible (i.e. would that not be better not to reduce them to writing). The International Law Commission itself has com-mented on this. On the other hand, the differences concerning interpretation of treaties were apparent already at the time the treaty was drafted. When the Convention was finally adopted, a few scholars representing the so-called New Haven approach opined that they expected the Convention to fail due to its "insistent emphasis upon an impossible, comformity-imposing textuality". In their view, conclusion of an international agreement was a continuous process of cooperation and collaboration of the parties, which required a much more detailed focus on the intentions of the parties than the Vienna Convention rule of interpretation envisaged. They called for interpretation which would search for genuine shared expectations, together with the complementary appeals for 'supplementing' and 'policing' communications in accordance with overriding community goals. Disregarding these hallmarks, they accepted that the text should remain an important index of party expectations, which they identify as one of the goals of interpretation. In their view, attention to the carefully worked out arrangements of the parties encourages the clarity of expectation, especially when sources of equal credibility give contradictory results concern-ing their expectations. Although the New Haven approach to interpretation of treaties was not included in the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, a form of their reflection could be identified in national law, especially that of continental legal systems. It is agreed that the major difference between common law and conti-nental practice lies in the rules of interpretation: common law is based on a presumption of law, into which statutes are interwoven, hence the practice of drafting statutes in the fullest detail, and the broad assumptions that a statute deals only with those cases which fall within its actual wording. Continental theory, on the other hand, treats statutes as a basis of the law, but these tend to be drafted in a very general and abstract way, leaving it up to the courts to fill in the details by reference to a presumed legislative intention. However, this key difference seems to dissipate, as the common law tends to move away from the purely literal towards the purposive construction of statutory provi-sions, i.e. a new, 'revamped' version of literal rule has developed, which required the general context and purpose to be taken into consideration before any decision is reached concerning the ordinary meaning of statutory words. The continental practice remains consistent on its emphasis on the legislative intention. In the law of contracts this rule turns into a global one: both Lando and UNIDROIT principles of international commercial contracts include a rule of interpretation requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties. This approach finds reflection also in the Civil Code of the Republic of Lithuania, which was drafted on the basis of the UNIDROIT Principles. The International Law Commission returned to the topic of interpreta-tion of treaties thirty years later, in 2000, when it decided to consider the issue of fragmentation of international law and the potential problems it might give rise to. With this purpose in mind in its report on the topic of 2006 the study group has identified four general principles of interpretation of international rules: first, international law should be considered as a legal system, not as a random collection of international rules; second, in applying international law, it is necessary to determine the precise relationship between two or more rules and principles that are both valid and applicable in respect of the whole situa-tion (i.e. to identify whether their relationship is a one of interpretation or con-flict); thirdly, the norms should be interpreted in accordance with the Vienna Convention on the law of treaties, and fourthly, when several norms bear on a single issue, they should be interpreted so as to give rise to a set of compatible obligations. Explaining the latter principle, the Commission, similarly to the New Haven group approach, emphasized the need to take into consideration the community values, i.e. ius cogens and erga omnes, even though continues to recommend to follow the Vienna Convention approach on the ordinary meaning of the terms. Forty years later, it is already possible to consider, whether the New Haven group was correct criticising the Vienna Convention rule of interpreta-tion for its excessive emphasis on text, and how significant is the practical difference between the rule requiring to determine the common intentions of the parties as opposed to the rule, which requires to interpret a treaty in accor-dance with the ordinary meaning of its terms. Also, what is the practical im-pact of these differences on protection of the rights of persons. In order to answer this research question, the focus of the dissertation is on the foreign investment law in the energy sector. The topic is suitable and convenient to consider the impact of the rules of interpretation and the problems posed by fragmentation of international law. Its sources include in-ternational, national, and for the EU countries also EU law, even though the nature of the relationship between EU law and international investment law remains a disputable issue. The energy sector has been chosen in order to evaluate more precisely the impact of the rules of interpretation and fragmenta-tion of international law on the content of the rights of persons and their appli-cation. Research sources The Dissertation analyzes multilateral and bilateral investment trea-ties which are significant for the the protection of investment in the energy sector and the decisions of international investment arbitral tribunals. The ma-jor sources of international investment law are international treaties. The most significant documents for the energy sector currently are the Energy Charter treaty, the ICSID Convention, and the bilateral investment treaties, although national law remains also important for enforcement of arbitral awards and interpretation of state contracts. State contracts also remain significant, be-cause as a rule they include arbitration clauses and stabilization clauses. The latter are particularly common in the energy sector due to its specificity – on the one hand, energy is a heavily politicized sector due to its significance for the development of the economy of a state and both its economic and political stability. Therefore it has a status of a strategic sector, even an issue of national security. This could be observed ever since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the other hand, energy is an infrastructure sector, which requires high investments for development. Not all states are capable to develop this sector by their own financial means, and choose to attract foreign investment. As a result, investment contracts (state contracts) are concluded; they have a status of international commercial contracts, and their parties are free to choose both the applicable law and the means of dispute settlement. The en-ergy contracts as a rule include stabilization clauses, which seek to maintain stable business legal and financial environment for the duration of the contract. Finally, European Union law may also be accepted as a source for in-vestment protection, despite its generalized purposes, which are to achieve the strengthening and convergence of their economies and to establish a monetary and economic union, to implement a common foreign and security policy, including the progressive framing of the common defence policy, and to estab-lish the area of freedom, security and justice. EU law and foreign investment law are still largely conceived as independent and hardly interlinked. However, as integration between the EU member states becomes closer, EU legislation makes an increasing impact also on the specific sectors of the economy, in-cluding the energy sector. Research object The research object of this dissertation are the problems of interpreta-tion and application of law which arise in the resolution of disputes concerning protection of investments in the energy sector between the host states and for-eign investors. They may be grouped into three groups on the basis of the ap-plicable law: 1. The problems of interpretation of international agreements. Both BITs and MITs apply only with respect to investment. ICSID arbitral tribunals can hear only disputes arising directly out of an investment. Disregarding the key role the notion has on the exercise of rights, its meaning remains unclear. The most recent arbitral practice is completely inconsistent on this issue. No less problems are posed by the umbrella clauses, which are included in a large number of BITs and the Energy Charter Treaty, and which requires states to observe obligations they have entered into with an investor. These provisions have been included even in the BITs of 1970s, but in practice they have emerged only recently. The arbitral tribunals differ on whether this provision should be read literaly, or whether its meaning should be restricted. 2. The problems of interpretation of arbitration clauses and invest-ment contracts. This group includes the problems concerning arbitrab

The energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources is the next great challenge that the EU will face. One key concern is the transformation of the labour market. As we move away from fossil fuels, some polluting "brown" sectors, such as coal mining, will decline, affecting 3-10 per cent of jobs across the EU, but more than 20 per cent of jobs in certain regions.[1] The green transition will also be a source of new jobs: delivering on the EU's 2030 climate pledges could lead to a net increase of up to 884,000 jobs in climate-friendly and neutral sectors.[2] Other brown sectors, such as automotive, will transform.[3] The working-age population, however, will need training to tailor their existing skills to the requirements of the new or transformed jobs. According to a 2022 Special Eurobarometer, 38 per cent of respondents believe they lack the skills to support the green transition.[4] Reskilling and upskilling will thus be needed to prevent labour shortages in the future.
To bridge the gap between employers grappling with skill shortages and workers facing displacement, we propose to create training programs tailored to equip working-age citizens with the skills demanded by emerging sectors, which will help ensure a smooth transition. Policy action will be necessary to navigate this process effectively, fostering a fair transition and preventing potential political backlash. Proactively managing this transformation towards a green economy will contribute not only to creating pathways to employment but also to cultivating a more resilient and sustainable future for all EU citizens.The EU's Skills Agenda for 2025
In the face of these challenges, the EU is currently developing a framework to promote life-long learning and skills adaptation for the green transition. In 2020, the Commission announced a new Skills Agenda for 2020-2025,[5] which aimed to (i) obilise stakeholders to collaborate through a Pact for Skills; (ii) design a strategy to improve the matching of skills to jobs; (iii) support lifelong learning by promoting national actions and vocational and education training (VET); and (iv) foster financial investment. The targets set by the Skills Agenda for 2025 are summed up in Table 1. The Skills Agenda aligns with the European Pillar of Social Rights objectives and builds on the initiative to create an inclusive and resilient European Education Area. It has recently gained visibility following the European Year of Skills (EYS) 2023-2024, which raised awareness regarding lifelong learning.[6]

Table 1 | Skills Agenda for 2025 targets



Source: European Commission, European Skills Agenda for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Fairness and Resilience, cit., p. 20.



Against this backdrop, the policies we recommend in the following could help reach the 2025 targets as well as unlock progress for the next Skills Pact to be drafted after the 2024 EU elections.Strengthening the EU's strategy for training: The Green Energy Erasmus Programme
The future workforce will face many challenges in these new employment conditions and therefore needs decisive support. To this end, the new Commission could propose a Green Energy Erasmus Programme (GEEP). This would entail mobility programmes tailored to apprentices in the energy sector so that young Europeans can be specifically trained for upcoming energy jobs.[7] In direct partnership with small and medium enterprises and other stakeholders, the GEEP would in parallel support transitioning industries in acquiring qualified workers. To make it profitable to all, a guaranteed minimum salary would be provided for apprentices, and organisations hosting them will benefit from tax breaks.
These new Erasmus opportunities should be available and tailored to students in VET programmes, which represented 8.5 million students in the EU in 2019.[8] As emphasised in the Council recommendation of 2020, VET is a key pillar of education and skills for the green transition.[9] However, research shows that students in VET programmes perform relatively worse than others in the skills needed for green jobs.[10] Therefore, the opportunity to complete work-based training abroad in the green sector through the GEEP would highly benefit their education.
To fund the GEEP, those public-private partnerships (PPPs) may be leveraged that, according to the European Training Foundation, already provide key support for VET centres. These types of partnerships enable all actors involved to contribute to the design of programmes and finance their development. PPPs for VET programmes are not only beneficial for students and training centres but also for private actors who have strong incentives to invest financially in them as they generate opportunities for growth.[11] Such instruments could be encouraged to fund the GEEP and ensure high-stakes collaboration between training centres and private actors in successfully teaching young generations green skills.Creating training opportunities that are accessible to all and for all
The EU's training programmes must be as inclusive as possible. The opportunities of the green transition must be shared more fairly by ensuring that groups currently underrepresented in green jobs, such as women and older adults, also take part in training.[12] In close collaboration with stakeholders defending the interests of these groups, more steps need to be taken to promote inclusivity. A few ideas to steer a more inclusive transition may include:
• Provide childcare services during training hours and minimum quotas. Women are underrepresented in energy-intensive industries. They account for 27.7 per cent of the workforce in the electricity sector and 22.2 per cent in transport.[13] The Skills Pact aims to increase women's participation in STEM fields by raising awareness, but the structural constraints that hinder women's participation in these sectors need to be addressed with concrete measures, such as free childcare services and minimum quotas for women.
• Remove barriers to entry through financial compensation for programme completion and flexible schedules. Whilst demand for skills training is increasing, studies show that worker participation in such programmes is below average, and low-skilled workers are more likely to find participation difficult.[14] Financial compensation would allow easier programme access to all working-age individuals by ensuring that time away from paid work does not pose a barrier to entry and compensates for potential wage gaps. Flexible schedules allow workers to train whilst continuing their current profession, hence making programmes more accessible to workers.
• Open up specific training programmes for adult and older workers. Adult workers require training focusing on particular skills, rather than participating in 'complete programmes'.[15] Specific training programmes tailored to their skills gap and oriented towards career guidance must be created in collaboration with businesses that know what skills are required. These programmes would optimally evaluate the green sectors where workers can most easily relocate with their existing skills, and provide focused training for those they still require.Targeting the right sectors and regions
The effectiveness of the proposed measures depends on the EU's ability to discern strategic sectors that will grow during the green transition. A study by the Clean Energy Technology Observatory (CETO) indicates that sectors such as heat pumps, biofuels, solar and wind energy are the most promising.[16]
More specifically, it is expected that most jobs in the solar industry will be created by the deployment of solar infrastructure and its installation.[17] For wind energy, manufacturing accounts for a greater share of new employment opportunities. Hence, training programmes and related measures must be focused first and foremost on these rapidly developing sectors and on the segments of the value chain most in need of a labour force.
A different but related issue is the relocation of jobs. Indeed, the impact of the energy transition on the labour market does and will vary across regions depending on the share of employment in brown industries and other dimensions of vulnerability and adaptability.[18] The loss of jobs could lead to emigration from the most affected regions, which in turn would exacerbate the regional differences within countries and the EU at large.
To prevent the decline of carbon-intensive regions and the mass relocation of working-age population, as well as potential political backlash, provisions must be introduced to ensure that new green jobs are created in the same areas where brown jobs are lost. In some of the most affected regions, the jobs lost in the coal mining sector could be replaced by new jobs in renewable energy production. One of the most affected regions, for example, is Greece's Western Macedonia region, where the coal mining industry employs an important share of workers.[19] This region is suitable for renewable energy production, and has already signed off on solar photovoltaic projects co-financed by the EU's Recovery and Resilience Facility to be implemented by the end of 2024.[20]
In those regions that are not similarly suitable for renewable production, the accompanying service industries could provide new jobs. This could be ensured through financial incentives, such as power purchasing agreements, infrastructure development, an enabling policy environment and support for R&D and innovation.Monitoring the programmes and assessing their performance
Continuous performance assessment is quintessential for green skills training since the employment market is set to evolve over time. Whilst some sectors require high-skilled workers today, they will need lower-skilled workers as they progress from the innovation and installation stages to maintenance. The success of any measures taken at the EU level is dependent on effective performance assessment to adapt programmes to the changes in skills requirements.
To this end, the Commission should be tasked with monitoring and evaluating the effects of these policies and present a report following their implementation to the European Parliament and the Council. This could happen in parallel with the report that the Commission is already responsible for regarding the assessment of the EYS.[21] The Commission's report should also be based on interviews and surveys with participants in training programmes and their employers.Funding the EU's reskilling programmes
When discussing the costs of reskilling programmes, it must be borne in mind that, as older workers are overrepresented in brown sectors, the main alternative to reskilling programmes is early retirement. However, early retirement raises significant financial issues for workers who will often not have saved up enough money to support themselves in retirement. The replacement rate of pensions, which expresses the percentage of income that is replaced by pensions upon retirement, is 68 per cent on average in the EU, but only 40 per cent and 59 per cent in Poland and Croatia respectively,[22] two of the countries with the highest rates of employment in brown industries in the EU.[23] These sudden drops in income would have severe consequences for the affected older workers.
Furthermore, a sudden increase in the number of pensioners would put a strain on the economy: due to the ageing of European societies, pension systems are already unsustainable in many EU countries, and the issue would be only aggravated by mass early retirement.[24] On the contrary, studies suggest that the majority of the skill characteristics of jobs in brown sectors could be transferred to green sector jobs:[25] therefore reskilled workers could reintegrate into the workforce relatively easily.
To be sure, the creation of training programmes will incur costs. The EU Skills Agenda, however, already outlines several funding opportunities.[26] Next Generation EU, the Recovery and Resilience Facility, the European Social Fund Plus, Erasmus+, as well as the European Regional Development Fund can support new measures for up- and reskilling programmes. Furthermore, the savings achieved through reskilling rather than relying heavily on early retirement could free up new funds previously allocated to pension systems, which could be redirected towards funding skill programmes as well.The manifold benefits of reskilling and upskilling
Our proposal aims to prevent political backlash against the green transition by ensuring a smooth and fair transition towards a green economy. Without policies to provide the working-age population with reskilling and upskilling training programmes, disruptions in the labour market, labour shortages in certain sectors and rising unemployment can be expected. These outcomes, in turn, would lead many citizens to lose trust in institutions and turn against the green transition.[27]
The up- and reskilling programmes outlined here would instead help displaced workers from brown industries reintegrate into the labour market. Through a Green Energy Erasmus Programme and inclusive training programmes targeting women, low-skilled and older workers, we would allow the most affected segments of the population to find employment in emerging sectors. This would serve the twin objectives of strengthening the EU's economy, preventing political backlash against the green transition and propelling the green transition forward.Marion Beaulieu is a Master student in European Affairs, specialised in Energy, Environment and Sustainability at Sciences Po Paris. Sára Kende is a Master student in a double degree between Sciences Po Paris (European Affairs, specialised in Energy, Environment and Sustainability) and Bocconi University (Politics and Policy Analysis).
This commentary is an updated version of the winning brief from the futurEU Competition 2024, hosted by the futurEU Initiative at the Hertie School and supported by the CIVICA Alliance.[1] Anneleen Vandeplas et al., "The Possible Implications of the Green Transition for the EU Labour Market", in European Economy Discussion Papers, No. 176 (December 2022), p. 15, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2765/583043.[2] Bertrand Piccard and Maroš Šefčovič, "Green Jobs and the Green Transition: A Long, Bumpy but Exciting Journey", in Euractiv, 17 November 2021, https://www.euractiv.com/?p=1674933.[3] Oya Celasun et al., "Cars and the Green Transition: Challenges and Opportunities for European Workers", in IMF Working Papers, No. 2023/116 (June 2023), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WP/Issues/2023/06/02/Cars-and-the-Green-Transition-Challenges-and-Opportunities-for-European-Workers-534091.[4] European Commission, Special Eurobarometer 527: Fairness Perceptions of the Green Transition. Report, 2022, p. 27, https://europa.eu/eurobarometer/surveys/detail/2672.[5] European Commission, European Skills Agenda for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Fairness and Resilience (COM/2020/274), 1 July 2020, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:52020DC0274.[6] European Parliament, Report on the Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council on a European Year of Skills 2023, 9 February 2023, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/A-9-2023-0028_EN.html.[7] Sofia Fernandes, "A Social Pact for the Energy Transition", in Thomas Pellerin-Carlin et al., Making the Energy Transition a European Success, Jacques Delors Institute Reports, September 2017, p. 148-211, https://institutdelors.eu/en/publications/making-the-energy-transition-a-european-success.[8] Javier Sanchez-Reaza et al., Making the European Green Deal Work for People. The Role of Human Development in the Green Transition, Washington, World Bank, 2023, http://hdl.handle.net/10986/39729.[9] Council of the European Union, Council Recommendation of 24 November 2020 on Vocational Education and Training (VET) for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Fairness and Resilience, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:32020H1202(1).[10] Javier Sanchez-Reaza et al., Making the European Green Deal Work for People, cit., p. 63.[11] Veronica Vecchi, "Introduction", in European Training Foundation, Public-Private Partnerships for Skills Development: A Governance Perspective. Volume I: Thematic Overview, Publications Office of the EU, 2020, p. 9, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2816/422369.[12] Barbara Janta, Eliza Kritikos and Thibault Clack, "The Green Transition in the Labour Market: How to Ensure Equal Access to Green Skills across Education and Training Systems", in EENEE Analytical Reports, No. AR02/2022, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/563345.[13] European Commission, Employment and Social Developments in Europe 2023, Publications Office of the EU, July 2023, p. 54, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2767/089698.[14] Anneleen Vandeplas et al., "The Possible Implications of the Green Transition for the EU Labour Market", cit., p. 19-20.[15] Javier Sanchez-Reaza et al., Making the European Green Deal Work for People, cit., p. 115.[16] Aliki Georgakaki et al., "Clean Energy Technology Observatory: Overall Strategic Analysis of Clean Energy Technology in the European Union. 2023 Status Report", in JRC Technical Reports, 2023, https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2760/150096.[17] Jannik Jansen, "When Europe Talks Climate, It Needs to Think Jobs", in Hertie School Policy Briefs, 6 December 2023, https://www.delorscentre.eu/en/publications/skilled-workers-in-the-green-transition.[18] Will McDowall et al., "Mapping Regional Vulnerability in Europe's Energy Transition: Development and Application of an Indicator to Assess Declining Employment in Four Carbon-Intensive Industries", in Climatic Change, Vol. 176, No. 2 (February 2023), Article 7, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-022-03478-w.[19] Ibid.[20] RWE, RWE and PPC to Build Solar Projects with More than 200 Megawatts in Greece, 26 January 2023, https://www.rwe.com/en/press/rwe-renewables/2023-01-26-rwe-and-ppc-to-build-solar-projects-with-more-than-200-megawatts-in-greece.[21] European Commission, Proposal for a Decision of the European Parliament and of the Council on a European Year of Skills 2023 (COM/2022/526), 12 October 2022, p. 18, https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/TXT/?uri=celex:52022PC0526.[22] OECD, Pensions at a Glance 2023. OECD and G20 Indicators, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1787/678055dd-en.[23] Anneleen Vandeplas et al., "The Possible Implications of the Green Transition for the EU Labour Market", cit.[24] Vincenzo Galasso, "Postponing Retirement: The Political Effect of Aging", in Journal of Public Economics, Vol. 92, No. 10-11 (October 2008), p. 2157-2169, DOI 10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.04.012.[25] Anneleen Vandeplas et al., "The Possible Implications of the Green Transition for the EU Labour Market", cit.[26] European Commission, European Skills Agenda for Sustainable Competitiveness, Social Fairness and Resilience, cit.[27] Anneleen Vandeplas et al., "The Possible Implications of the Green Transition for the EU Labour Market", cit., p. 28.

The unlicensed wireless spectrum offers exciting opportunities for developing innovative wireless applications. This has been true ever since the 2.4 GHz band and parts of the 5 GHz bands were first opened for unlicensed access worldwide. In recent years, the 5 GHz unlicensed bands have been one of the most coveted for launching new wireless services and applications due to their relatively superior propagation characteristics and the abundance of spectrum therein. However, the appetite for unlicensed spectrum seems to remain unsatiated; the demand for additional unlicensed bands has been never-ending. To meet this demand, regulators in the US and Europe have been considering unlicensed operations in the 5.9 GHz bands and in large parts of the 6 GHz bands. In the last two years alone, the Federal Communications Commission in the US has added more than 1.2 GHz of spectrum in the pool of unlicensed bands. Wi-Fi networks are likely to be the biggest beneficiaries of this spectrum. Such abundance of spectrum would allow massive improvements in the peak throughput and potentially allow a considerable reduction of latency, thereby enabling support for emerging wireless applications such as augmented and virtual reality, and mobile gaming using Wi-Fi over unlicensed bands. However, access to these bands comes with its challenges. Across the globe, a wide range of incumbent wireless technologies operate in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands. This includes weather and military radars, and vehicular communication systems in the 5 GHz bands, and fixed-service systems, satellite systems, and television pick-up stations in the 6 GHz bands. Furthermore, due to the development of several cellular-based unlicensed technologies (such as Licensed Assisted Access and New Radio Unlicensed, NR-U), the competition for channel access among unlicensed devices has also been increasing. Thus, coexistence across wireless technologies in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands has emerged as an extremely challenging and interesting research problem. In this dissertation, we first take a comprehensive look at the various coexistence scenarios that emerge in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands as a consequence of new regulatory decisions. These scenarios include coexistence between Wi-Fi and incumbent users (both in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands), coexistence of Wi-Fi and vehicular communication systems, coexistence across different vehicular communication technologies, and coexistence across different unlicensed systems. Since a vast majority of these technologies are fundamentally different from each other and serve diverse use-cases each coexistence problem is unique. Insights derived from an in-depth study of one coexistence problem do not help much when the coexisting technologies change. Thus, we study each scenario separately and in detail. In this process, we highlight the need for the design of novel coexistence mechanisms in several cases and outline potential research directions. Next, we shift our attention to coexistence between Wi-Fi and vehicular communication technologies designed to operate in the 5.9 GHz intelligent transportation systems (ITS) bands. Until the development of Cellular V2X (C-V2X), dedicated short range communications (DSRC) was the only major wireless technology that was designed for communication in high-speed and potentially dense vehicular settings. Since DSRC uses the IEEE 802.11p standard for its physical (PHY) and medium access control (MAC) layers, the manner in which DSRC and Wi-Fi devices try to gain access to the channel is fundamentally similar. Consequently, we show that spectrum sharing between these two technologies in the 5.9 GHz bands can be easily achieved by simple modifications to the Wi-Fi MAC layer. Since the design of C-V2X in 2017, however, the vehicular communication landscape has been fast evolving. Because DSRC systems were not widely deployed, automakers and regulators had an opportunity to look at the two technologies, consider their benefits and drawbacks and take a fresh look at the spectrum sharing scenario. Since Wi-Fi can now potentially share the spectrum with C-V2X at least in certain regions, we take an in-depth look at various Wi-Fi and C-V2X configurations and study whether C-V2X and Wi-Fi can harmoniously coexist with each other. We determine that because C-V2X is built atop cellular LTE, Wi-Fi and C-V2X systems are fundamentally incompatible with each other. If C-V2X and Wi-Fi devices are to share the spectrum, considerable modifications to the Wi-Fi MAC protocol would be required. Another equally interesting scenario arises in the 6 GHz bands, where 5G NR-U and Wi-Fi devices are likely to operate on a secondary shared basis. Since the 6 GHz bands were only recently considered for unlicensed access, these bands are free from Wi-Fi and NR-U devices. As a result, the greenfield 6 GHz bands provide a unique and rare opportunity to freshly evaluate the coexistence between Wi-Fi and cellular-based unlicensed wireless technologies. We study this coexistence problem by developing a stochastic geometry-based analytical model. We see that by disabling the listen before talk based legacy contention mechanism---which has been used by Wi-Fi devices ever since their conception---the performance of both Wi-Fi and NR-U systems can improve. This has important implications in the 6 GHz bands, where such legacy transmissions can indeed be disabled because Wi-Fi devices, for the first time since the design of IEEE 802.11a, can operate in the 6 GHz bands without any backward compatibility issues. In the course of studying the aforementioned coexistence problems, we identified several gaps in the literature on the performance analysis of C-V2X and IEEE 802.11ax---the upcoming Wi-Fi standard. We address three such gaps in this dissertation. First, we study the performance of C-V2X sidelink mode 4, which is the communication mode in C-V2X that allows direct vehicular communications (i.e., without assistance from the cellular infrastructure). Using our in-house standards-compliant network simulator-3 (ns-3) simulator, we perform simulations to evaluate the performance of C-V2X sidelink mode 4 in highway environments. In doing so, we identify that packet re-transmissions, which is a feature introduced in C-V2X to provide frequency and time diversity, thereby improving the system performance, can have the opposite effect if the vehicular density increases. In fact, packet re-transmissions are beneficial for C-V2X system performance only at low vehicular densities. Thus, if vehicles are statically configured to always use/disable re-transmissions, the maximum potential of this feature is not realized. Therefore, we propose a simple and effective, distributed re-transmission control mechanism named Channel Congestion Based Re-transmission Control (C2RC), which leverages the locally available channel sensing results to allow vehicles to autonomously decide when to switch on re-transmissions and when to switch them off. Second, we present a detailed analysis of the performance of Multi User Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (MU OFDMA)---a feature newly introduced in IEEE 802.11ax---in a wide range of deployment scenarios. We consider the performance of 802.11ax networks when the network comprises of only 802.11ax as well as a combination of 802.11ax and legacy stations. The latter is a practical scenario, especially during the initial phases of 802.11ax deployments. Simulation results, obtained from our ns-3 based simulator, give encouraging signs for 802.11ax performance in many real-world scenarios. That being said, there are some scenarios where naive usage of MU OFDMA by an 802.11ax-capable Wi-Fi AP can be detrimental to the overall system performance. Our results indicate that careful consideration of network dynamics is critical in exploiting the best performance, especially in a heterogeneous Wi-Fi network. Finally, we perform a comprehensive simulation study to characterize the performance of Multi Link Aggregation (MLA) in IEEE 802.11be. MLA is a novel feature that is likely to be introduced in next-generation Wi-Fi (i.e., Wi-Fi 7) devices and is aimed at reducing the worst-case latency experienced by Wi-Fi devices in dense traffic environments. We study the impact of different traffic densities on the 90 percentile latency of Wi-Fi packets and identify that the addition of a single link is sufficient to substantially bring down the 90 percentile latency in many practical scenarios. Furthermore, we show that while the addition of subsequent links is beneficial, the largest latency gain in most scenarios is experienced when the second link (i.e., one additional) link is added. Finally, we show that even in extremely dense traffic conditions, if a sufficient number of links are available at the MLA-capable transmitter and receiver, MLA can help Wi-Fi devices to meet the latency requirements of most real-time applications. ; Doctor of Philosophy ; Wireless networks have become ubiquitous in our lives today. Whether it is cellular connectivity on our mobile phones or access to Wi-Fi hotspots on laptops, tablets, and smartphones, never before has wireless communication been as integral to our lives as it is today. In many wireless communication systems, wireless devices operate by sending signals to and receiving signals from a central entity that connects to the wired Internet infrastructure. In the case of cellular networks, this entity is the cell tower deployed by the operators (such as ATandT, Verizon, etc. in the US), while the Wi-Fi router deployed in homes and offices plays this role in Wi-Fi networks. There is also another class of wireless systems, where wireless devices communicate with each other without requiring to communicate with any central entity. An example of such a distributed communication system---which is fast gaining popularity---is vehicular ommunication networks. End-user devices (e.g. cellphone, laptop, tablet, or a vehicle) can communicate with each other or the central entity only if they are both tuned to the same frequency channel. This channel can lie anywhere within the radio frequency spectrum, but some frequency channels (the collection of channels is referred to as frequency bands) are more favorable--in terms of how far the signal sent over these channels can reach--than others. Another dimension to these frequency bands is the licensing mechanism. Not all frequency bands are free to use. In fact, most frequency bands in the US and other parts of the world are licensed by the regional regulatory agencies. The most well-known example of this licensing framework is the cellular network. Cellular operators spend large amounts of money (to the tune of billions of dollars) to gain the privileges of exclusively operating in a given frequency band. No other operator or wireless device is then allowed to operate in this band. Without any external interfering wireless device, cellular operators can guarantee a certain quality of service that is provided to its customers. Thus, the benefits of using licensed frequency bands are obvious but these bands and their associated benefits come at a high price. An alternative to licensed frequency bands are the unlicensed ones. As the name suggests, unlicensed frequency bands are those where any two or more wireless devices can communicate with each other (subject to certain rules) without having to pay any licensing fees. Unsurprisingly, because there is no limit to who or how many devices can communicate over these bands, wireless devices in these bands frequently experience external interference, which manifests to the end-user in terms of interruption of service. The best example of a wireless technology that uses unlicensed bands is Wi-Fi. One of the greatest advantages of Wi-Fi networks is that anyone can purchase a Wi-Fi router and deploy it within their homes or offices--flexibility not afforded by licensed bands. However, this very flexibility and ease-of-use can sometimes contribute negatively to Wi-Fi performance. Arguably, we have all faced scenarios where the performance of Wi-Fi is poor. This is most likely to happen in scenarios where there are hundreds (or even thousands) of neighboring Wi-Fi devices, such as at stadiums, railway stations, concerts, etc. Based on our discussions above, it is clear as to why Wi-Fi performance suffers in such scenarios. Thus, although unlicensed bands are lucrative in terms of low-cost, and ease of use, there is no guarantee on how good a voice/video call or a video streaming session conducted over Wi-Fi will be. The above problem is well-known and well-researched. Regulators, researchers, and service providers actively seek solutions to offer better performance over unlicensed bands. An obvious solution is to make more unlicensed bands available; if all neighboring Wi-Fi users communicate with their respective routers on different channels, everyone could communicate interference-free. The problem, however, is that frequency bands are limited. Even more limited are those bands that support wireless communications over larger distances. Another solution is to improve the wireless technologyif a Wi-Fi device can more efficiently utilize the channel, its performance is likely to improve. This fact has driven the constant evolution of all wireless technologies. However, there are fundamental limits to how much a frequency channel can be exploited. Therefore, in recent years, stakeholders have turned to spectrum sharing. Even though a wireless network may possess an exclusive license to operate on a given frequency band, its users do not use the band everywhere and at all times. Then why not allow unlicensed wireless devices to operate in this band at such places and times? This is precisely the premise of spectrum sharing. In this dissertation, we look at the problem of coexistence between wireless technologies in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands. These two bands are extremely lucrative in terms of their relatively favorable propagation characteristics (i.e., their communication range) and the abundance of spectrum therein. Consequently, these bands have garnered considerable attention in recent years with the objective of opening these bands up for unlicensed services. However, the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands are home to several licensed systems, and the performance of these systems cannot be compromised if unlicensed operations are allowed. Significant activity has taken place since 2013 concerning new technologies being developed, new spectrum sharing scenarios being proposed, and new rules being adopted in these two bands. We begin the dissertation by taking a comprehensive look at these issues, describing the various coexistence scenarios, surveying the existing literature, describing the major challenges, and providing directions for potential research. Next, we look at three coexistence problems in detail: (i) coexistence of dedicated short range communications (DSRC) and Wi-Fi, (ii) coexistence of cellular V2X (C-V2X) and Wi-Fi, and (iii) coexistence of 5G New Radio Unlicensed (5G NR-U) and Wi-Fi. The former two scenarios involve the coexistence of Wi-Fi with a vehicular communication technology (DSRC or C-V2X). These scenarios arose due to considerations in the US and Europe to allow Wi-Fi operations (on an unlicensed secondary basis) in the spectrum that was originally reserved for vehicular communications. Our work shows that because DSRC and Wi-Fi are built on top of fundamentally similar protocols, they are, to an extent, compatible with each other, and coexistence between these two technologies can be achieved by relatively simple modifications to the Wi-Fi protocol. However, C-V2X, owing to its inheritance from the cellular LTE, is not compatible with Wi-Fi. Consequently, significant research is required if the two technologies are to share the spectrum. On the other hand, in the coexistence of 5G NR-U and Wi-Fi, we focus on the operations of these two technologies in the 6 GHz bands. NR-U is a technology that is built atop the 5G cellular system, but is designed to operate in the unlicensed bands (in contrast to traditional cellular systems which only operate in licensed bands). Although these two technologies can coexist in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, we restrict our attention in this dissertation to the 6 GHz bands. This is because the 6 GHz bands are unique in that the entire range of the 6 GHz bands were opened up for unlicensed access all at once recently, and no Wi-Fi or NR-U devices currently operate in these bands. As a result, we can learn from the mistakes made in the 5 GHz bands, where a vast majority of today's Wi-Fi networks operate. Our work shows that, indeed, we can take decisive steps---such as disabling certain Wi-Fi functions---in the 6 GHz bands, which can facilitate better coexistence in the 6 GHz bands. Finally, in the course of identifying and tackling the various coexistence scenarios in the 5 GHz and 6 GHz bands, we identify some open issues in the performance of new wireless technologies designed to operate in these bands. Specifically, we highlight the need to better understand and characterize the performance of Multi User Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (MU OFDMA), a feature common in cellular networks but newly introduced to Wi-Fi, in the upcoming Wi-Fi 6 generation of devices. We propose and evaluate an analytical model for the same. We also characterize the performance of Multi Link Aggregation---which a novel feature likely to be introduced in future Wi-Fi 7 devices---that is aimed at reducing the worst-case delay experienced by Wi-Fi devices in dense traffic conditions. Additionally, we identify an issue in the performance of the distributed operational mode of C-V2X. We show that packet re-transmissions, which is a feature aimed at improving the performance of C-V2X, can have a counter-productive effect and degrade the C-V2X performance in certain environments. We address this issue by proposing a simple, yet effective, re-transmission control mechanism.

Introduction. Covid-19 outbreak has changed human life and activity [1], Especially In urban areas forcing citizens to stay for large periods of time in lockdowns. Protective measures (social distancing and isolation) that have been globally implemented has caused the isolation of millions. Preliminary findings (Moreno et al, 2021) suggest adverse mental health effects in previously healthy people and especially in people with pre-existing mental health disorders. Extended lockdowns come at the expense of mental health, psycho-physical conditions, wellbeing, and social relations within societies (Campion et al., 2020).
Before COVID-19 outbreak, city centers offered a high-quality life with a wide range of services, utilities, public and green spaces, as well as city parks (Sharifi & Khavarian-Garmsird, 2020). Living in a small apartment with a minimal private space in the city center was balanced by the high level of socialization in public spaces, outdoor activities and events, intense interactions among inhabitants, allowing them to maintain relations (Portegijs et al., 2021). With COVID-19 outbreak, this modern urban standard of living was challenged. Social distancing took place at several levels: at home and at work, and, in the city, in the street and on public transport. Everything created for urban life changed and became uncertain. Societies got used to sharing common spaces, often crowded, and everyone was cut off from everyday socialisation. The isolation forced millions of individuals and families to remain at home, causing them to change their routines, rituals, and habits (McCay, 2020). In dense urban areas, this mostly meant locking people in cramped apartments, cut off from everyday physical activity outside the home (Portegijs et al, 2021; Bil et al, 2021).
Smart cities are instrumented, interconnected, and intelligent urban areas (Harrison et al., 2010) that pursue shared growth through an integrated set of technologies that shape interactions between actors (Nam & Pardo, 2011). A smart city can be defined as complex set of technology (infrastructures of hardware and software), people (creativity, diversity, and education), and institutions (governance and policy) (Nam & Pardo, 2011). Smart cities aim is to create an environment that drives innovation from a technological, managerial, and organizational point of view by fostering environmental and social wellbeing (Karvonen et al., 2018; Polese et al., 2021].
The aim of this study is the literature review of the role of technology for citizens mental health during Covid-19 pandemic lockdowns in Smart Cities and to investigate if there is a relation between digital tools provided to the citizens of Pafos Municipality to use during quarantine, and their mental health status.
Methodology\design\approach. A review of the literature and an additional critical review were conducted in the fields of smart cities and mental health with a focus on the latest research concerning COVID-19 influence on ICT, mental health and wellbeing. For the purposes of this article, a thorough database search has been made. The database used was mostly Google Scholar and Science Direct. Selection criteria included full-text publications and consisted of the following keywords: COVID-19, post-COVID-19, mental health, wellbeing, lockdown, isolation, anxiety, infection rates, density, smart city, digital technology, ICT and Virtual Reality. Author focused on qualitative research available until April 2022.
Further than this, field research was conducted through a qualitative method in the particular case of Paphos Municipality in Cyprus, the introduction of various ICT technology solutions during the pandemic lockdowns and their impact on citizens mental health. ICT tools were briefly analyzed and their contributions towards citizens mental health was evaluated based on questionnaires distributed to the citizens before and after the use of these tools. Now the key question that needs an answer is "Did smart cities impact on citizens mental health during the pandemic?"
During the pandemic, Pafos Municipality introduced to its citizens various ICT solutions that despite initially they were targeting foreign tourists visiting the district, they ended up as entertainment tools that ease the lockdown period during the quarantine phase. As part of the E.U. co-funded by European Union program "Smart Cities – Interreg: Greece – Cyprus" the municipality implemented the "Collection, Documentation and Digitization of Cultural and Tourist material, Development of Digital Tourism / Culture and Entrepreneurship Platform and Development of digital applications of e-democracy and participation in the Municipality of Pafos" project. The result of this project was the creation of 3 websites: 1. Explore Pafos https://www.explorepafos.org/ with multimedia information (text, photos, videos, 360-pictures, interactive map with points of interest etc.) about the province's major points of interest sorted by category: Culture, Environment, Tourism and Services. 2. Historical Timeline https://xronologio.explorepafos.org/ with information about the history of the city in a chronological order. 3. Electronic Participation https://diavouleusi.explorepafos.org/ offering User Registration, Consultation, Online Citizens Community (forum), Civil Council Decisions, Online Polls, News and Announcements. Further than these 2 mobile applications for iOS and Android devices were developed, Explore Pafos with various important information about the city of Pafos and Pafos AR which contain Augmented Reality representation of various significant cultural and historical sightseeing in the district. The websites and mobile applications were available in 5 languages (Greek, English, Russian, Hebrew and German).
These platforms were presented to the citizens of Pafos Municipality on the 27th of February 2020, slightly earlier than the first lockdown. After the first strict lockdown, the administrators of the website reported a significant increase in the traffic of the website among local citizens compared to pre-pandemic. This led the creators of the platforms among which is the author of this article to provide online questionnaires to people using the digital platforms on their leisure time during COVID-19 lockdowns to answer various questions regarding the impact of these digital tools in their mental health status during COVID-19 lockdown.
A questionnaire containing 5-point Likert scale questions and questions about qualitative and quantitative use of the ICT tools and their mental health during COVID-19 lockdowns was completed by citizens of Pafos Municipality.
Due to this study objective, two main criteria were established for sample selection. First, respondents should be citizens of Pafos Municipality from various areas over at least the past 5 years. Additionally, respondents must have been present during COVID-19 outbreak and lockdowns in the city. To verify this criterion, an initial survey question asked whether respondents were staying in the city during the COVID-19 outbreak.
The questionnaire was constructed in three parts. Its first one aimed at collecting descriptive variables (demographic information) of respondents' location, and professional profile. The second part asked citizens about their mental health status before and after COVID-19 outbreak and lockdowns. Each question was assessed according to a 5-point Likert scale (1 referred to 'not used' and 5 denoted 'fully used'). The last section of the questionnaire examined the adoption level of the ICT tools introduced by the Municipality as supporting tools for their mental status during the COVID-19 outbreak. For that, all 6 ICT tools were listed and evaluated based upon a similar Likert scale that ranged from 1 (not used) to 5 (fully used).
Results. The online questionnaire had its link firstly sent by e-mail to 480 citizens that registered in the platform in December 2020. A follow-up message was sent two weeks later. 215 responses returned but only 206 of them were actually from citizens that met our selection criteria, which resulted in 42.9% valid response rate,
For analyzing data, two distinctive procedures were carried out using the SPSS® Statistics 23 software to identify differences in levels of each characteristic related to ICT tools, device available (PC, mobile phone, tablet), and content (Cultural, Environmental, Social, Multimedia Content) when considering the degree of how they impact their mental health during COVID-19 lockdowns.
Our respondents were half men and half women. Moreover, 10% are aged between 20 and 25, 34% between 26 and 35, 36% between 36 and 45, 14% in the interval of 46 till 55 and only 6% are older than 55. 36% are single, 59% being married and almost 5% under another non-defined situation. Most respondents were living in a house (56%), with their family (54%), and had 1 or more kids (44%). 75% of the respondents mentioned that they use more often their mobile/laptops to access the internet compared to before. The majority of respondents (62%) mentioned that they used ICT tools provide 1 or more times per week to remind them of their daily habits while 56% mentioned that they used the platforms to navigate at their favorite place at least once. The largest majority (82%) accessed the services from their mobile phone while the smallest percent (12% accessed the services from their PC/Laptop. Regarding COVID-19 lockdowns, 86% stated that it is very stressful to stay at home in another lockdown while 36% said they wouldn't comply if they were forced to stay at home in another lockdown. 65% mentioned that they found the ICT tools useful to keep them mentally active and 72% mentioned that they wouldn't be able to stay in quarantine without access to internet. 68% of the people using the platforms declared that using the platforms helped to remain mentally active during the quarantine and 70% said they would use the platforms again in case there is a new lockdown.
Discussion. The present work was done having as basis 206 questionnaires applied to citizens of a Municipality in Cyprus, namely Pafos Municipality, in order to assess citizens mental health during lockdowns, and the impact of the use of ICT tools for their mental health. The survey collected data from 3 sections, namely demographics, mental health status before and after the COVID-19 pandemic and ICT tools usage during the lockdowns. The average respondents' sample shows that our interviewees are aged between 26 and 45 years old, half are men and the other women, married, qualified with college education. Citizens living in smaller apartments accessed the platforms more times per week compared to people living in the rural areas in houses and their conceived percentage of ICT tools contribution towards their mental health was higher compared to people leaving in rural areas. Citizens' inclusion and digital literacy are relevant issues that were affecting the use of ICT tools that do not apply only to urban contexts and should be addressed to solve societal, economic, technological, and political problems worldwide. COVID-19 restrictions and lockdown increased people's acceptance and use of ICT solutions.
Other studies are in line with the above findings (Troisi et al., 2022) where their key theoretical contribution of their study is the building of a framework that detects the main psychological, rational, social, and cultural determinants that can foster or prevent the acceptance of the changes forced by the pandemic, the adhesion to digitalization, and the transactional distance processes launched in the public sectors. These results are more evident in vulnerable groups (Dai et al., 2020; Ammar et al., 2021) which will require further development and usage of e-health solutions.
Finally, two other studies targeting different populations investigated the effectiveness of interventions by considering, as primary outcomes, not mental illness indicators (e.g., depression and anxiety symptoms), but positive mental health indicators (positive affect and positive mental health). Vara et al. (2020) provided us with a secondary analysis of a randomized controlled trial that assessed the efficacy of a low-intensity internet intervention aimed to promote positive affect in depressive patients in primary care, as an adjunct therapy to improved treatment as usual (Fonseca & Osma, 2021).
Scientific value / practical value. Another report (Fonseca & Osma, 2021) highlighted the urgent need for research to help improve our understanding of the pandemic's mental health consequences on the general public (Mahase, 2020). In order to help characterize the psychosocial effects of the COVID19 crisis as well as the moderators of these effects, a research group launched a multi-language, multi-center anonymous online survey to assess the "Effects of home Confinement on psychosocial health status and multiple Lifestyle Behaviors" during the COVID-19 outbreak. Preliminary findings from this project revealed that the COVID-19 home confinement resulted in significant negative effects on mental wellbeing and emotional status, with more people experiencing psychosocial and emotional distress compared to before the pandemic (Ammar at al. 2020; Ammar et al, 2021a; Fonseca & Osma, 2021). This research results highlight the importance of introducing ICT tools to provide a virtual tour of citizens to their favorite city spots and remain mentally active during quarantine period.
Conclusions. ICT tools offer citizens the opportunity to remember their pre COVID-19 lockdown habits as highlighted in this article and they contribute towards the improvement of their mental health during quarantine. This study aimed at (i) identifying wither ICT tools use increased during COVID-19 outbreak; (ii) investigating the effect of the tools use and the impact on mental health of their users; and (iii) examining the relationship between the adoption of ICT tools and the demographics of citizens using them most during COVID-19 outbreak. Our findings provided arguments to answer these three research questions raised from existing gaps in both theory and practice.

Public Policy and Ageing in Northern Ireland: Identifying Levers for Change Judith Cross, Policy Officer with the Centre for Ageing Research Development in Ireland (CARDI)��������Introduction Identifying a broad range of key public policy initiatives as they relate to age can facilitate discussion and create new knowledge within and across government to maximise the opportunities afforded by an ageing population. This article looks at how examining the current public policy frameworks in Northern Ireland can present opportunities for those working in this field for the benefit of older people. Good policy formulation needs to be evidence-based, flexible, innovative and look beyond institutional boundaries. Bringing together architects and occupational therapists, for example, has the potential to create better and more effective ways relevant to health, housing, social services and government departments. Traditional assumptions of social policy towards older people have tended to be medically focused with an emphasis on care and dependency. This in turn has consequences for the design and delivery of services for older people. It is important that these assumptions are challenged as changes in thinking and attitudes can lead to a redefinition of ageing, resulting in policies and practices that benefit older people now and in the future. Older people, their voices and experiences, need to be central to these developments. The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (CARDI) (1) is a not for profit organisation developed by leaders from the ageing field across Ireland (North and South) including age sector focused researchers and academics, statutory and voluntary, and is co-chaired by Professor Robert Stout and Professor Davis Coakley. CARDI has been established to provide a mechanism for greater collaboration among age researchers, for wider dissemination of ageing research information and to advance a research agenda relevant to the needs of older people in Ireland, North and South. Operating at a strategic level and in an advisory capacity, CARDI�۪s work focuses on promoting research co-operation across sectors and disciplines and concentrates on influencing the strategic direction of research into older people and ageing in Ireland. It has been strategically positioned around the following four areas: Identifying and establishing ageing research priorities relevant to policy and practice in Ireland, North and South;Promoting greater collaboration and co-operation on ageing research in order to build an ageing research community in Ireland, North and South;Stimulating research in priority areas that can inform policy and practice relating to ageing and older people in Ireland, North and South;Communicating strategic research issues on ageing to raise the profile of ageing research in Ireland, North and South, and its role in informing policy and practice. Context of Ageing in Ireland Ireland �۪s population is ageing. One million people aged 60 and over now live on the island of Ireland. By 2031, it is expected that Northern Ireland�۪s percentage of older people will increase to 28% and the Republic of Ireland�۪s to 23%. The largest increase will be in the older old; the number aged 80+ is expected to triple by the same date. However while life expectancy has increased, it is not clear that life without disability and ill health has increased to the same extent. A growing number of older people may face the combined effects of a decline in physical and mental function, isolation and poverty. Policymakers, service providers and older people alike recognise the need to create a high quality of life for our ageing population. This challenge can be meet by addressing the problems relating to healthy ageing, reducing inequalities in later life and creating services that are shaped by, and appropriate for, older people. Devolution and Structures of Government in Northern Ireland The Agreement (2) reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations in Belfast 1998 established the Northern Ireland Assembly which has full legislative authority for all transferred matters. The majority of social and economic public policy such as; agriculture, arts, education, health, environment and planning is determined by the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont. There are 11 Government Departments covering the main areas of responsibility with 108 elected Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA�۪s). The powers of the Northern Ireland Assembly do not cover ��� reserved�۪ matters or ��� excepted�۪ matters . These are the responsibility of Westminster and include issues such as, tax, social security, policing, justice, defence, immigration and foreign affairs. Northern Ireland has 18 elected Members of Parliament (MP�۪s) to the House of Commons. Public Policy Context in Northern Ireland The economic, social and political consequence of an ageing population is a challenge for policy makers across government. Considering the complex and diverse causal factors that contribute to ageing in Northern Ireland, there are a number of areas of government policy at regional, national and international levels that are likely to impact in this area. International The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (3) and the Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century (4) provide important mechanisms for furthering research into ageing. The United Kingdom has signed up to these. The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing commits member states to a systematic review of the Plan of Action through Regional Implementation Strategies. The United Kingdom�۪s Regional Implementation Strategy covers Northern Ireland. National At National level, pension and social security are high on the agenda. The Pensions Act (5) became law in 2007 and links pensions increases with earnings as opposed to prices from 2012. Additional credits for people raising children and caring for older people to boost their pensions were introduced. Some protections are included for those who lost occupational pensions as a result of underfunded schemes being wound up before April 2005. In relation to State Pensions and benefits, this Act will bring changes to state pensions in future. The Act now places the Pension Credit element which is up-rated in line with or above earnings, on a permanent, statutory footing. Regional At regional level there are a number of age related public policy initiatives that have the potential to impact positively on the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Some are specific to ageing such as the Ageing in an Inclusive Society (6) and others by their nature are cross-cutting such as Lifetime Opportunities: Governments Anti-Poverty Strategy for Northern Ireland (7). The main public policy framework in Northern Ireland is the Programme for Government: Building a Better Future, 2008-2011(PfG) (8) . The PfG, is the overarching high level policy framework for Northern Ireland and provides useful principles for ageing research and public policy in Northern Ireland. The PfG vision is to build a peaceful, fair and prosperous society in Northern Ireland, with respect for the rule of law. A number of Public Service Agreements (PSA) aligned to the PfG confirm key actions that will be taken to support the priorities that the Government aim to achieve over the next three years. For example objective 2 of PSA 7: Making Peoples�۪ Lives Better: Drive a programme across Government to reduce poverty and address inequality and disadvantage, refers to taking forward strategic action to promote social inclusion for older people; and to deliver a strong independent voice for older people. The Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (OFMDFM) have recently appointed an Interim Older People�۪s Advocate, Dame Joan Harbison to provide a focus for older peoples issues across Government. Ageing in an Inclusive Society is the cross-departmental strategy for older people in Northern Ireland and was launched in March 2005. It sets out the approach to be taken across Government to promote and support the inclusion of older people. The vision coupled with six strategic objectives form the basis of the action plans accompanying the strategy. The vision is: ���To ensure that age related policies and practices create an enabling environment, which offers everyone the opportunity to make informed choices so that they may pursue healthy, active and positive ageing.�۝ (Ageing in an Inclusive Society, Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister, 2005) Action planning and maintaining momentum across government in relation to this strategy has proved to be slower than anticipated. It is proposed to refresh this Strategy in line with Opportunity Age ��� meeting the challenges of ageing in the 21st Century (9). There are a number of policy levers elsewhere which can also be used to promote the positive aspects of an ageing society. The Investing for Health (10) and A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland (11), seek to ensure that the overall vision for health and wellbeing is achievable and provides a useful framework for ageing policy and research in the health area. These health initiatives have the potential to positively impact on the quality of life of older people and provide a useful framework for improving current policy and practice. In addition to public policy initiatives, the anti-discrimination frameworks in terms of employment in Northern Ireland cover age as well as a range of other grounds. Goods facilitates and services are currently excluded from the Employment Equality (age) Regulations (NI) 2006 (12). Supplementing the anti-discrimination measures, Section 75 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998 (13), unique to Northern Ireland, places a statutory obligation on public authorities in fulfilling their functions to promote equality of opportunity across nine grounds, one of which is age(14). This positive duty has the potential to make a real difference to the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Those affected by policy decisions must be consulted and their interests taken into account. This provides an opportunity for older people and their representatives to participate in public policy-making, right from the start of the process. Policy and Research Interface ���Ageing research is vital as decisions in relation to policy and practice and resource allocation will be made on the best available information�۝. (CARDI�۪s Strategic Plan 2008-2011) As outlined earlier, CARDI has been established to bridge the gap to ensure that research reaches those involved in making policy decisions. CARDI is stimulating the ageing research agenda in Ireland through a specific research fund that has a policy and practice focus. My work is presently focusing on helping to build a greater awareness of the key policy levers and providing opportunities for those within research and policy to develop closer links. The development of this shared understanding by establishing these links between researchers and policy makers is seen as the best predictor for research utilization. It is important to acknowledge and recognise that researchers and policy makers operate in different institutional, political and cultural contexts. Research however needs to ���resonate�۪ with the contextual factors in which policy makers operate. Conclusions Those working within the public policy field recognise all too often that the development of government policies and initiatives in respect of age does not guarantee that they will result in changes in actual provision of services, despite Government recommendations and commitments. The identification of public policy initiatives as they relate to age has the potential to highlight persistent and entrenched difficulties that social policy has previously failed to address. Furthermore, the identification of these difficulties can maximise the opportunities for progressing these across government. A focus on developing effective and meaningful targets to ensure measurable outcomes in public policy for older people can assist in this. Access to sound, credible and up-to-date evidence will be vital in this respect. As well as a commitment to working across departmental boundaries to effect change. Further details: If you would like to discuss this paper or for further information about CARDI please contact: Judith Cross, Policy Officer, Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland CARDI). t: +44 (0) 28 9069 0066; m: +353 (0) 867 904 171; e: judith@cardi.ie ; or visit our website at: www.cardi.ie References 1) Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (2008) Strategic Plan 2008-2011. Belfast. CARDI 2) The Agreement: Agreement Reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations. Belfast 1998 3) Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing. http://www.un.org/ageing/ 4) UN Programme on Ageing (2007) Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century: 2007 Update. New York. New York. UN Programme on Ageing and the International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 5) The Pensions Act 2007 Chapter 22 6) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Ageing in an Inclusive Society. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 7) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Lifetime Opportunities: Government�۪s Anti-Poverty and Social Inclusion Strategy for Northern Ireland. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 8) Northern Ireland Executive (2008) Building a Better Future: Programme for Government 2008-2011. Belfast. OFMDFM Economic Policy Unit. 9) Department for Work and Pensions, (2005) Opportunity Age: Meeting the Challenges of Ageing in the 21 st Century. London. DWP. 10) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2002) Investing for Health. Belfast. DHSS&PS. 11) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2005) A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland Belfast. DHSS&PS. �� 12) The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 SR2006 No.261 13) The Northern Ireland Act 1998, Part VII, S75 14) The nine grounds covered under S75 of the Northern Ireland Act are: gender, religion, race, sexual orientation, those with dependents, disability, political opinion, marital status and age.

Women and Post-Conflict Reconstruction: Issues and Sources is a review of literature dealing with political, economic and social reconstruction from a gender perspective. One of its objectives is to go beyond conventional images of women as victims of war, and to document the many different ways in which women make a contribution to the rebuilding of countries emerging from armed conflicts. Special attention is given to women's priority concerns, to their resources and capacities, and to structural and situational factors that may reduce their participation in reconstruction processes. A second aim is to shed light on how post-war reconstruction processes influence the reconfiguration of gender roles and positions in the wake of war, and how women's actions shape the construction of post-war social structures. Following the brief Introduction is a chapter on political reconstruction. It raises questions concerning women's participation in peace-building and democratization. In order to illuminate women's expectations regarding their roles and status in post-war society, the chapter opens with a brief discussion of how and to what extent various liberation movements have addressed women's issues. While some movements considered women's issues to detract attention from the main goal of their struggle, many movements regarded women's liberation as an integral dimension of their overall struggle for social justice. The fact that women's issues were included on the political agendas and that women themselves were mobilized to participate actively in the fighting is demonstrated to have been instrumental in raising women's political awareness and their expectations of state and society today. The ensuing discussion of women's participation in formal and informal peace-building activities shows that in most cases women are excluded from formal peace negotiations. Such high-level negotiations are identified as male domains, which means that they also employ discourses and practices that are closer to men's reality than to women's. As a result, women also lack direct influence in the identification of reconstruction priorities that are usually part of a peace agreement. Nevertheless, women are demonstrated to play an influential role through their work in grassroots organizations working for peace and reconciliation. From within these organizations, women constantly challenge the authorities and other members of society with demands for peace, non-discrimination, accountability, recognition of human rights, etc. While always positioned on the margins, these organizations show their ability to mobilize large numbers of women, and to translate individual grievances into legitimate social concerns. Moreover, many of them play a significant role in building a new culture of peace at the local level by organizing peace education and community-based reconciliation and social reconstruction activities. Democratization processes are generally applauded, because they are assumed to guarantee accountability and to grant all citizens the possibility to participate in political life. However, studies on elections and decentralization demonstrate several flaws when it comes to women's position. Many countries emerging from armed conflict have adopted new constitutions that grant women equal political, social and economic rights, and many governments have developed new quota systems to ensure women equal representation in decision-making institutions at all levels. However, the implementation of these laws and good intentions often runs into major obstacles. At the government level the problems include a lack of financial resources and a lack of gender awareness or political will among staff. Other major problems are to be found at the social level, where the new discourse of gender equality may run counter to existing social norms regarding gender roles. The examples discussed show that, in some cases, local authorities and male members of society may discourage or prohibit women from participating in political activities. Moreover, the fact that the division of labour has not changed in favour of women, but rather added to their burden, also poses practical limitations on the possibilities for active involvement of women. Despite these constraints, women have made remarkable contributions in many countries. In the context of elections women have organized civic education targeting women, and they have convinced women of the importance of their vote. Educated women have organized legal counselling to inform women about their rights and to help them exercise these rights. Chapter three deals with economic reconstruction and the strategies that women develop to cope with war-induced changes in the economic environment and to meet the growing responsibilities for the survival and well-being of family and relatives. The focus is on the relationship between women's economic activities and their socio-economic position. The first section of the chapter concentrates on women's involvement in agricultural production, which often constitutes a major source of income. In addition to problems of landmines, a lack of agricultural inputs and farm implements, a shattered infrastructure and the inaccessibility of markets, etc., which equally trouble male farmers, women face a number of particular challenges. First, women often lack legal rights to land and other resources which, in the context of social disintegration where a large number of women become single providers, may reduce their ability to survive on farming alone. In some countries, women are organizing themselves to lobby state and local authorities for increased access to such resources, but in many cases women are forced off the land and are compelled to seek other sources of income. Another problem facing women in agriculture is the dismantling of traditional work groups due to displacement, divorce, death, etc. This has often resulted in the creation of new co-operative associations and voluntary self-help groups which combine old institutions and current social conditions. When cultivating the family land is no longer an option, some women join the casual agricultural labour force. While this opportunity enables women to employ their skills and to earn an income, recent analyses suggest that this may in fact mean that women come to occupy a marginal position in the new structure of rural social stratification. Another area which proved to be of great importance to women's livelihoods was the burgeoning informal sector, with petty trade and small-scale businesses as major sources of income. The documentation of women's involvement in this sector showed a great variety in experiences. Some women took up activities in which they had also been involved prior to the war, but many engaged in innovative projects, even when it meant a break with existing social norms, as they took up jobs perceived to be male jobs. Some women established businesses on the basis of local resources and demand, while others established elaborate trading networks which cut across ethnic boundaries and national borders. Again, women's capacity to build and mobilize extensive social networks had a positive impact. But while women generally proved to be eager and capable entrepreneurs, the sustainability of their enterprises was often constrained by a lack of capital and marketing skills, not to mention the fact that the sector itself is highly insecure and fluctuating. Moreover, women's economic success would in some cases result in social stigmatization and exclusion, due to clashes with prevailing norms or jealousy. Finally, the formal sector is discussed. For various reasons, societies emerging from war usually experience a high unemployment rate, and women are often particularly marginalized with regard to access to formal employment. In some cases this is a result of the fact that women generally have poorer educational qualifications, but research also suggests that discriminatory practices are still frequent. One of the few areas where women seem privileged is the social sector, but because this sector is often exposed to budgetary cuts, women's access to income and status from this field is reduced. Nevertheless, women continue to perform related tasks, but as semi-professionals or even as volunteers. The fourth chapter focuses on social reconstruction, specifically on the rehabilitation of social services (health care and education) and wider issues of social integration. With regard to the first aspect, the main questions are whether the social sector recognizes women's particular needs, and whether it seeks to build on women's skills and capacities. The discussion on social integration shifts the focus to how women are positioned in processes of inclusion and exclusion, and to how women's strategies and activities influence social integration. Studies on the rehabilitation of social services suggest that even though women's needs and rights are increasingly recognized officially, women continue to be discriminated against with regard to access to education for social and cultural reasons. Health care and other social facilities also remain inadequate, with consequences not only for women's health, but also for their ability to participate in political and economic life. The material clearly demonstrates that social issues were generally given high priority by women themselves, and many women in post-conflict societies make a major contribution to their rehabilitation. In rural as well as urban areas, women have re-established primary education for children as a means to build local capacities and influence their socialization, and women are often involved in providing primary health care and socio-economic assistance on a self-help basis to people in crisis. However, as noted above, while such activities are generally welcomed, they are often considered but a natural extension of women's domestic obligations and hence are not remunerated or responded to with offers of training. In addition to ordinary health care problems, intrastate wars produce a number of specific health problems known as psycho-social traumas. These traumas may stem from experiences of forced displacement, torture, rape, violence, witnessing killings, etc. In some cases, women have been particularly vulnerable to this kind of assault on mind and body. But women have also been very active in addressing the scars that such experiences leave, organizing voluntary organizations which offer medical and psychological treatment. Moreover, they have helped former victims to overcome their distress and reintegrate, by offering skills training and income-generating activities. Another issue which has been addressed by women's organizations is the growth of violence within post-war societies. Through classroom education and workshops, women have sought to raise awareness about violence against women and to change the attitudes that consider such violence acceptable. As the discussion on social integration points out, there has long been a tendency to focus exclusively on the reintegration of returnees, internally displaced persons and demobilized soldiers, or of persons who have become marked and marginalized due to torture, disability, widowhood, etc. However, to the extent that any post-war society is inevitably undergoing profound changes in its socio-economic and political composition, the issue of integration is relevant to all members of society. This chapter focuses on this aspect from a gender and family perspective, and shows how integration often also has disintegrative aspects. Newly gained economic freedom and independence, long years of separation and exposure to new social environments and attitudes, new perceptions of the role of the family and its members, and forced migration in search of employment, all contribute to continued dismantling of existing social institutions and the establishment of new ones. Social integration, in other words, is not simply about "coming home", but about defining new guiding social values and establishing corresponding relationships and institutions based on a combination of factors including kinship, socio-economic interests, and shared experiences and circumstances. In the final chapter, conventional conceptualizations of women in conflict and post-conflict situations are examined. The chapter also contains some suggestions for alternative concepts and approaches which appear to be better tools for our understanding of women's situation and thus for the development of programmes that will assist women in their multiple efforts to rebuild their lives. It is pointed out that our understanding of women's roles in post-war societies and of their contributions to post-war reconstruction must go beyond the universalistic narrative of "women's experience of war". The specificity and diversity of women's experiences must be acknowledged. Only on this basis can we conduct comparative analyses and begin to develop a deeper general understanding of post-war reconstruction from a gender perspective. Second, the concluding chapter stresses the need to supplement the image of women as vulnerable victims with an image of women as a highly differentiated group of social actors, who possess valuable resources and capacities and who have their own agendas. Women influence the course of things, and their actions are constitutive of post-war societies. The reduction of women to targets and beneficiaries both fails to recognize their contributions and contributes to their marginalization. A third point stressed in the conclusion is the need for gender-specific data and gender-focused analysis. While special attention is given to women throughout the publication, so as to make visible the previously invisible, the aim has been to see women's situation within a gender framework which pays attention to how gender roles and relationships are continuously constructed and contested by different actors, and which recognizes the gender dimension inherent in all aspects of post-war reconstruction. The gender perspective is also relevant for the achievement of sustainable peace. As the analysis strongly suggests, the failure to recognize gender issues may produce new social tensions and contribute to the differentiating struggles over identity, status and power that are so distinctive for societies which have recently achieved peace.

Teaching English to Filipino learners have been challenging especially during the time of pandemic with very limited interaction between the teacher and the students. Different online learning platforms were explored and utilized so that continuity of learning may happen despite the situation. Distance learning was welcomed by every learner both in the basic education system and tertiary levels. Applications were also further accessed so that language learning can become more engaging at the same time develop the communication skills of all learners. However, this scenario was not a walk in the park for many; likewise, it becomes more difficult for those students who have special needs. These circumstances serve as challenges for teachers to reevaluate and reinvent their teaching practices to further accommodate and teach English to diverse learners may it be during times of pandemic or not. In line with this, the book Supporting English Learners with Exceptional Needs by Patricia Rice Doran and Amy K. Noggle was reviewed and evaluated. The authors are faculty in Arcola Elementary School in Montgomery County Public Schools in Maryland as well as in Towson University. For this reason, this gives us thought that the authors gained inspiration in writing this book through their students to provide them support and intervention. This book tries to address the needs of the learners who have high-incidence and low-incidence disabilities. As reviewers and evaluators of this book, we have our personal thoughts and ideas in teaching English to our learners. Filipino learners who are studying English also possess diverseness and uniqueness which lets us use varied teaching strategies to accommodate different learners' needs and weaknesses. The information featured in this book are useful to better and improve the classroom teaching of English and further develop the skills of the students. The insights shared by the author could be essential for use to devise ways towards improvement of language learning suited for the needs of Filipinos learners. In its introduction, the writers had elaborated the extensive research of the challenges faced in the United States concerning English learners. The data showed that there is a need to reevaluate practices as well as improve class routine since learners are diverse in so many ways. Moreover, these challenges paved way for opportunities to support as well make significant changes in the education system were seen. It is also important to note that the book recognizes the potentials that could be discovered from learners with disabilities if they would be supported and nurtured through a special education system in accordance to the child development perspective. The book is divided into three sections which include different chapters that showcase scenarios in real-life setting, elaboration of key concepts, and more importantly practical approaches relevant in teaching English to learners with learning disabilities. Specifically, Section 1 includes background knowledge related to English learners and students' abilities. Section 2 discussed the classroom structures and framework. Lastly, Section 3 distinguishes the support needed for English learners with disability. Through these sections the strengths, weaknesses, as well as policies for English learners were emphasized together with the necessary classroom approaches and assessments that can be utilized in specializing programs for English learners. The first Chapter of the book is What Do English Learners Bring to Our Schools? Cognitive, Linguistic, and Cultural Assets. In this chapter we are given a realization on how we provide interventions and assessment among our diverse learners. It is elaborated that in the case of a classroom with learners of diverse background we should highlight the essence of strength-based thinking. It also made us reflect on the resilience of our students and their funds of knowledge. The chapter could sum up the need for teachers to develop strategies that will be holistic and honing the context of the uniqueness of each learner especially in language learning. The chapter also put emphasis on educational equity among learners, we must value the strengths and assets of the learners as they attain proficiency in language learning. The second Chapter of the book, Challenges and Opportunities for English Learners in Our Schools, expounds on the concept of dealing with our learners' needs as opportunities instead of challenges. As language teachers we should see a silver lining upon hurdling the challenges of diversity among our learners. It put significant consideration on translating the learners' need which are composed of different life-stressors into meaningful opportunities towards learning. The chapter also presents to us several challenges faced by a language learner which involves not only his cognitive ability but his family and cultural background. The chapter also expounds on several approaches and learning frameworks which can be valuable resources for educators in dealing with learners needs as opportunities rather than challenges. On the other hand, Chapter 3, A Policy Primer reiterates the different government and state policies concerning children right to education and how these policies helped in transforming the language learning landscape for many English learners with difficult situation such as the child who became the point of discussion in the chapter "Eterio". The chapter also traces back the history of how discrimination due to race or disability was not avoided by several state policies such as the "No Child Left Behind" (NCLB) in 2002, and the 'Every Student Succeed Acts (ESSA)' in 2015. More so, the chapter puts emphasis on how policies put premium on the protection of English learners with exceptional needs as well as those policies that recognizes the need to fund individualized educational services. Section 2 of the book is welcomed by its fourth Chapter, Ecological Approaches and Multitiered Systems of Support: Holistic Approaches to Serving English Learners where in it distinguishes the diversity of learners in a learning community. Given the said situation, it expounds on the significance of an ecological, tiered framework which may present school personnel the chance to back up the learners in several aspects. These may include interdisciplinary communication and collaborative work among school personnel. The chapter also assess the necessity to ensure that the intervention provided for the learners are based from their background and level of development. The chapter reflects on presenting interventions not only based on their cultural perspectives but also based on the whole-child perspective. In Chapter 5, Collaborative Problem Solving for English Learners: The Unique Role of the ESOL Teacher the authors discuss the problem-solving process in language learning. The chapter reviewed the different process that are found conducive towards planning successful classes among English learners. It explains the need for a thorough discussion and observations prompts that may be relevant in solving the problem of a learner. The discussion on collaborative problem solving was given prominence in the chapter as well since it is found to be an important element in providing support in teaching diverse learners. Furthermore, the need of consistency among ESOL teachers as an integral part of the problem-solving process was focused upon since they are expected to distinguish the strengths of the learners, and how these will be used to better facilitate strategies. The sixth Chapter is Universal Supports for English Learners at Risk. This chapter discusses the common problems that the English teachers are experiencing in their classes like lack of parental support and nonacademic factors (lack of sleep, living environment, and daily stressors) which leads to the use of Universal Design for Learning (UDL). This is a framework for curriculum and instruction that is used to provide accessibility, support, and challenge by considering the needs of each learner. Moreover, thin this chapter, it is emphasized that teachers need to identify and consider a lot of factors before providing solutions and interventions. The support provided to students are not confined with the structured classroom adjustments, sometimes students are affected by external factors like family pressures or internal factors like student's disability. Chapter seventh is Targeted Supports for English Learners. This chapter explains the parameters in providing targeted supports and interventions to English learners. Teachers need to consider the prior experiences of the learners including their trauma if there is. Identifying the student's strengths, needs, and unique profile is necessary. It is also emphasized that in the implementation of the intervention, parents or family members are encouraged to take part actively for an effective turnout. Chapter eight is Assessment and Identification for English/ Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Learners: High-incidence Disabilities. In this chapter, several court cases were featured to gain understanding on the experiences of the people with disabilities and their challenges encountered by the immigrants and minority populations in schools. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990 (IDEA) was also discussed that is made to provide unbiased testing procedures and to address language barriers. Chapter ninth is Assessment and Identification for English Learners: Low-incidence Disabilities. This chapter features how the students with low-incidence disabilities (LID) were specifically evaluated and assessed and the challenges that the teachers faced. The LID students are the ones who are deaf, blind, or having other health impairments. The challenges faced by the teachers were shortage of knowledgeable personnel, specialized/interdisciplinary knowledge, and skill sets, and need for appropriate assessment procedures. The teachers needed the help of some medical, speech, audiology, and assistive technology in addressing the needs of the learners under LID prior and during the learning process. The last chapter is Intensive Supports and Specialized Programming for English Learners. This part talks about the recommended practices in developing and implementing specialized programs for students with low-incidence disabilities and high-incidence disabilities. Teachers may reach to the families of the learners with disabilities. A collaborative discussion is helpful to make sure that the ways in teaching the students were appropriate and fitting according to the needs of the students. Also, schools may provide intensive interventions and supports to students that takes into consideration their level of proficiency and cultural fit. This chapter provided a number of available resources and self-evaluation forms that teachers and schools may use. In the hope of improving the teaching and learning experience of the students and to further address diverse learners, the evaluators recommend this book to teachers of English. In terms of addressing the students' needs and weaknesses, this book provided sample situations that teachers of English usually encounter while providing strategies on how to properly address them. Furthermore, this book tries to ensure that all the learners discover their giftedness and how they could use it in powerful ways.

Durante las dos últimas décadas, el emprendimiento social se ha convertido en un fenómeno relevante, ya que soluciona cuestiones sociales críticas que los gobiernos han desatendido o no han sido capaces de resolver. De hecho, este tipo de iniciativa empresarial ha llegado a ser considerada como un mecanismo necesario para ayudar en las zonas consideradas no rentables por el sector privado. En los últimos quince años ha aumentado el interés y la atención por el emprendimiento social. Esto puede deberse al reconocimiento de la importante contribución de este tipo de empresas a la sociedad. Las empresas sociales han nacido para luchar contra la exclusión social, la revitalización de zonas desfavorecidas, dar trabajo a los desempleados y, en general, ofrecer productos y servicios innovadores para solucionar problemas sociales desatendidos por los sectores público y privado. El emprendimiento social, como ámbito científico, ha atraído recientemente el interés de los investigadores. Sin embargo, los estudios se han centraron principalmente en delimitar su concepto, de ahí que se afirme que si se desea avanzar en su conocimiento se debe cambiar el enfoque de investigación llevado a cabo hasta ahora, incorporando las ideas de las teorías y enfoques sobre emprendimiento ya existentes. Por lo tanto, para que se legitime el emprendimiento social, en cierta medida, la investigación en esta área debe replicar la evolución teórica y empírica del emprendimiento, aplicando estos conocimientos al caso concreto del emprendimiento social. Siguiendo esta recomendación, este estudio se basa en las premisas básicas del emprendimiento. En primer lugar, se considera que los emprendedores poseen características concretas que hacen que se incremente la probabilidad de crear una empresa. En segundo lugar, también se afirma que el emprendimiento está condicionado por las instituciones específicas de cada país, de ahí los diferentes niveles de emprendimiento entre países. En particular, para estudiar la influencia del perfil del emprendedor, se han analizado, por un lado, variables objetivas como son el nivel educativo, la edad y género y, por otro lado, variables relacionadas con la percepción del individuo, como es el caso de la socialización, autoeficacia percibida, miedo al fracaso y estado de alerta ante oportunidades no explotadas. Estas últimas están relacionadas con las percepciones y las creencias de la persona, pero no necesariamente reflejan circunstancias objetivas, aunque sí ayudan a entender por qué algunos individuos son más propensos que otros a convertirse en emprendedores. Por otra parte, con el fin de analizar la influencia del entorno, se estudia el perfil institucional del país a través de cuatro dimensiones que explican cómo las políticas y los programas gubernamentales, la cultura, el mercado y los valores de dicho país afectan al emprendimiento social. Para aumentar la importancia de este estudio, además, se ha analizado la variación de la actividad empresarial comercial y social (TEA y SEA) entre países y las razones que pueden explicar dichas diferencias. Aunque el emprendimiento está revitalizando algunas economías y ha facilitado el crecimiento económico en muchas otras, la literatura aún es muy limitada a la hora de explicar por qué las tasas de emprendimiento varían entre países y por qué las nuevas empresas pueden ser más exitosas en un país que en otro. Por último, la literatura señala que la mayoría de las investigaciones sobre el emprendedor social son cualitativas. Principalmente, predominan las revisiones teóricas y el estudio de casos, que analiza historias de emprendedores sociales. Este tipo de estudios limita el alcance y la generalización de sus resultados, por lo que es necesario realizar investigaciones cuantitativas con grandes muestras. Aunque la investigación sobre emprendimiento social es escasa, la falta de estudios empíricos ha puesto aún más límites a la hora de comprender este tipo de emprendimiento. Dada la escasez de estudios empíricos rigurosos, este trabajo se ha realizado con metodología cuantitativa, utilizando una muestra representativa de población adulta obtenida de la base de datos del proyecto Global Entrepreneurship Monitor del año 2009 (GEM). El GEM es calificado por multitud de autores como el proyecto de estudio sobre emprendimiento con la mejor base de datos a nivel mundial, de hecho sus datos han sido citados en los principales medios de comunicación y, también, utilizados en investigaciones publicadas en las principales revistas académicas. Los resultados obtenidos en este trabajo llevan a afirmar que los emprendedores comerciales suelen ser hombres jóvenes, con alto nivel de educación, que por lo general han conocido a otros emprendedores, que perciben oportunidades de negocio, que se sienten capaces de iniciar un negocio y que tienen bajo nivel de miedo al fracaso. El perfil del emprendedor social en los países desarrollados es similar a este. Sin embargo, conforme disminuye el nivel de desarrollo solo se puede afirmar que es un individuo con ejemplos de emprendedores en su vida y que siente capaz de crear una empresa, no influyéndole ni el género, la edad, el nivel de estudios ni la percepción de oportunidades. Por otro lado, se confirma que las variables institucionales condicionan de forma similar a ambos emprendimientos. No obstante, es necesario matizar que la fuerza de la relación entre las variables introducidas en el modelo y las tasas de emprendimiento es más fuerte en el caso del emprendedor comercial. Over the last two decades social entreprenurship has become an important phenomenon, receiving widespread media attention due to the growth of critical social issues and the belief that traditional approaches of government will not be enough to address social problems. This type of entrepreneurship came to be seen as an important mechanism for supporting economic activities in areas deemed unprofitable by the private sector. In the past 15 years the interest and attention to social entrepreneurship has increased. This may be due to the recognition of the important contribution made by this type of business to society. Social enterprises are born to combat social exclusion, revitalize deprived areas, communities and locales, provide work for the unemployed and generally offer innovative products and services previously overlooked by the private and public sectors, especially for hard-to-reach groups. Social entrepreneurship as a scholarly field of study has recently attracted the interest of researches. While early studies draw attention to the concept and domain of the construct, it is widely recognized that the focus of entrepreneur research should be incorporating ideas from existing theories and approaches in entrepreneurship. To legitimate social entrepreneurship as a domain of academic inquiry, research on this area has to some extent replicate the empirical and theoretical evolution of entrepreneurship, examining valuable assumptions and insights from theories inherent in existing entrepreneurship frameworks and applying these insights in ways that address phenomena in the social entrepreneurship context. Also, studies might test the scope and generalizability of theoretical propositions, antecedents or consequences using large scale quantitative data set. Following this recommendation in this study we base our research upon to basic premises in entrepreneurship. First, firms are managed by individuals with its own characteristics that promote or inhibit new venture creation. Secondly, we also assert that firms are embedded in country-specific institutional arrangements that may also bring about different levels of entrepreneurial activity across countries. Particularly, to study the influence of entrepreneur's profile, we analysed specific individual differences in education, age, gender, or some personal attributes related with subjective perceptions related to confidence in entrepreneur's social experiences, socialization, skills and ability, risk propensity, and alertness to unexploited opportunities. These variables are related to perceptions and beliefs of the individual but do not necessarily reflect objective circumstances, although they do help in understanding why some individuals are more likely than others to become entrepreneurs Moreover, in order to analyze the environment influence, we study a four dimensional country institutional profile to explain how a country's government policies and programs, widely shared social knowledge, market, and value systems affect social entrepreneurship. To increase the interest of this study we paid attention to the cross-national variation in commercial and social entrepreneurial activity (TEA and SEA) and the reasons behind this phenomenon. Although entrepreneurship is currently revitalizing some formerly planned economies, and it has facilitated economic growth in many other; scholars have only a limited understanding of why rates of entrepreneurship vary cross-nationally and why certain types of start-ups may be more successful in one country than in another. Finally, as many studies point out, the majority of extant research on social entrepreneurship are theoretical or qualitative, based on case studies that introduce powerful and heroic stories of various types of social entrepreneurs. Studies in this field might test the scope and generalizability of theoretical propositions, antecedents or consequences using large scale quantitative data set. Although there exists some broad research on social entrepreneurship the lack of empirical studies has placed limits on our understanding of the important antecedents and outcomes of social entrepreneurship. Given the scarcity of rigorous empirical studies, this study took a quantitative approach to social entrepreneurship using a representative sample of the adult population of the 2009 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor (GEM). GEM is widely acknowledged to be the best source of comparative entrepreneurship data in the world and has been cited extensively in leading news outlets and utilized in research published in leading academic journals. Our results lead us to say that commercial entrepreneurs use to be young men with high level of education, that usually have met other entrepreneurs, who perceive business opportunities, feel enough capabilities to start a business and has also low level of fear of failure. However, with decreasing levels of development can only say that it is an individual with examples of entrepreneurs in your life and you feel able to start a business. In this entrepreneur will not condition or gender, age, educational level and perceived opportunities. On the other hand, we can affirm that institutional factors have a similar influence on both types of entrepreneurship. However, it must be highlighted that the relation between dependent variables is stronger in commercial entrepreneurship.

The main subject of this thesis is a paradigm of instability and stabilization in coalition forming among countries as rational actors, presented through a Statistical Physics inspired model.This is an interdisciplinary work involving the fields of applied mathematics and sociophysics, as well as the political applications in the real cases from past and present. Applied to political,economic and social problems, the models can be used to analyze a wide variety of real cases -- international alliances, economic or business alliances, coalitions of political parties, socialnetworks, and organizational structures.In the first part of this thesis we present and analyze the coalition forming and the instability among rational actors coupled with pairwise static historical propensity bonds that have evolvedindependently. Such organization leads to discordant associations into coalitions and the instability as a consequence of decentralized maximization of the individual benefits gained fromjoining or leaving the coalitions. We define Natural Model of coalition forming and address the questions of instability and stabilization among actors possessing different levels of rationality. The framework presented here allows to analytically calculate the optimal and non-optimal stable configurations of actors' coalitions. We then investigate the coalition forming and the stabilization under the influence of externally-set opposing global alliances, which are represented in Global Alliance Model. The stabilization is produced through new cooperations based on the effect of polarization of several distinct interests shared by actors, which generates interest-based propensities and enables a planned coalition forming. We then investigate the effect of dissolution of a global alliancewhich, together with the competing alliance, has previously generated stable coalitions.A special section of the thesis is devoted to investigation and illustration of coalition forming in real historical cases. This part presents the analysis of unstable coalitions in Europe - cycling in the England-Spain-France conflicting triangle and creation of the Italian state, as well as of the remarkable historical cases of the Soviet global alliance collapse, of the recent internal conflict in Syria, and of the "paradoxical stability" in the Eurozone.In the second part of this thesis, we present a simulation of the coalition forming models. The simulation allows to follow graphically the coalition forming processes. We present the methodology used in the simulation, as well as its application in the illustration of coalition forming in the prototypes of real case systems. Given exact propensity values, which is fairly consideredto be the most difficult part of coalition forming modeling, the simulation tool can be used to predict optimal and non-optimal spontaneous stabilizations and globally motivated stabilities inreal cases.An independent part of the thesis is devoted to the subject of viability correction in dynamic network of actors. The model is a finite set of autonomous actors with states that evolveindependently and connected into a network via their connection operators, which evolve independently as well. The network is defined to be viable if a joint evolution satisfies the centralized scarcity constraints set by the environment. In order to restore the viability of these decentralized dynamics, we apply to the method of correction by viability multipliers used in Viability Theory, where the multipliers play the role of decentralizing prices. Standing apart from the main course of the thesis, the subject of viability correction in dynamic network of actors suggests an interesting theoretic dynamical generalization of coalition stabilization in our models inspired from Statistical Physics. ; 2Le sujet principal de cette thèse est la présentation d'un paradigme théorique inspiré de la Physique Statistique pour décrire les dynamiques d'instabilité ainsi que les processus de stabilisation dans la formation de coalitions entre pays considérés comme des acteurs rationnels. Ce travail s'inscrit dans une logique interdisciplinaire impliquant les mathématiques appliquées et la sociophysique avec des applications à des cas réels choisis dans le passé et le présent. Le modèle, par sa formulation générique peut être également appliqué à des problèmes politiques, économiques et sociales pour considérer des alliances internationales, économiques ou commerciales, coalitions de partis politiques, les réseaux sociaux et les structures organisationnelles.Dans la première partie, la formation de coalitions et l'instabilité des acteurs rationnels couplés avec des liaisons par paires, est analysée. Les liaisons résultent de propensions historiques qui ont évolués indépendamment et lentement dans le temps et sont considérés comme statiques. Il en résulte des associations contradictoires qui créent des instabilités irréductibles dues à la maximisation décentralisée des avantages individuels.Nous définissons ainsi le Modèle Naturel de la formation de coalitions et abordons les questions de l'instabilité et de la stabilisation des acteurs possédant différents niveaux de rationalité. Le cadre choisi permet de calculer analytiquement les configurations stables de coalitions d'acteurs, aussi bien optimales que non non-optimales. Nous étudions ensuite le Modèle de l'Alliance Globale qui considère la formation de coalitions et leur stabilisation par l'existence d'alliances mondiales opposées qui se situent au dessus des pays. Ce sont des alliances qui sont la conséquence de ralliements individuels à une alliance globale pré-existante. La stabilisation est produite par de nouvelles coopérations entre pays voisins produites sous l'effet de polarisation d'intérêts communs des acteurs générés directement par l'appartenance à l'alliance. Nous étudions ensuite l'effet de la dissolution d'une alliance globale lorsque l'alliance concurrente est préservée.Cette partie se termine une application du modèle à la formation de coalitions dans différents cas historiques tels que les conflits cycliques dans le triangle Angleterre-Espagne-France et la création de l'Etat d'Italie, l'effondrement de l'alliance Soviétique, le récent conflit interne en Syrie, et la "stabilité paradoxale" dans la Zone Euro.Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous présentons une simulation du modèle qui permet de suivre graphiquement les processus de la formation de coalitions. Nous présentons la méthodologie utilisée dans la simulation, ainsi qu'une application à des prototypes de systèmes de cas réels. Étant donné les valeurs de propension exactes, ce qui est la partie la plus difficile de la modélisation, la simulation peut être utilisée pour prédire des stabilisations spontanées, optimales et non-optimales, ainsi que des stabilités produites globalement.Une partie indépendante de la thèse est consacrée à la correction de la viabilité en réseau dynamique d'acteurs, ou le modèle est un ensemble fini d'acteurs autonomes. Les états évoluent indépendamment et sont connectés à un réseau via leurs opérateurs de connexion, qui évoluent eux-mêmes aussi indépendamment. Le réseau est défini comme étant viable si une évolution commune satisfait des contraintes centralisées de rareté imposées par l'environnement. Afin de rétablir la viabilité, nous appliquons la méthode de correction par des multiplicateurs de viabilité adoptée dans la Théorie de Viabilité, où les multiplicateurs jouent le rôle du prix de décentralisation. A l'écart du cours principal de la thèse, le sujet de correction de la viabilité en réseau dynamique d'acteurs suggère une généralisation dynamique théorique intéressante de stabilisation de coalitions dans nos modèles inspirés de Physique Statistique. 1 Le sujet principal de cette thèse est un paradigme de l'instabilité et de stabilisation dans la formation de coalitions entre les pays - des acteurs rationnelles, présenté par un modèle inspiré de Physique Statistique.Il s'agit d'un travail interdisciplinaire impliquant les domaines de mathématiques appliquées et sociophysics, ainsi que les applications politiques dans les cas réels du passé et du présent. Les modèles, appliquées à des problèmes politiques, économiques et sociales, peut être utilisé pour analyser une large variété de cas réels - alliances internationales, alliances économiques ou commerciales, coalitions de partis politiques, les réseaux sociaux et les structures organisationnelles.Dans la première partie, nous présentons et analysons la formation de coalitions et de l'instabilité des acteurs rationnels couplés avec des liaisons par paires de propensions historiques statiques, qui ont évolués indépendamment. Telle organisation provoque des associations discordants dans les coalitions et de l'instabilité qui est la suite de la maximisation décentralisée des avantages individuelles.Nous définissons le Modèle Naturel de la formation de coalitions et abordons les questions de l'instabilité et de la stabilisation des acteurs possédant différents niveaux de la rationalité. Le cadre présenté ici permet de calculer analytiquement les configurations stables de coalitions d'acteurs, optimales et non-optimales. Nous étudions ensuite la formation de coalitions et la stabilisation sous l'influence d'alliances mondiales extérieurs opposées, qui sont représentés dans le Modèle de l'Alliance Globale. La stabilisation est produit grace a des nouvelles coopérations produit sous l'effet de polarisation d' intérêts communs des acteurs, qui génère tendances fondées sur les intérêts et permet une formation prévu des coalitions. Nous étudions ensuite l'effet de la dissolution d'une alliance mondiale qui, ensemble avec l'alliance concurrente, a déjà généré des coalitions stables.Une section spéciale de la thèse est consacrée à l'étude et à l'illustration de la formation de coalitions dans des cas réels historiques. Cette partie présente l'analyse des coalitions instables en Europe – des conflits cycliques dans le triangle de Angleterre-Espagne-France et la création de l'Etat d'Italie, ainsi que les cas historiques remarquables de l'effondrement de l'alliance Soviétique, du conflit récent interne en Syrie, et de la "stabilité paradoxale" dans la Zone Euro.Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous présentons une simulation de notres modèles. La simulation permet de suivre graphiquement les processus de la formation de coalitions. Nous présentons la méthodologie utilisée dans la simulation, ainsi qu'une application à des prototypes de systèmes de cas réels. Étant donné les valeurs de propension exactes, ce qui est la partie la plus difficile de la modélisation, la simulation peut être utilisée pour prédire des stabilisations spontanées, optimales et non-optimales, et stabilité motivé globalement dans des cas réels.Une partie indépendante de la thèse est consacrée à la correction de la viabilité en réseau dynamique d'acteurs. Le modèle est un ensemble fini d'acteurs autonomes, les etats évoluent indépendamment sont connectés à un réseau via leur opérateurs de connexion, qui évoluent indépendamment aussi. Le réseau est défini comme étant viable si une évolution commune satisfait des contraintes centralisés de rareté imposées par l'environnement. Afin de rétablir la viabilité, nous appliquons la méthode de correction par des multiplicateurs de viabilité utilisés dans la Théorie de Viabilité, où les multiplicateurs jouent le rôle de la prix de décentralisation. A l'écart du cours principal de la thèse, le sujet de correction de la viabilité en réseau dynamique d'acteurs suggère une généralisation dynamique théorique intéressante de stabilisation de coalitions dans nos modèles inspirés de Physique Statistique.

Kuvalliset käytännöt kameroiden aikakaudella. Tutkimuksia ei-ammatillisesta kamerankäytöstä Kameroilla kuvataan monenlaisia tilanteita ja monenlaista toimintaa: esim. synnytystä, ripille pääsyä, yökerhossa tanssimista, lastentarhassa oloa, matkustusta ja eroottista kanssakäyntiä. Yhtäältä kuvien ottaminen on monelle olennainen tapa kokea eri tilanteita, kun taas toisaalta pyydetään esimerkiksi kuvanjakopalveluista poistamaan kuvia jotka herättävät mielipahaa, oli kuvat henkilöistä tai asuinrakennuksista. Pelkästään jaettuja kuvia katsomalla ei usein pysty sanomaan mitkä kuvat aiheuttavat ristiriitoja ja mitkä eivät. Nykyisin käytetyt kamerat eroavat edeltäjistään tietoteknisen verkottumisensa takia. Esimerkiksi kamerakännykällä otettu kuva voidaan lähettää automaattisesti julkiseen kuvanjakopalveluun, josta toinen henkilö tai palvelu saattaa poimia sen jatkokäyttöä varten kokonaan toiseen kontekstiin. Kameroiden ja niillä otettujen kuvien yhä laajamittaisempi ei-ammatillinen käyttö onkin herättänyt laajaa julkista ja akateemista keskustelua. Keskustelu kuvien käytöstä polarisoituu usein kahteen leiriin: yhtäällä varoitellaan visuaalisuuden vaaroista puheen ja kirjoituksen analyyttiseen selkeyteen verrattuna, painottaen kuvien käytön olevan vastuullista asiansa osaavien ammattilaisten työtä, toisaalla toivotetaan laajamittaista kuvankäyttöä tervetulleeksi uusien mahdollisuuksien aikana, jolloin yhä useampi voisi osallistua tasavertaisesti meitä ympäröivien representaatioiden tuotantoon. Molempia positioita yhdistää käsitys siitä, että kameran ja valokuvan tietoteknistyminen muuttaa perusteellisesti kuvien käyttöä. Vaikka tätä keskustelua on käyty pitkään, on yhteiskuntatieteellisiä empiirisiä tutkimuksia ei-ammatillisesta kuvankäytöstä tietoteknisin välinein tehty verrattain vähän. Tämä tutkimus keskittyykin kahteen kysymykseen: 1) miten käytämme kameroita aikana jona ne ovat yhä useammin saatavilla, ja 2) miten nämä kamerat välittävät toimintaamme? Tutkimus vastaa kysymyksiin yhtäältä kuvien käytäntöjä painottavan teoreettisen viitekehyksen ja toisaalta laadullisten empiiristen tapaustutkimusten avulla. Teoreettinen viitekehys yhdistää Hans Beltingin kuva-antropologista lähestymistapaa materiaalisia välityksiä painottaviin käytäntöteorioihin, alleviivaten kuvankäytön tekniikoiden juontuvan ruumiin tekniikoista. Kuvien käyttömme on sidottu tapoihimme käyttää ruumiitamme. Tästä lähtökohdasta kamerakuvien käyttöä tutkittaessa on painotettava katseen ja katsottavana olemisen merkitystä sosiaalisesssa vuorovaikutuksessa, sekä sitä miten kamera osaltaan vaikuttaa tähän katseiden kenttään. Empiirisiä tapaustutkimuksia on neljä ja ne on valittu kamerankäytön yleisyyden vuoksi heuristisesti, keskittyen yksityiseen, puolijulkiseen ja julkiseen kuvankäyttöön Etelä-Suomessa ja Saksassa, pääosin keskiluokkaisten kuvaajien parissa. Tapaustutkimukset selvittävät digitaalisten kameroiden ja kuvapalvelujen merkitystä tutkittujen näppäilyvalokuvaajien kuvanottotapoihin, yksityisen ja julkisen hallintastrategioita kuvanjakopalvelua käytettäessä, kamerapuhelimien ja kuvanjakosivuston käyttöä lastentarhassa, sekä poliittisten aktivistien kuvastrategioita heidän yrittäessään saada asiansa näkyviin massamediaan. Tapaustutkimukset näyttävät, että kameran käyttö nivoutuu osaksi kuvallisia käytäntöjä, jotka eivät ole yhteen paikkaan sidottuja. Tieto siitä, koska kuvataan, ketä kuvataan, ja mitä kuvilla tehdään, on jaettua. Kuvankäyttö opitaan kasvotusten, katsomalla otettuja kuvia, sekä erilaisten ohjekirjojen, mainosten, Internetin sivustoilla esitetyn sisällön ja muun välittyneen materiaalin avulla. Nykytekniikan avulla oppi ei-ammatillisesta kuvankäytöstä saattaa siirtyä hyvin nopeasti yli laajojen etäisyyksien. Siten nykykameroiden ei-ammatillinen käyttö tukee osaltaan elämää Marc Augén ehdottamassa ylimodernissa (surmodernité), jota kuvaa tiedon välittyneisyys, meitä ympäröivien representaatioiden moninkertaistuminen, sekä yhdessä paikassa käytettävissä olevien toimintakehysten yksilöityminen ja monipuolistuminen. Tutkimus väittää että kamerat välittävät toimintaamme aktivoitujen tarjoumiensa avulla. Olemme oppineet suhtautumaan kuvaamiseen ja kuvattavana oloon tietyillä tavoilla, ja tietoteknisesti verkottuneiden kameroiden tarjoumat haastavat opittuja kuvallisia käytäntöjä. Kun yhdessä tilanteessa otetut kuvat voidaankin jakaa eri automaatiomekanismeilla laajoille joukoille ja kuvia voi käyttää eri käyttötarkoituksiin, on tärkeää keskittää huomio siihen miten kamerat välittävät toimintaa. Mitä tietoa niiden avulla kerätään? Ja minkälaista toimintaa niiden avulla meille ehdotetaan? Tutkimus painottaa teoreettisen viitekehyksensä avulla symbolisaatioprosessien ja materiaalisten välitysten keskinäistä vuorovaikutussuhdetta. Tämän vuorovaikutussuhteen huomioiminen on tärkeää yhteiskunnallista toimintaa tutkittaessa ja toimintaympäristöjä suunniteltaessa. Kun keskitymme sekä siihen, miten konventiot muokkaavat toimintaa kameroiden ja niillä otettujen kuvien kanssa, että siihen miten kamerat ja niillä otetut kuvat osaltaan vaikuttavat toimintaan, saamme tavan avata keskusteluyhteyden yhteiskuntatieteellisen tutkimuksen ja tietoteknisen suunnittelun välille. Molempien toiminnan tulokset, esimerkiksi tiettyyn käyttöön suunnitellut tietoteknisesti verkottuneet kamerajärjestelmät että niiden käyttöä ja sen vaikutuksia kuvaavat analyyttiset käsitteet osoittautuvat omanlaisiksi konstruktioiksi, joihin voi vaikuttaa. ; With a dramatic increase of pictorial media around us that can be used to present and transmit things seen, such as digital cameras, mobile camera-phones, webcams, and image software, ever more people have become producers of pictures for others to see, and it is often not that clear how these pictures are used and for what purposes. Cameras accompany childbirth, confirmations and other rites of passage, when one is dancing at a nightclub, in attendance at kindergarten, on travels to distant places, or in living out sexual relations. For many people, taking pictures is an essential part of experiencing everyday life, yet, at the same time, some pictures taken and distributed to, for example, photo-sharing Web sites become sources of conflict, and removal requests. From any given picture, whether of people or buildings, often it is not possible to say by mainly looking at the pictorial content whether it might become problematic. As Koskela suggests, we live in a "cam era," a time in which cameras mediate ever more social interactions. In contrast to the cameras of the past, the camera devices used today are ever more connected to digital information and communication technologies during pictures capture, storage, sharing, and display. Laptop webcams, mobile camera-phones, and digital point-and-shoot cameras provide salient examples of digitally networked cameras. Pictures taken with these devices can be shared, shown, and archived with the aid of a vast array of interoperable software applications. The increasing use of pictures in general, and camera pictures in particular, has raised concern both in academic discussions and in public debate in mass media. Whereas some fear that the visual will overcome the posited analytical clarity of writing and speech, others embrace an era of images as a time of new possibilities in which all can participate symmetrically in a given representational sphere. Whatever the evaluative statement, it is widely believed that, because of digitization, photo use has fundamentally changed. With these developments in mind, this research focuses on two main research questions: 1) how do we use cameras at a time in which they are ever more available, and 2) how do these cameras mediate our actions? The questions are answered within a framework emphasizing pictorial practices and qualitative empirical case studies of actual uses. In terms of theoretical underpinnings, the research draws on the work done by Hans Belting in his anthropology of images, as well as from work published by scholars on practices that focus explicitly on material mediations. The research underlines techniques of the body as the first site of any technology and, accordingly, the importance of embodied techniques in studies of camera use. From this perspective, looking and being looked at is of special interest for understanding camera use, as is the question of how networked cameras play their part in these relations. Because of the sheer quantity of data available, a heuristic approach is applied for coming to terms with non-professional uses of camera pictures at a time when cameras mediate ever more social interaction. The empirical case studies have been conducted in southern Finland and around Berlin, Germany, among mainly middle-class camera-users. The case studies focus on the role of digital cameras and photo services in the use practices of snapshot photographers, on the boundary regulation strategies applied in decisions on what kinds of pictures to share on a photo-sharing site privately or publicly, on the use of mobile camera-phones and an accompanying photo site in a kindergarten, and on image strategies of political activists who try to draw public mass-media attention to their issues of concern. The empirical case studies show that non-professional camera use is organized into meaningful pictorial practices, which, in turn, are influenced by both social conventions and material mediations. Knowing when to take a picture, whom to depict, and what is to be done with the pictures is learned in face-to-face interaction; by looking at the pictures taken; and through the aid of manuals, advertisements, Web content, and mediated information of other types. With the help of digitization, knowledge of how to create novel pictorial practices can be transmitted rapidly over vast distances and, therefore, is not bound to one specific locale. Thus non-professional camera use, embedded in translocal pictorial practices, supports life in surmodernity (a concept of Augé), which presents itself in an abundance of events, an abundance of space, an individualization of references, and mediation of everyday communication. For example, parents, in having to fill several roles in society, attempt to be good workers, good friends, and good parents, and they do so increasingly by using information and communication technologies. Unable to be everywhere at once, they find that the mediations used assist them in contracting spatial distance so that the parents can be present in all of these spheres, even if at a distance. The cameras used from afar, as is shown in the exemplary kindergarten case study, assist parents in juggling these various roles. The research posits that cameras mediate our actions through relational affordances that have to be activated as part of meaningful practices. We have learned to relate to specific ways of taking pictures and to being depicted. Digitization confounds these ways, and interaction learned in offline settings does not translate effortlessly into novel interaction environments. Through digital networking, pictures taken with cameras can be transmitted automatically to a wide variety of recipients, searched with the aid of algorithms, and archived in various forms. Individual pictures quickly become part of global news or are removed from their original context and used in new communication acts. Digitally networked cameras influence this in ways that call attention to the mediation that these cameras provide for, especially since cameras are used for ever more purposes in ever more situations. New questions become important, such as What kind of information is collected in networked camera use? and What kinds of action do they stimulate or encourage? At their best, digitally networked cameras enhance our embodied capabilities, extend our motor and sensory organs, and direct useful sensory information into the body, thus becoming momentarily part of us. The benefits of seeing and interacting with others with the aid of cameras should outweigh the disadvantages if we are to live in a digitally networked "cam era."

Over the last twenty years, there has been a large increase both in terms of number of interconnected hosts and in terms of link capacities. At the beginning of the ARPANET in 1969, more than forty years ago, there were four nodes, all located in the USA and connected with a link speed of 50 kilobits per second. In 1986, when the NSFNET, the network of the US universities, was created, the number of hosts was over a few thousands, but the backbone links' speeds were still of 56 kilobits per second. From that moment on, the growth in number of interconnected hosts and in link capacity has been exponential, thanks to the success of popular applications like the WWW and technological advances like SDH, SONET or DWDM in the fiber optics networks domain or like ATM and the DSL technologies derived from it. The current-day Internet interconnects billions of users (half a billion hosts in late 2006) all around the world, has a cumulated core links speed over several Terabits per second and access links up to 10 Gbps. Another fundamental technological change is also that nowadays, access links start having speeds in the same order of magnitude as the backbone link's speed. For instance, it is common to find data centers where the nodes are interconnected with 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps links and have a connection to the outside with a similar speed. This change is important as only a few connections would be necessary to cause saturation in the backbone. This situation is likely to spread as DSL technologies are gradually replaced by Fiber-To-The-Home (FTTH). 5 Mbps connections aggregated on OC48 (2.5 Gbps) links will then be replaced by 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps links aggregated over 10 Gbps links or less depending on the actual optical technology used in the access network. In such environments, high congestion levels might not be rare and might cause disruption to high-end applications. Lots of promising applications have emerged and would benefit from this increase in capacity like Video On Demand (VoD) that allows end-users to host their own high-definition movie entertainment whenever they want or scientific experiments that gather huge volumes of data (e.g. LHC) that need to be transported to computational facilities scattered all around the globe. The interaction of users with remote objects through the use of communication networks, also known as Telepresence, starts to have a paramount role in a variety of domains ranging from medical or military applications to space exploration. But these applications are still built on top of the very successful softwares or protocols like TCP and IP that were designed a long time ago for a context of low-speed networks. Their design was dictated by one goal: providing a robust and fair interconnection between existing networks. Now put in a high-speed networks context, these extremely robust and scalable protocols are still able to deliver but they are starting to show their limits in terms of performance, security, functionalities and flexibility. The most typical example is the quasi ``one-size-fits-all'' TCP protocol at the transport layer. This protocol was designed to provide a connection-oriented ``virtual circuit'' service for applications like remote login or file transfer. These two applications have two nearly conflicting sets of requirements: the first one needs a low delay and has low requirements for bandwidth while the second one mostly requires high bandwidth. Both require reliable transmissions. TCP was designed as a ``one-size-fits-all'' protocol but as the capacity of the links increased in the wired networks, as the intrinsic characteristics changed for the wireless networks and as the application requirements diverged, TCP is no longer able to scale up in performance. Multiple solutions have been proposed over time, but today's protocol designers have a large disadvantage over those forty years ago: making four similar computers interact is not exactly the same thing as designing a communicating software or protocol fit to be used by billions of vastly heterogeneous computers. Introducing change in a system of such a scale is problematic: it makes it very improbable to make a complete overnight migration of every element in the network, especially if it requires an upgrade of all physical equipments. Thus the change can only be gradual and as software updates in the end-hosts at the very edge of the networks, as it would be easier than changing core hardware elements. The fear to see congestion collapse events in the Internet as in the late 80s is coming back. Caused by too much traffic on crowded links leading to poor performance for everybody over long periods of time, it had advocated for the introduction of a congestion control mechanism in the transport protocol. If the new solutions are behaving selfishly when sharing the common resources (the links), this fear is grounded. It is then necessary to provide ways to assert if a given solution has the appropriate properties before allowing it to roam freely over a large-scale shared system. ; Au cours des vingt dernières années, c'est une évolution très rapide non seulement en termes de nombre d'éléments inter-connectés mais surtout en termes de capacités des liens qui a pu être constatée au sein des réseaux de communications. A la création du réseau ARPANET en 1969, il y a plus de quarante ans, quatre ordinateurs, tous situés aux États-Unis étaient connectés avec des liens avec un débit de 50 kilobits par seconde. En 1986, à la création du réseau des universités américaines, le NSFNET, le nombre de machines dépassait déjà plusieurs milliers mais le débit des liens de coeur était encore de 56 kilobits par seconde. A partir de ce moment, la croissance à la fois en termes de nombre d'éléments inter-connectés et de capacités des liens a été exponentielle, grâce au succès de nouvelles applications populaires comme le WWW ou les avancées technologiques comme SDH, SONET ou DWDM dans le domaine des réseaux de fibres optiques et ATM et les protocoles DSL qui en dérivent. L'Internet actuel interconnecte des milliards d'utilisateurs (un demi-milliard de machines fin 2006) répartis partout dans le monde, pouvant utiliser des liens de coeur dont les débits cumulés sont supérieurs à plusieurs Térabits par seconde et dont les liens d'accès peuvent atteindre jusqu'à 10 Gigabits par seconde. Une autre évolution technologique fondamentale est que, aujourd'hui, certains liens d'accès ont des débits du même ordre de grandeur que les débits des liens de coeur auxquels ils sont connectés. Il est aujourd'hui courant de trouver des fermes de serveurs où les noeuds sont interconnectés avec des liens à 1 Gbps ou 10 Gbps et qui ont une connexion vers l'extérieur avec un débit similaire. Cette modification est importante car désormais quelques connexions suffisent à provoquer une saturation des liens de coeur. Cette situation risque d'empirer au fur et à mesure du remplacement des technologies DSL par la Fibre-Jusqu'à-La-Maison (FTTH). Des connexions à 5 Mbps agrégées sur des liens OC48 (2.5 Gbps) vont alors être remplacées par des connexions à 100 Mbps, voire 1 Gbps, agrégées sur des liens à 10 Gbps, voire moins suivant la technologie optique utilisée sur le réseau d'accès. Il est fort probable que dans de tels environnements des niveaux de congestion élevés ne soient pas rares, engendrant des perturbations pour de nombreuses applications. Un grand nombre d'applications prometteuses ont émergé et pourraient bénéficier de capacités de communication accrues, comme par exemple la Vidéo-à-la-Demande (VoD) qui permet aux utilisateurs de regarder des films en haute définition chez eux quand ils le désirent ou les expériences scientifiques générant des quantités massives de données (comme le LHC) qui doivent être acheminées dans des centres de calcul répartis tout autour du globe. L'interaction d'utilisateurs avec des objets distants via un réseau de communication ou Téléprésence commence également à prendre un rôle prépondérant dans de nombreux domaines allant du médical au militaire en passant par l'exploration spatiale. Mais ces applications sont encore construites au dessus de logiciels ou de protocoles à succès comme TCP et IP, conçus il y a longtemps pour un contexte de réseaux bas-débit. Le conception était dirigé par un but principal: fournir une interconnexion robuste entre des réseaux existants. Plongés maintenant dans un contexte de réseaux très haut-débit, ces protocoles extrêmement robustes et capables de passer à l'échelle sont toujours en activité mais commencent à montrer leurs limites en termes de performance, sécurité, fonctionnalités et flexibilité. L'exemple le plus typique est TCP au niveau de la couche de transport. TCP a été conçu comme un protocole ``à tout faire'' mais à mesure que la capacité des liens augmente dans les réseaux fixes, que les caractéristiques intrinsèques changent pour les réseaux sans fils et que les besoins des applications divergent, TCP n'est plus capable de permettre une utilisation performante pour tous des capacités nominales des liens du réseau. De nombreuses solutions ont été proposées, mais les concepteurs de protocoles d'aujourd'hui ont un large désavantage par rapport à ceux d'il y a quarante ans. Faire fonctionner ensemble quatre machines identiques n'est pas exactement pareil que concevoir un logiciel de communication ou protocole susceptible d'être utilisé entre des milliards de machines hétérogènes. Apporter du changement dans un système d'une telle ampleur est problématique: il n'est pas possible d'envisager une migration massive du jour au lendemain surtout si des équipements physiques sont concernés. Le changement ne peut être que graduel et via des mises à jour logicielles dans les hôtes d'extrémité. La peur d'un effondrement de l'Internet dû à la congestion comme à la fin des années 80 resurgit. Causés par une surabondance de trafic réseau sur des liens saturés, ces troubles ont mis en avant la nécessité d'introduire un mécanisme de contrôle de congestion dans les protocoles de transport. Si les nouvelles solutions introduites se comportent de façon égoïste quand elles partagent une ressource commune (un lien), alors cette peur est fondée. Il est donc nécessaire de fournir des moyens de vérifier si une solution donnée possède les propriétés adéquates avant de l'introduire dans un système partagé à très large échelle.