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This Key Concepts pivot discusses the contemporary relevance of the ancient Chinese concept of Tianxia or 'All-Under-Heaven' and argues that the case for a new global political philosophy, 'All-Under-Heaven' is a conceptualization of the world as the composition of three realms: the physical, psychological and political, which places inclusivity and harmony at the heart of a global world view above other considerations, transcending the notion of nation state. In a highly interconnected and globalized world, the idea of Tianxia can offer a new 21st century vision of international relations and world order, based on a harmonized global organization defined by the "all-inclusiveness principle." Promoting the ontology of co-existence and relational rationality hand in hand with rational risk aversion in a globalized world, this pivot makes the case that Tianxia could offer a new vision for contemporary world order, redefining the universality and legitmacy of politics

The article discusses the processes that at the turn of the VI–V centuries B.C. were evolving to give rise to the authentic philosophical tradition in China. The author considers the formation of a community of people who keep themselves within the framework of certain reflective practices as the hallmark of this rise. The evolution set off during the "Iron Age Cold Epoch" that occurred on the planet in the early 1st millennium B.C. The civilizational response to this cool­ing in China was the extensive development of agriculture, which, in turn, led to demographic growth, the enhancement of the socio-political structure of society and the emergence of demand for competent managers. The social base for them turned out to be the lowest nobility – the "officers" shi. Unlike the aristocrats zhuhou at the highest tier of power, the "officers" shi were interested in main­taining the moral status of the "noble person" junzi. The existential space of this status could only be maintained through permanent reflection. The criterion for maintaining one's moral status was not only social behavior in accordance with this status, but also its existential experience, devotion not to external factors, but to an internal idea, responsibility to oneself. The Confucian effort to compre­hend and to pass on those reflective practices became the beginning of Chinese philosophy

Introduction -- The Pre-Qin Period (ca. 1046 – 256 BCE) -- The Rise of Confucianism, Mohism, Daoism, and Legalism -- The High Tide of Contention among the "Hundred Schools of Thought" -- The Summing-up Stage of Pre-Qin Philosophy -- From the Qin-Han to the Qing Dynasty -- The Supremacy of Confucianism and Criticisms of Confucian Theology -- Mysterious Learning and the Coexistence of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism -- A Tendency towards the Confluence of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism -- The Summing-up Stage of Ancient Chinese Philosophy -- Modern Period -- The Forerunners of Modern Chinese Philosophy -- The Stage of Evolutionism in the Philosophical Revolution -- The Philosophical Revolution Enters the Stage of Materialist Dialectics -- The Sinicization of Marxism and the Contributions Made by Professional Philosophers.

The article attempts to analyze the problem of spirituality in the works of Chinese authors. The authors emphasize that in the studies of Chinese philosophers, ethnographers, historians, the problem of spirituality is presented in two aspects. Chinese authors explain spirituality as a spiritual culture that determines the degree of human spiritual activity in the study of Chinese culture. This explains the following fact. Chinese philosophers view Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism as the spiritual activities of the great sages. We see a different attitude towards the concept of spirituality when they interpret Russian Orthodoxy in China and its role in the formation of Russian culture. In the first case, we are talking about the role of the Orthodox Church in China directly. Therefore, Chinese authors focus on Orthodoxy as a liturgical activity in the context of their research. When they analyze the role of the Orthodox faith in Russian culture, they write about it as a factor that shapes the Russian character and mentality. An analysis of the works of Chinese authors led to the following conclusion. The interpretation of spirituality in the works of Chinese authors is presented as a spiritual social activity. The article presents the works of Chinese philosophers who have not been addressed in Russian studies.

Surprisingly little is known about what ancient Confucian thinkers struggled with in their own social and political contexts and how these struggles contributed to the establishment and further development of classical Confucian political theory. Leading scholar of comparative political theory, Sungmoon Kim offers a systematic philosophical account of the political theories of Mencius and Xunzi, investigating both their agreements and disagreements as the champions of the Confucian Way against the backdrop of the prevailing realpolitik of the late Warring States period. Together, they contributed to the formation of Confucian virtue politics, in which concerns about political order and stability and concerns about moral character and moral enhancement are deeply intertwined. By presenting their political philosophies in terms of constitutionalism, Kim shows how they each developed the ability to authorize the ruler's legitimate use of power in domestic and interstate politics in ways consistent with their distinctive accounts of human nature.