We thank CERN for the very successful operation of the LHC, as well as the support staff from our institutions without whom ATLAS could not be operated efficiently. We acknowledge the support of ANPCyT, Argentina; YerPhI, Armenia; ARC, Australia; BMWFW and FWF, Austria; ANAS, Azerbaijan; SSTC, Belarus; CNPq and FAPESP, Brazil; NSERC, NRC and CFI, Canada; CERN; ANID, Chile; CAS, MOST and NSFC, China; Minciencias, Colombia; MSMT CR, MPO CR and VSC CR, Czech Republic; DNRF and DNSRC, Denmark; IN2P3-CNRS and CEA-DRF/IRFU, France; SRNSFG, Georgia; BMBF, HGF and MPG, Germany; GSRI, Greece; RGC and Hong Kong SAR, China; ISF and Benoziyo Center, Israel; INFN, Italy; MEXT and JSPS, Japan; CNRST, Morocco; NWO, Netherlands; RCN, Norway; MEiN, Poland; FCT, Portugal; MNE/IFA, Romania; JINR; MES of Russia and NRC KI, Russian Federation; MESTD, Serbia; MSSR, Slovakia; ARRS and MIZS, Slovenia; DSI/NRF, South Africa; MICINN, Spain; SRC and Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden; SERI, SNSF and Cantons of Bern and Geneva, Switzerland; MOST, Taiwan; TAEK, Turkey; STFC, United Kingdom; DOE and NSF, United States of America. In addition, individual groups and members have received support from BCKDF, CANARIE, Compute Canada and CRC, Canada; COST, ERC, ERDF, Horizon 2020 and Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, European Union; Investissements d'Avenir Labex, Investissements d'Avenir Idex and ANR, France; DFG and AvH Foundation, Germany; Herakleitos, Thales and Aristeia programmes co-financed by EU-ESF and the Greek NSRF, Greece; BSF-NSF and GIF, Israel; Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021, Norway; NCN and NAWA, Poland; La Caixa Banking Foundation, CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya and PROMETEO and GenT Programmes Generalitat Valenciana, Spain; Goran Gustafssons Stiftelse, Sweden; The Royal Society and Leverhulme Trust, United Kingdom. The crucial computing support from all WLCG partners is acknowledged gratefully, in particular from CERN, the ATLAS Tier-1 facilities at TRIUMF (Canada), NDGF (Denmark, Norway, Sweden), CC-IN2P3 (France), KIT/GridKA (Germany), INFNCNAF (Italy), NL-T1 (Netherlands), PIC (Spain), ASGC (Taiwan), RAL (UK) and BNL (USA), the Tier-2 facilities worldwide and large non-WLCG resource providers. Major contributors of computing resources are listed in Ref. [114]. ; This paper presents a search for decays of the Higgs boson with a mass of 125 GeV into a pair of new pseudoscalar particles, H -> aa, where one a-boson decays into a b-quark pair and the other into a muon pair. The search uses 139 fb(-1) of proton-proton collision data at a center-of-mass energy root s = 13 TeV recorded between 2015 and 2018 by the ATLAS experiment at the LHC. A narrow dimuon resonance is searched for in the invariant mass spectrum between 16 GeV and 62 GeV. The largest excess of events above the Standard Model backgrounds is observed at a dimuon invariant mass of 52 GeV and corresponds to a local (global) significance of 3.3 sigma (1.7 sigma). Upper limits at 95% confidence level are placed on the branching ratio of the Higgs boson to the bb mu mu final state, beta(H -> aa -> bb mu mu), and are in the range 0.2-4.0 x 10(-4), depending on the signal mass hypothesis. ; ANPCyT ; YerPhI, Armenia ; Australian Research Council ; BMWFW, Austria Austrian Science Fund (FWF) ; Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences (ANAS) ; SSTC, Belarus ; Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cientifico e Tecnologico (CNPQ) Fundacao de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP) ; Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) NRC, Canada Canada Foundation for Innovation ; CERN ; ANID, Chile ; Chinese Academy of Sciences Ministry of Science and Technology, China National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) ; Minciencias, Colombia ; Ministry of Education, Youth & Sports - Czech Republic Czech Republic Government ; DNRF, Denmark Danish Natural Science Research Council ; Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) CEA-DRF/IRFU, France ; SRNSFG, Georgia ; Federal Ministry of Education & Research (BMBF) HGF, Germany Max Planck Society ; GSRI, Greece ; RGC, China Hong Kong SAR, China ; Israel Science Foundation Benoziyo Center, Israel ; Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) ; Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan (MEXT) Japan Society for the Promotion of Science ; CNRST, Morocco ; Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) Netherlands Government ; RCN, Norway ; MEiN, Poland ; FCT, Portuga ; MNE/IFA, Romania ; JINR ; Russian Federation NRC KI, Russian Federation ; Ministry of Education, Science & Technological Development, Serbia ; MSSR, Slovakia ; Slovenian Research Agency - Slovenia MIZS, Slovenia ; DSI/NRF, South Africa ; Spanish Government ; SRC, Sweden Wallenberg Foundation, Sweden ; SERI, Switzerland Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF) Canton of Bern, Switzerland ; Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan ; Ministry of Energy & Natural Resources - Turkey ; UK Research & Innovation (UKRI) ; Science & Technology Facilities Council (STFC) ; United States Department of Energy (DOE) ; National Science Foundation (NSF) ; BCKDF, Canada CANARIE, Canada Compute Canada, Canada CRC, Canada ; COST, European Union European Research Council (ERC) ERDF, European Union Horizon 2020, European Union Marie Sklodowska-Curie Actions, European Union ; French National Research Agency (ANR) ; German Research Foundation (DFG) Alexander von Humboldt Foundation ; EU-ESF, Greece Greek NSRF, Greece ; BSF-NSF, Israel German-Israeli Foundation for Scientific Research and Development ; Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021, Norway ; NCN, Poland Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA) ; La Caixa Banking Foundation, Spain CERCA Programme Generalitat de Catalunya, Spain PROMETEO Programme Generalitat Valenciana, Spain GenT Programme Generalitat Valenciana, Spain ; Goran Gustafssons Stiftelse, Sweden ; Royal Society of London ; Leverhulme Trust ; Canton of Geneva, Switzerland ; Herakleitos programme Thales Group Aristeia programme
The purpose of the article is to study the roles of the prosecutor and the lawyer in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused) in Ukraine at the present time and to examine the possibility of increasing their participation in the reconciliation between the parties in the future. Reconciliation between victim and suspect (accused) in committing of a criminal offense as the centerpiece of the restorative justice in Ukraine today takes place outside of criminal proceedings, but it may have important substantive and procedural consequences in it. It can be considered as a mitigating circumstance in sentencing and even give rise to release the suspect (accused) from criminal liability. With the importance of reconciliation not only for the victim and the suspect, but also for the state, the question about scope of prosecutor`s powers as a procedural chief in criminal proceedings remains relevant. Such powers must be effective for facilitation such reconciliation, and at the same time they must prevent the unjustly avoidance of liability. It is also equally important to clarify the role of lawyers and the system of free secondary legal aid in restorative justice in Ukraine. The authors analyzed in the paper the normative regulation of the prosecutor's and the lawyer`s powers related to the reconciliation between the parties and the mechanism for the application of the restorative justice for its sufficiency and ability to provide the necessary mechanisms for implementing the provisions of the law. The authors found such gaps and differences in law regulation that hinder the development of conciliation practices in national criminal proceedings. The authors also examined the data of official state registers and revealed negative trends in the participation of the prosecutor in taking the procedural decisions based on the successful reconciliation between the victim and the suspect (accused). This gives reason to claim that the prosecutor's participation in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused) currently does not take into account neither the interests of the parties nor the state's interests in reducing the workload on the judicial and penitentiary systems and resolving other issues that accompany the existing punitive approach. In view of this, the authors proposes to make a number of changes to national legislation in order to eliminate those legal gaps that negatively affect the implementation of rules that guarantee the right to reconciliation and determine the admission of its positive results during making a final decision by court. In addition, the authors also emphasizes the necessity and practical feasibility of introducing a new model of the prosecutor`s participation in reconciling between the victim and suspect (accused) and giving him the right to initiate mediation with the consent of the parties. Such rules will also require the establishment of some additional provisions that will form a comprehensive implementation mechanism and serve as a guarantee of the interests of the victim and suspect (accused). As an example the authors used the rules of Criminal Procedure Act of the Republic of Slovenia. The authors also explored the main provisions and first results of The Pilot Project «Restorative Program for Juveniles Suspected of Committing a Criminal Offense». This project is the first attempt to expand the prosecutor's involvement in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused). The authors made conclusions about the real state of restorative justice in Ukraine at the present stage and the role of lawyers in it, taking into account the analysis of unique data collected from the Regional Centers for Free Secondary Legal Aid in Odesa, Mykolaiv and Kherson regions. ; Примирение потерпевшего и подозреваемого (обвиняемого) в совершении уголовного преступления как центральный элемент восстановительного правосудия в Украине сегодня происходит вне рамок уголовного производства, однако может иметь важные материально-правовые и процессуально-правовые последствия – от учитывания в качестве обстоятельства, которое смягчает наказание, до освобождения от уголовной ответственности. С учетом положительного значения примирения не только для потерпевшего и подозреваемого, но и для государства, важным вопросом остается то, какой объем полномочий прокурора как процессуального руководителя в уголовном производстве позволит эффективно способствовать достижению такого примирения, и, одновременно с этим, не будет представлять угрозу необоснованного избегания ответственности. Не менее важным является изучение вопроса о том, какую роль в восстановительном правосудии в Украине играют адвокаты и система оказания бесплатной вторичной пра- вовой помощи. Исходя из этого, целью работы является исследование ролей прокурора и адвоката в примирении потерпевшего с подозреваемым (обвиняемым) в Украине на современном этапе и определение возможности расширения границ их участия в примирении сторон в будущем. Анализ нормативного регулирования полномочий прокурора и адвоката, связанных с примирением сторон, механизма применения восстановительного правосудия, на предмет его достаточности и способности обеспечить необходимые механизмы реализации положений законодательства, свидетельствует о наличии таких пробелов и разногласий, которые сдерживают развитие практики проведения примирительных процедур в отечественном уголовном производстве. Авторами отмечается необходимость и практическая целесообразность внедрения новой модели участия прокурора в примирении потерпевшего и подозреваемого (обви- няемого) и наделении его правом инициировать проведение медиации с согласия сторон. В статье также рассматриваются основные положения и первые результаты Пилотного проекта «Программа восстановления для несовершеннолетних, которые являются подозреваемыми в совершении уголовного правонарушения», в рамках которого впервые была предпринята попытка расширить пределы участия прокурора в примирении потерпевшего с подозреваемым (обвиняемым). С учётом анализа уникальных данных, полученных от Региональных центров по оказанию бесплатной вторичной правовой помощи в Одесской, Николаевской и Херсонской областях, были сделаны выводы относительно реального состояния вос- становительного правосудия в Украине на современном этапе и роли адвокатов в нём. ; Примирення потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого) у вчиненні кримінального правопорушення як центральний елемент відновного правосуддя на сьогодні в Україні відбувається поза межами кримінального провадження, проте може мати важливі матеріально-правові та процесуально-правові наслідки, – від врахування у якості обставини, яка пом'якшує покарання, до звільнення від кримінальної відповідальності. З урахуванням позитивного значення примирення не тільки для потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого), але й для держави, важливим питанням лишається те, який обсяг повноважень прокурора як процесуального керівника у кримінальному провадженні дозволить ефективно сприяти досягненню такого примирення, та, одночасно із цим, не становитиме загрозу безпідставного уникнення відповідальності. Не менш важливим є з'ясування питання про те, яку роль у відновному правосудді в Україні відіграють адвокати та система надання безоплатної вторинної правової допомоги. З огляду на це, метою роботи є дослідження ролей прокурора та адвоката у примиренні потерпілого з підозрюваним (обвинуваченим) в Україні на сучасному етапі та визначення можливості розширення меж їх участі у примиренні сторін в майбутньому. Аналіз нормативного регулювання повноважень прокурора та адвоката, пов'язаних із примиренням сторін, механізму застосування відновного правосуддя, на предмет його достатності та здатності забезпечити необхідні механізми реалізації положень законодавства, свідчить про наявність таких прогалин та розбіжностей, які стримують розвиток практики проведення примирних процедур у вітчизняному кримінальному провадженні. Авторками наголошується на необхідності та практичній доцільності запровадження нової моделі участі прокурора у примиренні потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого) та наділенні його правом ініціювати проведення медіації за згодою сторін. У статті також досліджуються основні положення та перші результати Пілотного проєкту «Програма відновлення для неповнолітніх, які є підозрюваними у вчиненні кримінального правопорушення», в якому вперше було вжито спробу розширити межі участі прокурора у примиренні потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого). З урахуванням аналізу унікальних даних, зібраних від Регіональних центрів з надання безоплатної вторинної правової допомоги у Одеській, Миколаївській та Херсонській областях, зроблено висновки щодо реального стану відновного правосуддя в Україні на сучасному етапі та ролі адвокатів у ньому
The purpose of the article is to study the roles of the prosecutor and the lawyer in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused) in Ukraine at the present time and to examine the possibility of increasing their participation in the reconciliation between the parties in the future. Reconciliation between victim and suspect (accused) in committing of a criminal offense as the centerpiece of the restorative justice in Ukraine today takes place outside of criminal proceedings, but it may have important substantive and procedural consequences in it. It can be considered as a mitigating circumstance in sentencing and even give rise to release the suspect (accused) from criminal liability. With the importance of reconciliation not only for the victim and the suspect, but also for the state, the question about scope of prosecutor`s powers as a procedural chief in criminal proceedings remains relevant. Such powers must be effective for facilitation such reconciliation, and at the same time they must prevent the unjustly avoidance of liability. It is also equally important to clarify the role of lawyers and the system of free secondary legal aid in restorative justice in Ukraine. The authors analyzed in the paper the normative regulation of the prosecutor's and the lawyer`s powers related to the reconciliation between the parties and the mechanism for the application of the restorative justice for its sufficiency and ability to provide the necessary mechanisms for implementing the provisions of the law. The authors found such gaps and differences in law regulation that hinder the development of conciliation practices in national criminal proceedings. The authors also examined the data of official state registers and revealed negative trends in the participation of the prosecutor in taking the procedural decisions based on the successful reconciliation between the victim and the suspect (accused). This gives reason to claim that the prosecutor's participation in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused) currently does not take into account neither the interests of the parties nor the state's interests in reducing the workload on the judicial and penitentiary systems and resolving other issues that accompany the existing punitive approach. In view of this, the authors proposes to make a number of changes to national legislation in order to eliminate those legal gaps that negatively affect the implementation of rules that guarantee the right to reconciliation and determine the admission of its positive results during making a final decision by court. In addition, the authors also emphasizes the necessity and practical feasibility of introducing a new model of the prosecutor`s participation in reconciling between the victim and suspect (accused) and giving him the right to initiate mediation with the consent of the parties. Such rules will also require the establishment of some additional provisions that will form a comprehensive implementation mechanism and serve as a guarantee of the interests of the victim and suspect (accused). As an example the authors used the rules of Criminal Procedure Act of the Republic of Slovenia. The authors also explored the main provisions and first results of The Pilot Project «Restorative Program for Juveniles Suspected of Committing a Criminal Offense». This project is the first attempt to expand the prosecutor's involvement in reconciling between the victim and the suspect (accused). The authors made conclusions about the real state of restorative justice in Ukraine at the present stage and the role of lawyers in it, taking into account the analysis of unique data collected from the Regional Centers for Free Secondary Legal Aid in Odesa, Mykolaiv and Kherson regions. ; Примирение потерпевшего и подозреваемого (обвиняемого) в совершении уголовного преступления как центральный элемент восстановительного правосудия в Украине сегодня происходит вне рамок уголовного производства, однако может иметь важные материально-правовые и процессуально-правовые последствия – от учитывания в качестве обстоятельства, которое смягчает наказание, до освобождения от уголовной ответственности. С учетом положительного значения примирения не только для потерпевшего и подозреваемого, но и для государства, важным вопросом остается то, какой объем полномочий прокурора как процессуального руководителя в уголовном производстве позволит эффективно способствовать достижению такого примирения, и, одновременно с этим, не будет представлять угрозу необоснованного избегания ответственности. Не менее важным является изучение вопроса о том, какую роль в восстановительном правосудии в Украине играют адвокаты и система оказания бесплатной вторичной пра- вовой помощи. Исходя из этого, целью работы является исследование ролей прокурора и адвоката в примирении потерпевшего с подозреваемым (обвиняемым) в Украине на современном этапе и определение возможности расширения границ их участия в примирении сторон в будущем. Анализ нормативного регулирования полномочий прокурора и адвоката, связанных с примирением сторон, механизма применения восстановительного правосудия, на предмет его достаточности и способности обеспечить необходимые механизмы реализации положений законодательства, свидетельствует о наличии таких пробелов и разногласий, которые сдерживают развитие практики проведения примирительных процедур в отечественном уголовном производстве. Авторами отмечается необходимость и практическая целесообразность внедрения новой модели участия прокурора в примирении потерпевшего и подозреваемого (обви- няемого) и наделении его правом инициировать проведение медиации с согласия сторон. В статье также рассматриваются основные положения и первые результаты Пилотного проекта «Программа восстановления для несовершеннолетних, которые являются подозреваемыми в совершении уголовного правонарушения», в рамках которого впервые была предпринята попытка расширить пределы участия прокурора в примирении потерпевшего с подозреваемым (обвиняемым). С учётом анализа уникальных данных, полученных от Региональных центров по оказанию бесплатной вторичной правовой помощи в Одесской, Николаевской и Херсонской областях, были сделаны выводы относительно реального состояния вос- становительного правосудия в Украине на современном этапе и роли адвокатов в нём. ; Примирення потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого) у вчиненні кримінального правопорушення як центральний елемент відновного правосуддя на сьогодні в Україні відбувається поза межами кримінального провадження, проте може мати важливі матеріально-правові та процесуально-правові наслідки, – від врахування у якості обставини, яка пом'якшує покарання, до звільнення від кримінальної відповідальності. З урахуванням позитивного значення примирення не тільки для потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого), але й для держави, важливим питанням лишається те, який обсяг повноважень прокурора як процесуального керівника у кримінальному провадженні дозволить ефективно сприяти досягненню такого примирення, та, одночасно із цим, не становитиме загрозу безпідставного уникнення відповідальності. Не менш важливим є з'ясування питання про те, яку роль у відновному правосудді в Україні відіграють адвокати та система надання безоплатної вторинної правової допомоги. З огляду на це, метою роботи є дослідження ролей прокурора та адвоката у примиренні потерпілого з підозрюваним (обвинуваченим) в Україні на сучасному етапі та визначення можливості розширення меж їх участі у примиренні сторін в майбутньому. Аналіз нормативного регулювання повноважень прокурора та адвоката, пов'язаних із примиренням сторін, механізму застосування відновного правосуддя, на предмет його достатності та здатності забезпечити необхідні механізми реалізації положень законодавства, свідчить про наявність таких прогалин та розбіжностей, які стримують розвиток практики проведення примирних процедур у вітчизняному кримінальному провадженні. Авторками наголошується на необхідності та практичній доцільності запровадження нової моделі участі прокурора у примиренні потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого) та наділенні його правом ініціювати проведення медіації за згодою сторін. У статті також досліджуються основні положення та перші результати Пілотного проєкту «Програма відновлення для неповнолітніх, які є підозрюваними у вчиненні кримінального правопорушення», в якому вперше було вжито спробу розширити межі участі прокурора у примиренні потерпілого та підозрюваного (обвинуваченого). З урахуванням аналізу унікальних даних, зібраних від Регіональних центрів з надання безоплатної вторинної правової допомоги у Одеській, Миколаївській та Херсонській областях, зроблено висновки щодо реального стану відновного правосуддя в Україні на сучасному етапі та ролі адвокатів у ньому
This thesis explores topics in environmental and resource economics and is composed of two single-authored papers (Papers 1 and 3) and one co-authored paper (paper 2). The following paragraphs highlight the main research question of each paper ; methodology and results and the main contributions made. Paper 1: Low-Carbon Transition: Private Sector Investment in Renewable Energy Projects in Developing Countries A transition to clean energy sources is unlikely to occur without the participation of the private sector. To date ; however ; most of the literature investigating determinants of renewable energy investments has focused on developed countries. In addition to this ; the link fossil fuel dependence and private sector investment in renewable energies has not been investigated. This paper applies discrete time ; multiple spell survival model to a dataset of private participation in renewable energy projects in a sample of 134 developing and middle-income countries for the 1990-2012 period. The paper examines the duration leading to private sector investment in renewable energy projects and how this is affected by the high dependence on fossil fuels. This paper contributes to the literature in a number of ways. First ; it focuses on the factors affecting the time at which private sector investments in renewable energy projects occur. Second ; the paper tests the "carbon lock-in" hypothesis in which fossil fuel dependence in its different forms deters private sector investment in the renewable energy. Third ; I solely focus on developing and middle-income countries which remain understudied in the literature. The results suggest that higher dependence on fossil fuels ; in the form of fuel rents and higher fossil fuel consumption ; lead to a lower probability of investments in renewables. However ; the negative effect becomes less pronounced with having investments in previous period. Consistent with previous literature ; the results support the belief that a number of macroeconomic variables ; such as higher oil prices ; higher income per capita ; and the implementation of domestic renewable energy policies ; play an important role in increasing the likelihood of private sector investment. The results are relevant in light of recent trends in international oil prices as they suggest two potential competing effects ; with lower oil prices potentially delaying investments directly through higher fossil fuel consumption but positively affecting investment through lower fuel rents. Paper 2: Geographical Proximity and Renewable Energy Diffusion: An Empirical Approach The reform of the energy landscape is central to achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs) and it depends substantially on the successful adoption and diffusion of renewable energies across countries. To date ; the literature on the diffusion of renewable energies has highlighted a number of important determinants such as income level ; domestic energy consumption and availability of finance. However ; the importance of geographical proximity in explaining the observed diffusion patterns of renewable energies remains unexplored ; despite the potential implications of spatial interrelationships in terms of capital accumulation and knowledge spill-over and therefore on long run economic growth. This co-authored paper examines three fundamental questions. First ; it explores the importance of geographic proximity to adopters in explaining diffusion patterns of renewable energies. Second ; we test whether this effect becomes more important given a large share of trade with adopters. Third ; we investigate whether the importance of geographic proximity to diffusion patterns changes over time. Our results highlight the fact that the scope of diffusion of renewable energy technologies across countries like other types of technology has a spatial aspect. In addition ; stronger spillover effects occur when intensive adopters of renewable energies are also important trading partners ; highlighting the relevance of trade links with technology adopters as a potential catalyst of the diffusion of renewable energies across countries. The paper contributes to the larger literature on knowledge transfer and is a step in establishing the proposed links between geography ; international trade and technology transfer. Given the importance of technology transfer in the economic growth process ; technological interdependence between countries generated by spatial externalities is important in explaining convergence process between countries. Paper 3: Greening Industry in Vietnam: Environmental Standards and Resource Efficiency in SMEs The debate of whether mandatory or voluntary environmental management standards contribute to a win-win situation environmentally and economically has been an issue of interest recently. For large-scale enterprises in industrialised countries ; such win-win has been documented ; but little is known about the effectiveness of this instrument in achieving resource efficiency in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) ; especially in emerging countries. In Vietnam ; high industrial growth rates and the inefficient technologies used by most SMEs raised concerns about the waste of materials and fuels in resource intensive industries. As a consequence ; the law of Environmental Protection of 2005 required firms engaged in polluting activities to undergo an environmental impact assessment and upon compliance ; obtain a certificate acknowledging satisfaction of environmental management standards (EMS). This paper fills a research gap by empirically testing whether the adoption of environmental standards certificates by small and medium enterprises in the manufacturing sector in Vietnam contributes to resource efficiency for the (2011-2013) period ; where resource efficiency is measured by the aggregate consumption of water ; fuel ; and electricity per unit of output. In this paper ; to examine the impact of adopting environmental standards certificate on resource efficiency ; I use a balanced panel dataset for the years 2011 and 2013 of the Small and Medium Scale Manufacturing Enterprise (SME) survey ; which comprise 1,333 firms distributed across 17 manufacturing sectors and 10 provinces. I estimate an instrumental variable model to control for the possible sources of endogeneity arising for the reverse causality between certificate adoption and resource efficiency. The paper finds a number of determinants for ESC adoption ; where firm size ; investment in new technology and engaging in selling products via e-trade are likely to be key variables in the decision to adopt certification. The result indicates that adopting environmental standards certificates among manufacturing SMEs in Vietnam contributed to higher aggregate resource efficiency during the 2011-2013 period ; reflected by a lower use of electricity ; fuel and water for each unit of output. The largest savings relate to electricity (3.25%) followed by fuel (2.68%) and water (2.2%). Additionally ; certification was found to have a heterogeneous effect on the extent of resource saving depending on the sector of operation. Less polluting manufacturing activities (for example such as wood ; paper ; printing ; food and beverages ; jewellery) achieved about 3.5% resource savings at 5% significance level compared to only 1.82% in more polluting sectors such as rubber ; refined petroleum and chemical products. With regards to the control variables ; receiving government assistance ; as well as investing in new machinery and using a higher share of raw material from households ; contributed to efficiency in resource use.
Suomen liityttyä jäseneksi Euroopan Unioniin alkoholin verohelpotukset loivat uhkakuvan terveydenhuoltoon alkoholin lisääntyvästä käytöstä ja sen mukanaan tuomista haitoista. Haittoja ehkäisemään on kehitetty varhaisen puuttumisen hoitomuoto, mini-interventio, joka on todettu vaikutuksiltaan tehokkaaksi ja kustannustehokkaaksi. Mini-intervention tarkoituksena on tunnistaa alkoholin suurkulutus, antaa tietoa liiallisen alkoholin käytön terveyshaitoista ja ohjata alkoholin käyttöä maltillisempaan suuntaan, alle riskirajojen. Mini-intervention on todettu olevan terveydenhuollon rutiinikäyttöön sopiva hoitomuoto, se on helppo omaksua eikä vaadi paljon aikaa. Lupaavista tutkimustuloksista huolimatta mini-intervention käyttö on ollut vähäistä. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus oli selvittää mini-intervention jalkauttamista osaksi terveydenhuollon tavanomaista toimintaa. Tutkimukseen liittyvä pohjakartoitus, jossa selvitettiin päihdeongelmien laajuutta terveydenhuollossa, tehtiin Tampereen yliopistollisessa sairaalassa. Terveydenhuollon henkilökunnan koulutuksen ja mini-interventiotoiminnan mahdollisimman hyvän käyttöönoton optimoimiseksi tehtiin Pirkanmaan sairaanhoitopiirissä kartoituskysely henkilökunnalle. Saadun tiedon perusteella organisointiin sairaanhoitopiirin alueelle toimintatutkimus mini-interventiotoiminnan saattamiseksi käytännön työvälineeksi. Tästä saadun palautteen, kahden myöhemmin järjestetyn kyselytutkimuksen ja videoitujen fokusryhmähaastatteluiden perusteella tehtiin mahdollisimman yksinkertainen ohje mini-interventioaktiivisuuden lisäämiseksi. Uusien toimintojen käyttöönotto terveydenhuollossa on hidasta ja vastaan tulee erilaisia esteitä. Terveydenhuoltohenkilöstön tarpeet ja heidän ymmärryksensä uusien asioiden tärkeydestä ovat ensiarvoisen tärkeitä otettaessa uusia toimintamalleja käyttöön. Kyseinen tutkimus osoitti alkoholin ongelmakäyttäjien suuren määrän terveydenhuollossa. Tutkimuksen suurin hyöty oli luoda pohja mini-intervention käytön laajentumiselle ja kehittämiselle Suomessa. Pirkanmaan sairaanhoitopiirissä alkanut projekti on levinnyt nyt koko maahan. Vaikka alkoholin käytön seulonta ja varhainen puuttuminen hoitomuotona ovat juurtuneet odotettua hitaammin jokapäiväisiksi toiminnoiksi terveydenhuoltoon, ovat henkilöstön asenteet muuttuneet edellä mainittuja toimintoja kohtaan positiivisemmiksi. Toisaalta kansalaisten suhtautuminen vallitsevaan alkoholipolitiikkaan on muuttunut tiukemmaksi. Kaikki edellä mainittu suosii mini-interventiotoiminnan laajentamista ja tämän kustannustehokkaan hoitomuodon käytön lisäämistä, kohteena alkoholin varhaisen vaiheen riskikäyttäjät. ; This study was initiated after Finland had joined the EU and the intended alcohol tax reductions caused concern both generally and willing health care. Several studies had shown that brief alcohol interventions are useful and cost-effective, and be considered feasible as part of health care professionals´ daily work as, as little time is required and the skills needed, and can be easily learned. In spite of the scientific evidence, however implementation of brief intervention activity has been slow. The objective here was to assess means of implementing this new activity, alcohol screening and brief intervention for early-phase heavy drinkers, in different health care settings in a wide geographic area in Finland. In order to motivate health care professionals to acknowledge the importance of this patient group, prevalence data were first collected (I). Six-year diagnoses in retrospective discharge data in Tampere University Hospital were compared with prospective data gathered from separately completed forms added to every outpatient´s discharge papers during an 8-week period. In the retrospective study (1988?1993) the prevalence of substance use-related diagnoses was 0.4% of all recorded diagnoses. In the prospective study (eight weeks in 1994) the corresponding figure was 1.1%. The percentage of substance use-related visits, not necessarily producing a diagnosis was even higher, 5.6%, being highest in the emergency setting (12.5%) and in psychiatry (6%). To optimize training and implementation strategies health care professionals were interviewed (II). Altogether 473 questionnaires, comprising 40 questions, each with two to six alternatives, were mailed to 139 units in the Pirkanmaa Health Care District, i.e. all primary and occupational health care units and each department in specialized health care in hospitals. Health care professionals´ attitudes, knowledge and skills were asked and analysed in relation to alcohol-related matters. Altogether 59% of health care professionals in primary, occupational and specialized health care were positive in the matter of asking patients´ alcohol consumption and 68% could bring up alcohol problems for discussion. Nonetheless only 18% of respondents found it fully acceptable to discuss patients´ alcohol consumption, and only 19% believed that they could influence patients´ drinking very or quite well. Respondents´ own alcohol consumption did not correlate with attitudes, knowledge or skills. They also thought that patients´ attitudes towards inquiry into alcohol consumption were positive (II). Based on observed needs (II), information from the field (I, II), and earlier scientific evidence on implementation, practical education and implementation were organized (III). The key issues in this action research project were engaging leaders, keeping training short, affecting attitudes and acting on feedback. Leaders had separate half-day sessions and other professionals had five half-day seminars with the same content in different parts of the region. The aim was to reach at least one nurse and one physician from every municipality. Participants came from 26/34 municipalities, altogether 50 physicians and 117 nurses. It was hoped that this key group would deliver information in their own centers. They were also provided with all the material used in session. To respond to the need from the field a practical video, two posters and an AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test) booze quiz leaflet were produced. To activate the public to assess about their alcohol consumption and ask for help, if needed the AUDIT pamphlet was delivered to every household (90 000) in Tampere as part of the Booze Weeks action project (IV). Using the Telephone Interview system questionnaire data from 500 randomly selected inhabitants were collected. This material included twenty-two questions covering respondents´ own alcohol consumption and questions on their awareness of the AUDIT pamphlet and the Booze Weeks and whether this had any effect on their alcohol use. Those who drank most frequently were also most likely to have noticed the Booze Weeks campaign and felt most concern about their drinking. To facilitate activity in the field the final brief intervention instructions were drawn up(V). These were based on feedback from the whole action research project (III), on two questionnaires, one for health care professionals and one for patients, and on six video-taped focus groups including primary health care professionals. Qualitative analysis of this information led to a "mini-model" formulating the least that should be done for early-phase heavy drinkers in health care. Implementation of a new activity in health care is slow and fraught with obstacles. Awareness of the needs of professionals and their perception of the importance of the activity are crucial for implementation. The present study brought on the high prevalence of cases of heavy drinking in health care. It evaluated the views of professionals and public with an eye to implementing brief interventions and used feedback to create the final instructions for action. The main contribution of the present study was in laying a basis for future development in Finland and worldwide. It activated a new study which became part of and gave content to the WHO Phase IV project, "WHO Collaborative Project on Detection and Management of Alcohol-related Problems in Primary Health Care". This was subsequently followed by a nationwide Finnish project supported by the Government. Since the present project work to prevent alcohol-related harm in health care has expanded from the Pirkanmaa hospital region to national level. Even if alcohol screening and brief intervention have been slower than hoped in becoming part of health care professionals´ daily work, their attitudes have gradually become more favourable. Also public opinions on alcohol policy have become stricter. These developments have served to facilitate the continuation and expansion this cost-effective activity to manage the growing patient group of hazardous drinkers.
In the article the regularities of the international migration processes of human resources are revealed, the methodological principles of the formation of the regulation system such processes in the conditions of geo-economic transformations are theoretically grounded and developed, in particular through the development of a model and mechanism for the formation and implementation of regional migration policy as a result of substantiation of the preconditions and socio-economic consequences of international migration in conditions of geo-economic transformations.The concept of "migration pair" (a combination of the country of origin and the country of destination of migrants, between which historically formed a migration corridor with specific quantitative and structural parameters, characterized by a special institutional, socio-demographic, financial and economic, ethno and cultural as well as other environment of migration processes). The introduction of this imperative into the conceptual apparatus of the study of the international migration process makes it possible to distinguish migration flows taking into account the spatial and institutional aspects of migration corridors, to identify the peculiarities and changes in the environment of the countries of different migration pairs, and to record the trends of migration flows.The work defines the concept of "migration flow", "migration corridor", "migration motive" and "migration attractiveness", as well as the interrelationship between them, that allowed positioning these concepts as objects of study of migration processes. In addition, the interpretation and use of the principles of studying the processes of international migration (temporality, spatiality, communication, mobility) are presented. This allows us to streamline the methodological tools of scientific research and defines the vectors for constructing a classification of international migration taking into account the magnitude and multidimensional nature of migration processes.The classification of international migration has been improved by its systematization and addition by groups of features and types: spatial-temporal, institutional parameters as well as parameters of human resources. Such composition of classification features is achieved through the use of an institutional approach and takes into account the outlined importance of gender-age and educational and professional affiliation of migrants for the formation of human resources and their redistribution in the course of certain types of migration.The trends of geo-economic transformations were identified and their influence on the international migration of human resources was highlighted (regionalization and globalization of geo-economic space, strengthening of geo-economic risks, transformation of TNCs into supranational centers of economic development, transformation of geoeconomic space, structural changes in the world economy, virtualization of economic and other processes). This allowed formulating options for countries to join the processes of international migration on the basis of countries belonging to the centers of economic development, the general features of their migration policy, the places of countries in the composition of the migration pair, the level of development of the institutional environment for the regulation of migration processes, the availability of certain types of migration.The influence of the ecological and natural type of geo-economic risk on the formation of repulsive factors, as well as the mechanisms of its formalization, has been characterized by substantiating the clustering methodology of regional integration associations at the risk of extreme climatic events as a component of the specified type of risk. This allows to taken into account it when assessing the country's migration attractiveness and forecasting the formation of migratory motives of the population, as well as formulating the task of regulating migration processes under extreme climatic events.In addition, the influence of the politico-security type of geo-economic risk as a precondition for the formation of migration flows from countries where military and political conflicts and other threats of military and political instability are recorded, are determined. This allows identifying the components of this type of risk in assessing the country's migration attractiveness and migratory motives of the population, as well as formulating the task of regulating international migration of refugees in conditions of military conflicts and post-conflict situations.The study formulates the tasks of regulating international migration in the countries of migration, which should be implemented in employment policy, educational, social, informational, fiscal, monetary, investment and other policies and aimed at the integration of migrants and overcoming socio-economic issues associated with migration. This was done on the basis of the justification of the impact of international migration and remittances on economic development of the countries in the conditions of geo-economic transformations, human resources formation and poverty reduction, which included: 1) the formation of risks and opportunities for countries to join the processes of international migration of human resources taking into account the role of the country in the migration pair; 2) the outline of the environmental factors of the implementation of remittances according to the suggested stages, which determine the parameters of remittances; 3) identification of economic, social and demographic consequences of migration based on the stratification of human resources.The system of determinants of the formation of migration motives consisting of economic, socio-demographic, political-security, language and cultural, as well as ecological and natural determinants is suggested. They are formed by taking into account the influence of institutional factors in the relevant environment of countries and the manifestation of personal perception of the factors of pushing out. This made it possible to determine the factors that should be taken into account when studying and formalizing the preconditions of migration processes.In this paper an approach to assessing geo-economic risks of countries is formed, which involves determining the corresponding integral indicator of the country. This allows countries to be positioned on specific types of geo-economic risk and integral indicators, as well as clustering countries according to the level of geoeconomic risk and the intensity of the use of migration human resources. This approach will help to determine the vectors of the elements of the migration policies of the countries, based on the cluster to which they belong, to perform their comparative analysis, as well as outline the implementation of other policies governing the processes of migration and the integration of migrants.A tool for identifying the connection of international migration of human resources with geo-economic risks is suggested, which is represented by the formation of an indicator of migration attractiveness, which allows to explain migration flows between countries based on their level of migration attractiveness. The approach to assessing the attractiveness of migration through the formation of its integral indicator and the approach to the normalization of the partial indicators enable to adapt the model and use it to assess the migration attractiveness of the countries in the comparative aspect.The information support of the regulation of international migration processes at the international, regional and national levels is developed, based on which the model of the multilevel information field is formed, which includes the following systems: 1) monitoring of the change of determinants of the formation of migration motives according to the determined indicators; 2) monitoring of potential and actual migration flows by stratification groups; 3) monitoring the risks of institutional breaks and institutional conflicts; 4) dissemination of information on the state and issues of international migration of human resources. It allows to build communication links between subjects of regulation of processes of international migration of human resources and improve its institutional environment.As a result, the conceptual principles of the institutional model of regional regulation of migration processes have been theoretically substantiated and developed, in which the subjects of the formal and informal institutional environment of regional regulation of international migration are structured, the functions of regional migration policy (regulatory, diversification, integration, mobilization) are highlighted, directions of its implementation are formulated for the country to benefit from international migration and reduction of geo-economic risks. This allows on the basis of decomposition of the provisions of such a policy as well as its coordination with other policies to solve regional issues of migration of human resources, outlined on the basis of analysis of cause-effect relations of migration in the course of geo-economic transformations and established issues of regulation of migration flows in selected regional integration associations. ; В роботі виявлені закономірностей процесів міжнародної міграції людських ресурсів, теоретично обґрунтовано та розроблено методологічні засади формування системи регулювання таких процесів в умовах геоекономічних трансформацій, зокрема через розробку моделі та механізму формування та реалізації регіональної міграційної політики у результаті обґрунтування передумов та соціально-економічних наслідків міжнародної міграції в умовах геоекономічних трансформацій.В роботі введено поняття «міграційна пара» (комбінація країни походження та країни призначення мігрантів, між якими історично сформувався міграційний коридор зі специфічними кількісними та структурними параметрами, що характеризується особливим інституційним, соціо-демографічним, фінансово-економічним, етнічно-культурним та іншим середовищем міграційних процесів). Введення даного імперативу в понятійний апарат дослідження процесу міжнародної міграції дозволяє виокремлювати міграційні потоки з урахуванням просторового та інституційного аспектів міграційних коридорів, ідентифікувати особливості та зміну середовища країн різних міграційних пар, а також фіксувати тенденції міграційних потоків.В роботі визначено поняття «міграційний потік», «міграційний коридор», «міграційний мотив» та «міграційна привабливість», а також взаємозв'язків між ними, що дозволило позиціонувати дані поняття як об'єкти дослідження міграційних процесів. Крім того, дано трактування та конкретизовано використання принципів дослідження процесів міжнародної міграції (темпоральності, просторовості, комунікації, мобільності). Це дозволяє упорядкувати методичний інструментарій наукового дослідження та визначає вектори побудови класифікації міжнародної міграції з урахуванням масштабності та багатоаспектності міграційних процесів.Удосконалено класифікацію міжнародної міграції шляхом її систематизації та доповнення за групами ознак та видами: просторовочасовими, інституційними параметрами та параметрами людських ресурсів. Така композиція класифікаційних ознак досягнута завдяки використанню інституційного підходу та враховує окреслене значення статево-вікової та освітньо-професійної приналежності мігрантів для формування людських ресурсів, їх перерозподілу в ході окремих видів міграції.Ідентифіковано тенденції геоекономічних трансформацій та окреслено їх вплив на міжнародну міграцію людських ресурсів (регіоналізація та глокалізація геоекономічного простору, посилення геоекономічних ризиків, трансформація ТНК у наднаціональні центри економічного розвитку, трансформація геоекономічного простору, структурні зміни у світовому господарстві, віртуалізація економічних та інших процесів). Це дозволило сформулювати варіанти долучення країн до процесів міжнародної міграції на основі приналежності країн до центрів економічного розвитку, загальні риси їх міграційної політики, місця країн у складі міграційної пари, рівня розвитку інституційного середовища регулювання міграційних процесів, наявності окремих видів міграції.Охарактеризовано вплив еколого-природничого типу геоекономічного ризику на формування факторів виштовхування, а також механізми його формалізації через обґрунтування методики кластеризації регіональних інтеграційних об'єднань за ризиком екстремальних кліматичних подій як складової вказаного типу ризику. Це дозволяє врахувати його при оцінці міграційної привабливості країни та прогнозуванні формування міграційних мотивів населення, а також сформувати завдання регулювання міграційних процесів в умовах екстремальних кліматичних подій.Крім того, визначено вплив політико-безпекового типу геоекономічного ризику як передумови формування міграційних потоків з країн, де зафіксовано військово-політичні конфлікти та інші загрози військово-політичної нестабільності. Це дає змогу визначити складові даного типу ризику при оцінці міграційної привабливості країни та міграційних мотивів населення, а також сформулювати завдання регулювання міжнародної міграції біженців в умовах військових конфліктів та постконфліктного стану.В дослідженні сформульовано завдання регулювання міжнародної міграції в країнах міграційної пари, які повинні бути імплементовані у політику зайнятості, освітню, соціальну, інформаційну, фіскальну, монетарну, інвестиційну та інші політики та спрямовані на інтеграцію мігрантів та подолання соціально-економічних проблем, пов'язаних з міграцією. Це здійснено на основі обґрунтування впливу міжнародної міграції та грошових переказів на економічний розвиток країн в умовах геоекономічних трансформацій, формування людських ресурсів та подолання бідності, що включало: 1) формування ризиків та можливостей долучення країн до процесів міжнародної міграції людських ресурсів з урахуванням ролі країни у міграційній парі; 2) окреслення факторів середовища здійснення грошових переказів за запропонованими етапами, що визначають параметри грошових переказів; 3) визначення економічних, соціальних, демографічних наслідків міграції виходячи зі стратифікації людських ресурсів.Запропоновано систему детермінантів формування міграційних мотивів, що складаються з економічних, соціо-демографічних, політико-безпекових, мовно-культурних та еколого-природничих детермінантів. Вони сформовані шляхом врахування дії інституційних факторів у відповідному середовищі країн та прояву особистісного сприйняття факторів виштовхування. Це дозволило визначити фактори, які слід враховувати при вивченні та формалізації передумов міграційних процесів.В роботі сформовано підхід до оцінки геоекономічних ризиків країн, який полягає у визначенні відповідного інтегрального показника країни. Це дозволяє позиціонувати країни за окремими типами геоекономічного ризику та інтегральним показником, а також кластеризувати їх країн за рівнем геоекономічного ризику та інтенсивністю використання міграційних людських ресурсів. Такий підхід сприятиме визначенню векторів елементів міграційних політик країн, виходячи з кластеру, до якого вони належать, здійснювати їх компаративний аналіз, а також окреслювати напрями реалізації інших політик, що регулюють процеси руху та інтеграції мігрантів.Запропоновано інструмент ідентифікації зв'язку міжнародної міграції людських ресурсів з геоекономічними ризиками, що представлено через формування показника міграційної привабливості, що дозволяє пояснювати міграційні потоки між країнами виходячи з рівня їх міграційної привабливості. Підхід до оцінки міграційної привабливості через формування її інтегрального показника та підхід до нормалізації часткових показників дають змогу адаптувати модель та використовувати її для оцінки міграційної привабливості країн у компаративному аспекті.Розроблено інформаційне забезпечення регулювання процесів міжнародної міграції на міжнародному, регіональному та національному рівнях, базисом якого є сформована модель багаторівневого інформаційного поля, яке включає системи: 1) моніторингу зміни детермінантів формування міграційних мотивів за визначеними індикаторами; 2) моніторингу потенційних та фактичних міграційних потоків за стратифікаційними групами; 3) моніторингу ризиків інституційних розривів та інституційних конфліктів; 4) поширення інформації про стан та проблеми міжнародної міграції людських ресурсів. Це дозволяє будувати комунікаційні зв'язки між суб'єктами регулювання процесів міжнародної міграції людських ресурсів та удосконалити його інституційне середовище.У результаті теоретично обґрунтовано та розроблено концептуальні засади інституційної моделі регіонального регулювання міграційних процесів, у якій структуровано суб'єктів формального та неформального інституційного середовища регіонального регулювання міжнародної міграції, виділено функції регіональної міграційної політики (регуляторна, диверсифікаційна, інтеграційна, мобілізаційна), сформульовано напрями її реалізації для отримання країною переваг від міжнародної міграції та зниження геоекономічних ризиків. Це дозволяє на основі декомпозиції положень такої політики та її узгодження з іншими політиками вирішувати регіональні проблеми міграції людських ресурсів, окреслені на основі аналізу причиннонаслідкових зв'язків міграції в ході геоекономічних трансформацій та встановлених проблем регулювання міграційних потоків у обраних регіональних інтеграційних об'єднаннях.
[spa] Este estudio tiene un triple propósito: por un lado, conocer y analizar el grado de importancia que los funcionarios de la Administración Pública Española otorgan a un conjunto de veinte competencias profesionales; así como comparar el nivel competencial autoevaluado por sus jefaturas y directivos con el de la población de directivos de referencia. Para ello, se ha trabajado con una muestra de 613 empleados públicos de la Administración, compuesta por puestos base, jefaturas y directivos y se ha aplicado una metodología de encuestas para la recogida y análisis de datos. Por otra parte, tiene el propósito de diseñar y validar un cuestionario que lleva por título la "Formación en los puestos de responsabilidad de la Administración Pública Española" (FRAPE), a través de un panel de expertos y mediante la utilización del método Delphi; este cuestionario servirá para alcanzar el tercer propósito, consistente en conocer y analizar la opinión de funcionarios de carrera en puestos de jefatura y dirección, y de los titulares de órganos directivos de designación política con respecto a las necesidades de formación de estos colectivos. Además, pretende describir las tareas y problemas más importantes con los que se enfrentan a diario en el marco de sus funciones. Finalmente, se quiere identificar los principales factores para el diseño de un modelo de formación por competencias dirigido a los citados puestos de responsabilidad. Los principales resultados indican que el grado de relevancia que los funcionarios otorgan a las competencias profesionales para desempeñar puestos de responsabilidad es muy alta: en lo primeros puestos encontramos las competencias de "confianza y seguridad en uno mismo", "comunicación" y "trabajo en equipo"; si bien el nivel competencial autoevaluado en los jefes y directivos es de nivel medio en todos los casos de jefatura y dirección; también muestran un nivel competencial autoevaluado estadísticamente por debajo del nivel exhibido por la población de directivos de referencia. Tanto jefes como directivos tienen una mayor preferencia por la formación en materias técnicas que por la formación gerencial, por lo que todavía persiste un enfoque tradicional de las funciones directivas; siendo la falta de motivación del empleado público y la falta de sistemas de evaluación del desempeño profesional los principales problemas a los que han de enfrentarse en su día a día; en cuanto a la formación recibida por jefes y directivos, no está ligada a modelos de gestión integral de los RRHH por competencias; la valoración global de la calidad de la formación recibida en los dos últimos años es de evidente insatisfacción; y los actores que obstaculizan su trabajo diario, son por este orden, el equipo de gobierno y los altos cargos de designación política. En cambio, los actores que favorecen son los subordinados respectivos y el jefe inmediatamente superior. Finalmente, esta investigación ofrece resultados y conclusiones que pueden permitir mejorar la adquisición y el desarrollo de las competencias en la formación de los puestos de responsabilidad de la Administración Pública Española. ; [cat] Aquest estudi té un triple propòsit: d'una banda, conèixer i analitzar el grau d'importància que els funcionaris de l'Administració Pública Espanyola atorguen a un conjunt de vint competències professionals; comparar el nivell competencial autoavaluat pels seus caps i directius amb el de la població de directius de referència. Per això, s'ha treballat amb una mostra de 613 empleats públics de l'Administració, composta per llocs base, caps i directius i s'ha aplicat una metodologia d'enquestes per a la recollida i anàlisi de dades. D'altra banda, té el propòsit de dissenyar i validar un qüestionari que porta per títol la "Formació en els llocs de responsabilitat de l'Administració Pública Espanyola" (FRAPE), a través d'un panell d'experts i mitjançant la utilització del mètode Delphi ; aquest qüestionari servirà per aconseguir el tercer propòsit, consistent en conèixer i analitzar l'opinió de funcionaris de carrera en llocs de direcció, i dels titulars d'òrgans directius de designació política respecte a les necessitats de formació d'aquests col•lectius. A més, pretén descriure les tasques i problemes més importants amb què s'enfronten diàriament en el marc de les seves funcions. Finalment, es vol identificar els principals factors per al disseny d'un model de formació per competències dirigit als esmentats llocs de responsabilitat. Els principals resultats indiquen que el grau de rellevància que els funcionaris atorguen a les competències professionals per a ocupar llocs de responsabilitat és molt alta; en el primers llocs trobem les competències de "confiança i seguretat en un mateix", "comunicació" i "treball en equip"; encara que el nivell competencial autoavaluat en els caps i directius és de nivell mitjà en tots els casos de comandament i direcció; també mostren un nivell competencial autoavaluat estadísticament per sota del nivell exhibit per la població de directius de referència. Tant caps com a directius tenen una major preferència per la formació en matèries tècniques que per la formació gerencial, de manera que encara persisteix un enfocament tradicional de les funcions directives; sent la manca de motivació de l'empleat públic i la manca de sistemes d'avaluació de l'acompliment professional dels principals problemes als quals s'han d'enfrontar en el seu dia a dia; pel que fa a la formació rebuda per caps i directius, no està lligada a models de gestió integral dels RRHH per competències; la valoració global de la qualitat de la formació rebuda en els dos últims anys és d'evident insatisfacció; i els actors que obstaculitzen el seu treball diari, són per aquest ordre, l'equip de govern i els alts càrrecs de designació política. En canvi, els actors que afavoreixen són els subordinats respectius i el cap immediatament superior. Finalment, aquesta investigació ofereix resultats i conclusions que poden permetre millorar l'adquisició i el desenvolupament de les competències en la formació dels llocs de responsabilitat de l'Administració Pública Espanyola. ; [eng] This study has a threefold purpose. On the one hand, to find out and analyse the degree of importance civil servants within the Spanish Public Administration attach to a set of twenty professional competencies, as well as to compare the self-assessed level of competency of middle and senior managers with that of a reference population of senior managers. For this purpose, we worked with a sample of 613 public servants in the Administration, made up of lower-ranking officials, middle managers, and senior managers, and a survey method was applied for data collection and analysis. On the other hand, to design and validate a questionnaire entitled "Training in Positions of Responsibility in the Spanish Public Administration" (FRAPE for its acronym in Spanish), through a panel of experts and by means of the use of the Delphi method. This questionnaire will serve to achieve the third purpose, which consists of finding out and analysing the opinion of career civil servants in leadership or management positions, and of political appointees in governing bodies with respect to the training needs of these groups; besides, we aim to describe the most important tasks and problems they face on a daily basis within the framework of their duties. Finally, we aim to identify the main factors in order to design a competency-based training model addressed to the aforementioned positions of responsibility. The main results indicate that the degree of relevance that civil servants attach to professional competencies in order to hold positions of responsibility is very high; in the top rankings we find the competencies of "self-confidence and self-assurance", "communication", and "teamwork"; although the self-assessed level of competency among middle and senior managers is medium in all cases of leadership and management – also showing a self-assessed competency level that is statistically below the level exhibited by the reference population of managers. Both middle and senior managers have a greater preference for training in technical matters than for management training; therefore the traditional approach still persists in management functions, where the lack of motivation of public servants and the lack of performance evaluation systems are the main problems to be faced on a daily basis. As regards the training received by middle and senior managers, this is not linked to competency-based comprehensive human resources integrated management models. The overall assessment of the quality of the training received in the last two years is that of evident dissatisfaction; and the actors that hinder their daily work are, in order, the governing body and the senior political appointees; whereas the actors that support it are the respective subordinates and the immediate superior. Finally, this research offers results and conclusions that may enable the improvement of the acquirement and development of competencies in training in positions of responsibility in the Spanish Public Administration.
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On September 28, CEGA hosted its annual Evidence to Action (E2A) conference, this year titled "Realigning Tech for Social Impact." It brought together researchers, policymakers, practitioners, funders, community members, and students to take stock of the benefits and harms technological interventions have had over the last two decades, with an emphasis on the experience of communities in low- and middle-income countries. Sean Luna McAdams, program manager for the Data Science for Development portfolio, shares key takeaways from the event.Carson Christiano (left), Executive Director of CEGA, and Mohamed Abdel-Kader (right), Chief Innovation Officer and Executive Director for the Innovation, Technology, and Research (ITR) Hub at USAID | Matt KrupoffNew technology benefits from a simple and powerful narrative: it can help solve complex problems, often by doing more with less. The printing press accelerated our ability to share information over long distances. Social media has made it nearly costless to communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world. But new technologies can have unintended effects. The cotton gin turbocharged an economic model that relied on enslaved African labor and ill-gotten land, with terrible consequences. More than one account at E2A emphasized this nuance of the effects of technological interventions.Over the course of the day, participants surfaced a set of complementary best practices when designing, testing, and integrating tech into existing policy, governance, and social welfare systems. The first speaks to the limits of expertise: a technically excellent product is necessary but not sufficient for social impact. Additionally, the ultimate goal of scaling a solution is often underspecified. Scaled by whom, for which communities, and at what scale (national, regional, global)? Making these answers explicit can improve estimates of the trade-offs to scaling and ensure the technological solution is the right fit for its intended problem.Beyond Technical ExcellenceAt E2A, the best examples of technology improving lives and achieving large-scale adoption in low- and middle-income countries relied on interdisciplinary teams, incorporated community input, and planned for maintenance and capacity building to ensure sustainability. Interventions developed with these elements can cultivate community trust, clarify their value proposition for potential users, and dynamically adapt and improve their product. Dan Fletcher, Professor of Bioengineering and Faculty Director at the Blum Center at UC Berkeley, reflected that the initial prototype of Cellscope failed during field testing despite its technical excellence because it was developed only by engineers. Subsequent iterations involved experts from the social sciences, improving the product and leading to greater success.Cellscope is a mobile phone-based microscopy tool that helps health workers identify a variety of pathogens to more quickly diagnose and treat those affected and test the potability of water. | Cellscope teamHowever challenging, collaboration across disciplines is essential for successful interventions. Mohamed Abdel-Kader, Chief Innovation Officer and Executive Director for the Innovation, Technology, and Research (ITR) Hub at USAID, reminded us of the value of proactively including people "whose lived experience can provide different perspectives." For USAID, this means ensuring that 25 percent of its funding is dispersed to local organizations. Daanish Masood, Advisor on AI Alignment at the UN's Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs, echoed this call by highlighting the importance of "epistemological pluralism" to more effectively engage community members who often perceive and value their world using different frameworks. By bringing together multidisciplinary teams, innovators can develop technologies that will better meet the social reality in which they will be deployed.Not only does diversity make technology more effective, it also helps to minimize potential harm. For example, Josh Blumenstock shared how his team gathered input from rural communities in Togo to inform the development of a social transfer targeting software his team co-created with the Ministry of Digital Economy and Transformation. Zoe Kahn, a PhD student on Blumenstock's team in Togo, conducted ethnographic research to better understand how members of rural communities would interact, understand, and appraise the digital social transfer system they were building.Finally, technically excellent solutions must build the social consensus and requisite buy-in across different contexts to tailor and maintain these tools iteratively. This requires planning for the long-term, building in plans for deprecation, and creating institutions — whether private companies, volunteer-based organizations, or capacity-building initiatives — to maintain and update these innovations to make them sustainable over the long-run.What Does Success Look Like?We should not assume that we have the same vision of a successful technological innovation in the social impact space. We often tout "scaling" as the final life stage of tech; for many, it serves as the ultimate goal and proxy of success. Yet, Brigitte Hoyer Gosselink, Director of Product Impact at Google.org, distinguished two paths to integrating technological interventions: a tailored, individualized solution in close partnership with a decision maker and centralized, replicable systems that can be deployed across time and space reliably.Our Technology Adoption for the Public Good panel delved into the public sector's challenges and opportunities in helping to scale proven solutions. | Matt KrupoffShould a technological intervention in global development be global in scope? We need a better sense of the trade-offs in scaling up from local to global to answer this question empirically. Some systems may be better suited to function at national or regional scales. Collaborators should plan to measure performance reliably across scale to tailor solutions accordingly.As Jane Munga, Fellow at the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, reminded us: even if we develop good tech solutions for citizens who have a mobile phone and access to the internet now, there is a sizable portion of the world's most underserved who would be excluded due to lack of access. We need to expand the size of the pie, improve the quality of its ingredients, and increase the diversity of the culinary team that bakes it. Digital technology has a role to play in achieving more equitable social and economic development world-wide. How transformative that development will be depends on us.Technology Is Not a Panacea, but It Can Help Solve Specific Problems was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
Recent academic research has questioned the role of economic policy as a determinant of long term growth rates. While there seems to be a correlation between several policy variables and growth rates, this correlation disappears when controlling for other factors. As an example, the significance of key economic policy variables such as inflation or government size disappears if we account for the quality of institutions. This paper looks at recent empirical research that questions the conclusion that macroeconomic policy does not matter for growth. By looking at the volatility of economic policy (whether it is fiscal policy or exchange rates), the authors find that policy is still a relevant and robust explanatory variable of cross country differences in economic growth. These results have strong policy implications. Improvements in the conduct of macroeconomic policy can have beneficial growth effects even if institutional reforms are not taking place. These results do not deny the importance of institutional reforms. By setting the right institutions one can ensure the proper conduct of macroeconomic policy without having to rely on the 'quality' of the decision maker.
Recent academic research has questioned the role of economic policy as a determinant of long term growth rates. While there seems to be a correlation between several policy variables and growth rates, this correlation disappears when controlling for other factors. As an example, the significance of key economic policy variables such as inflation or government size disappears if we account for the quality of institutions. This paper looks at recent empirical research that questions the conclusion that macroeconomic policy does not matter for growth. By looking at the volatility of economic policy (whether it is fiscal policy or exchange rates), the authors find that policy is still a relevant and robust explanatory variable of cross country differences in economic growth. These results have strong policy implications. Improvements in the conduct of macroeconomic policy can have beneficial growth effects even if institutional reforms are not taking place. These results do not deny the importance of institutional reforms. By setting the right institutions one can ensure the proper conduct of macroeconomic policy without having to rely on the 'quality' of the decision maker.
Córdoba es la segunda ciudad más poblada de la Argentina, y posee el ejido municipal más extenso del país, siendo un importante centro industrial y de servicios del centro del país. Es además la cabecera de la segunda región metropolitana argentina, el Área Metropolitana de Córdoba (AMCBA). Si bien el desarrollo de sus áreas centrales y periurbanas es un tema bastante desarrollado académicamente, actualmente hay un vacío de conocimiento en la situación actual de las áreas pericentrales e intermedias de esta ciudad -aun cuando ocupan más del 30% del área urbanizada y donde habita la mayor parte de su población-. Es en estas áreas donde se ubica el objeto de estudio de esta tesis: los barrios pericentrales que forman un anillo alrededor del área central. Originados como extensiones suburbanas alrededor de 1940, y consolidados como barrios residenciales de clase media y media alta de baja densidad antes de 1970, ocupan lo que son hoy algunas de las áreas con mejor calidad ambiental y urbana de la ciudad. Los barrios pericentrales son considerados generalmente consolidados y estables; sin embargo, analizados en detalle, muestran complejas transformaciones: un vaciamiento poblacional constante, a pesar del crecimiento demográfico en general de Córdoba y el AMCBA; aumento de inmuebles abandonados; y a diferencia de sectores en una similar posición, no son objeto de grandes inversiones inmobiliarias de renovación urbana. Esta situación es invisibilizada, en parte por ser resultado de procesos con poco impacto relativo en la ciudad, y en parte porque estos procesos no están contemplados por los modelos urbanos locales vigentes –basados en la teoría racionalista y determinista de principios del siglo XX-, que conceptualizan a los barrios pericentrales como una "panacea urbana". Esta tesis puso en disputa estos modelos, partiendo de la discusión sobre un fenómeno informal detectado indefectiblemente (aunque no exclusivamente) en estos barrios pericentrales: la microdensificación emergente. La imposibilidad de colocar los inmuebles existentes en el mercado hace que los propietarios busquen nuevas formas de valorizar sus propiedades, de facilitar el acceso a la vivienda a sus hijos o de invertir sus ahorros de forma segura, obteniendo una fuente adicional de ingresos: en cada parcela edificada se aumenta la cantidad de unidades funcionales, aprovechando la superficie construible vacante o refuncionalizando las construcciones obsoletas, aunque manteniendo el grano y la escala de intervención respecto al tejido existente. La oferta de hábitat en estos barrios se diversifica, y no sólo evita la expulsión de población, sino que también atrae a nuevos habitantes. Además, en un tejido originalmente sólo residencial, incorpora actividades de comercio y servicios que enriquecen el tejido funcional. El proceso se realiza sin planificación general (y por supuesto fuera del marco legal): es la suma de acciones individuales que se reconstruyen como una "tendencia" o "patrón emergente", revitalizando el tejido urbano de forma sutil pero definitiva. Se planteó como hipótesis que la microdensificación emergente es un proceso de revitalización que aprovecha el potencial del tejido de estos barrios de forma más sostenible y eficiente que el modelo impuesto formalmente. 10 La tesis se encuadró bajo el enfoque sistémico de la complejidad. Este enfoque entiende a la ciudad como un sistema complejo y dinámico, en desarrollo constante; determinado más por las interrelaciones entre sus componentes y entre esos componentes y el contexto, que por las condiciones de cada elemento individualmente. La calidad y cantidad de estas interacciones es primordial, al punto de definir la condición urbana de una aglomeración. Según estas premisas, un sistema urbano sostenible y eficiente será aquel que, maximizando recursos materiales y humanos (y de acuerdo a la capacidad de carga del sistema) desarrolle de redes de intercambio múltiples, diversas y descentralizadas, que generen procesos de sinergia y desarrollo inclusivos. La investigación se estructuró entonces de forma tal de responder las siguientes preguntas: • En primer lugar, ¿cuáles son las condiciones específicas que catalizan la microdensificación en los barrios pericentrales de Córdoba? • Siendo la microdensificación una respuesta a una situación particular dentro del sistema urbano, ¿Cuál es el grado de sostenibilidad y eficiencia que aporta a los barrios pericentrales (en particular) y a Córdoba (en general)? • Y tras haber identificado su impacto en la estructura urbana, su potencial transformador y organizativo, ¿puede el estudio de los procesos emergentes hacer un aporte conceptual e instrumental a los modelos locales de planeamiento urbano? Primeramente, un análisis documental reconstruyó la condición específica de los barrios pericentrales, y el escenario actual de Córdoba con respecto a la producción y acceso al hábitat urbano. Luego se infirió un escenario tendencial a corto y mediano plazo, que sirvió para definir distintos patrones de territorialización, incluyendo el patrón "formal" de los barrios pericentrales. Se continuó con el análisis específico de la microdensificación, proponiendo un escenario posible a mediano plazo donde el patrón de microdensificación ha sido plenamente desarrollado, transformando cuali y cuantitativamente el tejido espacio-funcional y socioeconómico. A partir de estos resultados, se realizó un análisis comparativo de los distintos patrones de desarrollo urbano de Córdoba en cuanto a su sostenibilidad y eficiencia. Se demostró que el patrón de microdensificación en los barrios pericentrales es mucho más sostenible y eficiente que los patrones formales existentes, y se abrió la discusión que se desarrolla en la última parte de esta tesis: El argumento desarrollado en esta investigación y los resultados que de él se desprenden tienen un carácter analítico y explicativo útil para el análisis de otros escenarios en el contexto urbano argentino y latinoamericano. En primer lugar, sobre preferir la revitalización progresiva frente a la renovación total o la creación de nuevo suelo urbano en la periferia; promover una ciudad compacta, diversa e inclusiva tanto social como funcionalmente; basada en la multiplicación y diversificación de los agentes productores de ciudad; que considera estos procesos, así como los mecanismos de empoderamiento, participación y gobernanza como instrumentos para lograr mayor sostenibilidad y eficiencia en el desarrollo urbano. Por otro lado, esta tesis puso en relevancia el rol de los procesos emergentes en un sistema urbano como mecanismo vital para generar esta revitalización. Finalmente, se discute el aporte del enfoque sistémico para comprender, explicar y proponer intervenciones a la disciplina. ; Córdoba ist die Hauptstadt der gleichnamigen Provinz im Nordosten Argentiniens. Sie ist der Mittelpunkt der zweitgrößten Metropolregion des Landes (bekannt unter der spanischen Abkürzung AMCBA) und ein wichtiges kulturelles und wirtschaftliches Zentrum des Landes. Derzeit scheint die Stadt durch zwei gegensätzlichen Prozesse geprägt, die zeitgleich von statten gehen: Einerseits die Erneuerung des Zentralbereichs und der Umgebung durch Hyperverdichtung, mit dem damit verbundenen Verlust des sozialen und architektonischen Erbes und dem Zusammenbruch der vorhandenen Infrastruktur-Netzwerke. Anderseits die Expansion der gebauten Stadt auf ländliche und industrielle Gebiete der städtischen Peripherie, was aufgrund einer abnehmenden Belegungsdichte immer mehr zu einer Verdünnung der Stadtstruktur führt. Darüber hinaus konzentriert sich der Wohnungsbau auf immer kleinere Gruppen und dies obwohl sich sowohl der Wohnungsbau beschleunigt als auch das Angebot an urbanen Wohnräumen erhöht: Während private Immobilienprojekte fast ausschließlich auf Bevölkerungsgruppen mit hohem Einkommen und Investoren, die nicht in der Stadt wohnen, ausgerichtet sind, sind die staatlichen Investitionen im sozialen Wohnungsbau ausschließlich für die Bevölkerungsgruppen mit den niedrigsten Einkommen bestimmt. Dadurch entsteht ein Defizit an Wohnangeboten für die Mittelschicht Córdobas, die fast 45% der Stadtbevölkerung ausmacht. Diese Schwerpunktsetzung ist auch bei lokalen Stadtforschern und Stadtplanern zu erkennen. Die aktuelle Situation der perizentralen Gebiete und Zwischenbereiche der Stadt sind weniger präsent, obgleich diese mehr als 30 % der urbanisierten Stadtfläche einnehmen und von der Mehrheit der Stadtbevölkerung bewohnt werden. Um diese Wissenslücke zu schließen, stehen die perizentralen Stadtviertel, die das Stadtzentrum umschließen, im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit. Sie sind ab 1940 als Erweiterungen der Vorstadt entstanden und etablierten sich im Laufe der 1960er Jahre als Wohngebiete mit einer geringen Bevölkerungsdichte, die heute von der Mittelschicht bewohnt werden und die höchste Umweltqualität und urbane Qualität der Stadt aufweisen. Die Gesetzgebung begrenzt dabei die Bebauung der Grundstücke auf Einfamilienhäusern, um die gewünschte geringe Bevölkerungsdichte beizubehalten. Man könnte die Untersuchung von bereits konsolidierten und stabilen urbanen Sektoren als sinnlos betrachten. Doch, wenn sie im Detail analysiert werden, zeigen sich komplexe demografische, räumliche und funktionale Transformationen, die von Interesse sind. Obwohl sich über die Jahre hinweg in diesen Stadtvierteln das bis zu diesem Moment angeblich "perfekteste" Wohnmodell materialisiert hat, nämlich ein Modell, welches "alle möglichen städtischen Wohnbedürfnisse erfüllt", leidet das soziale Gefüge und die bebaute Umwelt darunter. Das aktuelle Szenario zeigt, trotz des demografischen Wachstums von Cordoba und der Metropolregion AMCBA, einen konstanten Bevölkerungsrückgang in diesen Stadtvierteln: Junge Leute verlassen die Wohngegenden, während die zurückbleibende Bevölkerung altert und die Anzahl an verlassenen Gebäude stetig steigt. Für die auf dem Immobilienmarkt angebotenen Gebäude ist es schwierig, den Immobilienwert zu halten geschweige denn Käufer zu finden. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Bereichen der Stadt, die sich in einer ähnlichen Position befinden, sind diese Stadtviertel nicht im Fokus großer Immobilienaktivitäten. Dies widerspricht ihrer privilegierten Lage innerhalb der Stadtstruktur. 2 Diese Entwicklungen wurden lange Zeit übersehen. Zum einen da sie das Ergebnis von Prozessen sind, die wenig Auswirkungen auf die Stadt haben und zum anderen weil diese Prozesse in den heutigen lokalen städtischen Wohnmodellen nicht berücksichtigt werden, welche auf rationalistischen und deterministischen Theorien aus dem Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts basieren und diese perizentralen Stadtviertel als städtisches Allheilmittel betrachten. Es ist unmöglich eine Hypothese abzuleiten, die aktuelle oder zukünftige Szenarios der perizentralen Stadtviertel in Córdoba unter diesen Rahmenbedingungen erklärt. Daher stellt diese Arbeit solche Modelle und ihre Fähigkeit, die Entwicklung der Stadt zu erklären oder in ihr effektiv zu arbeiten, in Frage und schlägt einen theoretischen Rahmen vor, der zum Verständnis, zur Erklärung und zur effektiven Umsetzung in der Stadt beitragen soll. Dies erfolgt auf Grundlage der Auseinandersetzung mit einem informellen Phänomen, welches deutlich (aber nicht ausschließlich) in diesen perizentralen Stadtvierteln erkennbar ist: die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung. Aufgrund der bereits genannten Unmöglichkeit, existierende Immobilien gewinnbringend auf den Markt zu bringen, suchen Eigentümer neue Wege, um ihr Wohneigentum aufzuwerten, ihren Kindern den Zugang zu einer Wohnung zu erleichtern oder ihre Ersparnisse sicher zu investieren und sich dadurch eine zusätzliche Einnahmequelle außerhalb des traditionellen Immobilienmarktes zu sichern. Aus diesem Grund erhöhen die Eigentümer die Anzahl der funktionalen Einheiten auf ihrem Grundstück, indem sie freie Fläche bebauen oder veraltete Konstruktionen renovieren. Das Stadtgefüge wird dabei durch diese Eingriffe nicht tiefgreifend verändert. Des Weiteren wird das Wohnraumangebot in diesen Stadtvierteln umfangreicher und verhindert nicht nur die Verdrängung der alten Bewohner, sondern zieht auch neue an. Auch werden dem ursprünglichen Wohngebiet zusätzliche nicht-residentielle Nutzungen hinzugefügt, die das Stadtgefüge bereichern. Letztendlich hat die Mikroverdichtung der perizentralen Nachbarschaften eine spezielle Eigenschaft, und zwar seinen emergenten / aufkommenden Zustand: Der Prozess erfolgt ohne allgemeine Planung (und auch außerhalb des rechtlichen Rahmens). Hauptakteure dieses Wandels sind die Eigentümer selbst, die ohne jegliche vorherige Absprachen agieren. Ob aus Notwendigkeit oder aus Opportunismus heraus, es handelt sich dabei um einen fragmentierten Prozess. Es beinhaltet eine Vielzahl individueller Aktionen, die als ein "Trend" oder "neu aufkommendes Muster" innerhalb der allgemeinen Organisation der perizentralen Stadtviertel zu begreifen sind und das Stadtgefüge auf subtile aber endgültige Art und Weise erneuern. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Hypothese auf, dass die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung in diesen Stadtvierteln von Córdoba ein Revitalisierungsprozess ist, der das Potenzial des Stadtgefüges nachhaltiger und effizienter nutzt als das formell auferlegte Stadtentwicklungsmodell. Aufgrund des offenkundigen Gegensatzes zwischen dieser Hypothese und den aktuellen Rahmenbedingungen der lokalen Stadtentwicklung, ist es notwendig, einen theoretischen Rahmen zu schaffen, der die offensichtlichen Widersprüche auflöst und die Arbeitshypothese einrahmt. Diese These ordnet sich dem systemischen Ansatz der Komplexität zu, der analytischen Erforschung von komplexen Systemen. Dieser theoretische Rahmen ermöglicht, die aufkommenden Prozesse als integraler Bestandteil einer Stadt (ein "urbanes System"), seine Entwicklung im Laufe der Zeit, seine Komplexität und die Faktoren, von denen die urbane Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz abhängen, zu erklären. Der systemische Ansatz begreift die Stadt als ein komplexes und dynamisches System in ständiger Entwicklung; ein System, das eher durch die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen seinen Komponenten und zwischen diesen und dem Kontext bestimmt wird, als durch den einzelnen Zustand jedes Elements. Die Qualität und Quantität dieser Interaktionen steht dabei an erster Stelle und definiert sogar den urbanen Zustand eines Ballungsgebietes. Urbanität ist nicht allein durch ihre Größe oder ihre Dichte gegeben, sondern ist gemäß der Synergie definiert, die durch eine Vielzahl an verschiedenen Interaktionen und Wech3 selwirkungen zwischen unterschiedlichen Akteuren produziert wird. Dieser Prozess heißt Synoikismos. Die Entfaltung der technologischen, sozialen und politischen Entwicklungen und Innovationen, die den städtischen Zustand charakterisieren, ist das inhärente Ergebnis dieser Interaktionen und eine direkte Funktion ihrer Intensität, Vielfalt und Redundanz, sowohl räumlich als auch zeitlich. Laut diesen Voraussetzungen ist ein nachhaltiges und effizientes Städtesystem eines, das durch die Maximierung der menschlichen und materiellen Ressourcen (und der Systembelastbarkeit entsprechend) mehrere unterschiedliche und dezentrale Austauschnetzwerke entwickelt, die inklusive Synergie- und Entwicklungsprozesse erzeugen. Dies bedeutet zum einen eine energieeffiziente Stadt, auch effizient im Konsum jeglicher Ressourcen und zum anderen eine kompakte Stadt, welche mehrere Begegnungen zwischen verschiedenen Akteuren ermöglicht, die Beteiligung an politischen Mechanismen und die intensive Nutzung des öffentlichen Raums, die Fußgängermobilität und eine funktionale und soziale Vielfalt in der Stadt fördert. Dies schließt auch Flexibilität und Anpassungsfähigkeit an Veränderungen durch Widerstands- oder Transformationsprozesse ein. Laut den lokalen Stadtentwicklungsmodellen, sind aufkommende und informelle Prozesse, wie die Mikroverdichtung, ein Zeichen der Krise im städtischen System: Anomalien, die durch die Entwicklung von schädlichen Prozessen im Konflikt mit dem Rest der Stadtstruktur entstanden sind. Konflikte, die sogar zum Zusammenbruch führen können. Laut dem theoretischen Ansatz dieser Arbeit jedoch, können diese Prozesse auch als Versuch des Systems verstanden werden, sich selbst zu regulieren und sich an neue Situationen anzupassen: Als Antwort auf ein ungelöstes Spannungsszenario; eine Art und Weise, in der das System sich selbst organisiert, um auf diese Spannung zu reagieren, indem ein neues Gleichgewicht gesucht wird. Die Arbeit strukturiert sich anhand von diesem theoretischen Rahmen, um die folgenden Fragen beantworten zu können: • Erstens, welche besonderen Rahmenbedingungen führen zu der aufkommenden Mikroverdichtung in den perizentralen Stadtvierteln in Córdoba? • Begreift man die Mikroverdichtung als Antwort auf eine bestimmte Situation innerhalb des städtischen Systems, stellt sich folgende zweite Frage: Welches Ausmaß an Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz ermöglichen die Prozesse der Mikroverdichtung in den perizentralen Stadtvierteln im Speziellen und in Córdoba im Allgemeinen? • Nach der Identifizierung der Auswirkungen dieser Prozesse auf die Stadtstruktur, sowie des damit einhergehenden transformativen und organisatorischen Potenzials steht die dritte Frage im Raum: Kann die Erforschung von aufkommenden Prozessen dieser Art einen konzeptionellen und instrumentellen Beitrag zur lokalen Stadtplanung leisten? Um diesen Fragen nachzugehen wurde im weiteren Verlauf der Forschung eine Dokumentenanalyse durchgeführt, um den spezifischen Zustand der perizentralen Stadtviertel, der das Phänomen der aufkommenden Mikroverdichtung ermöglicht, zu rekonstruieren. Diese Analyse vollzog sich in zwei Schritten: Als Erstes wurden die perizentralen Stadtviertel und der Grund für ihr besonderes Urbanisierungsmuster historisch rekonstruiert und dadurch als (nahezu) monofunktionelle Wohnviertel mit einer geringen Bevölkerungsdichte identifiziert. Als Zweites wurde das aktuelle urbane Szenario Córdobas hinsichtlich der Produktion von und dem Zugang zu städtischem Habitat analysiert, um urbane, regionale und globale Variablen zu entwickeln, die die Entwicklungstrends der Stadt bestimmen. Dieses Vorgehen ermöglichte die Formulierung eines umfassendes Arguments, das alle Prozesse erklärt, die bisher als "gleichzeitig aber widersprüchlich" erfasst wurden. Darüber hinaus erklärt und prognostiziert dieses Argument die "undenkbare" Situation von perizentralen Stadtvierteln. Nach der Rekonstruktion des aktuellen Szenarios wurde ein kurzes und mittelfristiges (10 Jahren) Trendszenario des Phänomens abgeleitet. Dies diente dazu, die unterschiedlichen 4 Entwicklungsmuster in Córdoba zu vergleichen und deren Auswirkungen auf die Stadtstruktur zu bewerten. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wurde die Analyse der Mikroverdichtung hinsichtlich der Veränderungen im sozialen, funktionalen und räumlichen Stadtgefüge fortgeführt. Als Ergebnis wurde ein mögliches Zukunftsszenario vorgeschlagen, bei dem das Muster der Mikroverdichtung formalisiert und somit das räumlich-funktionale und sozioökonomische Gefüge der Stadtviertel transformiert wurde. Anschließend wurden das Potenzial und die Stärken (und Schwächen) gegenüber dem mittelfristigen Trendszenario von Córdoba und den perizentralen Stadtvierteln spezifiziert. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurden verschiedene Stadtentwicklungsmuster von Córdoba mithilfe der Variablen analysiert, die als strukturelle Bedingungen für Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz definiert waren. Mit dem Ergebnis, dass die Nachhaltigkeit und die Effizienz der Mikroverdichtungsszenarien deutlich größer war als in den aktuellen Trendszenarien. Die vorliegende Analyse konnte somit die Hypothese dieser Arbeit belegen. Im letzten Abschnitt der Arbeit wurde der Diskussionsteil eröffnet. Die erste Diskussion befasste sich mit der Entwicklung, die eine progressive Revitalisierung fördert anstatt einer vollständigen Erneuerung des Stadtgefüges oder der Schaffung von neuem städtischem Land in der ruralen Peripherie der Stadt. Zudem fördert sie sowohl auf soziale, räumliche als auch funktionale Art und Weise eine kompakte, vielfältige und integrative Stadt. Diese Entwicklung beruht auf der Multiplikation und Diversifizierung der Akteure, die im Städtebau involviert sind, und betrachtet diese Prozesse, sowie die Ermächtigungs-, Beteiligungs- und Staatsführungsmechanismen als Instrumente zur Erlangung einer größeren Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz in der Stadtentwicklung. Das bedeutet, eine Stadt, die in der Lage ist, kreativere Synergien zu schaffen und so zu sozialen, technologischen und wirtschaftlichen Vorteilen kommt. Des Weiteren betonte diese Arbeit die Rolle der aufkommenden Prozesse in einem städtischen System. Die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung hat wenig Einfluss auf die städtische Struktur von Córdoba. Jedoch ist es ein wichtiger Mechanismus, um die Verarmung und den Verlust von Ressourcen in perizentralen Bereichen und Zwischengebieten zu verhindern, d.h. um den partiellen Zusammenbruch der städtischen Struktur zu vermeiden und gleichzeitig Urbanität in Gebieten zu schaffen, die als bloße Wohnungsviertel charakterisiert sind. In der Stadtplanung ist es wichtig, auf aufkommende Prozesse in der Stadtentwicklung und auf die Erzeugung von Synergien Wert zu legen. Ihre Einbeziehung in die kritische Analyse beinhaltet die Entwicklung von Planungsinstrumenten, die nicht nur die Notwendigkeit der Dezentralisierung der Stadtentwicklung und der Entscheidungsfindung erkennen können, sondern die auch in der Lage sind, die Ungewissheit als Variable zu integrieren. Darüber hinaus müssen sie flexibel genug sein, um Veränderungen und die Notwendigkeit für Korrekturen und Anpassungen im Laufe der Zeit zu erkennen. Das Argument dieser Arbeit hat einen analytischen und erklärenden Charakter, der für die Analyse von anderen urbanen Szenarien in Argentinien und Lateinamerika nützlich ist. Dies ermöglicht die Verallgemeinerung sowohl der Ergebnisse als auch der theoretischen Annäherung an städtische Phänomene, basierend auf dem Stadt-Verständnis als komplexes, für ihre Umgebung offenes System, welches weit entfernt vom Gleichgewicht ist. Der größte Beitrag dieser Arbeit zur Urbanistik ist das Verständnis der Rolle der aufkommenden Phänomene und die Analyse der Widersprüche und Spannungen innerhalb der traditionellen lokalen Stadtmodelle, die auch Ausgrenzungen und Ungerechtigkeit im Zugang zu Stadt hervorhebt. Die Rolle des Staates und des Immobilienmarktes in der Stadtentwicklung von Cordoba wurde denaturiert und eine dialektische Artikulation der Logik des territorialen Lebensraumes in der Stadt, die sowohl Produktions- und Zugangsstrategien als auch die scheinbaren Widersprüche in der Stadtentwicklung der lateinamerikanischen mittelgroßen Städten erklärt, wurde vorgeschlagen. ; Córdoba is the capital of the province of Córdoba, in Argentina. It is also the principal city of the second-most populous metropolitan area of the country, the Greater Córdoba Metropolitan Area (AMCBA according to its acronym in Spanish), with strengths in business, automotive industry, culture, education, and research. Currently, the city seems to develop in two simultaneous and opposing processes: On the one hand, renovation by densification of the central area and its extensions, with losses of social and built heritage, and the collapse of infrastructure networks that this entails. On the other hand, extension of the urbanized area over rural and industrial periphery, with dwindling occupancy densities that dilute the urban structure more and more in the territory. Besides that, although housing production accelerates -increasing its supply-, it is concentrated in ever smaller groups: while real estate projects are targeted almost exclusively at high-income sectors and investors who do not live in the city, State investment in social housing is allocated exclusively to lower income sectors. This situation produces a deficit in proposals aimed at the so-called "middle class", even though it makes up of almost 45% of the city´s population. In addition, these processes concentrate the interest of the greater part of both local academics and urban planners. This situation produces a knowledge gap in the current situation of Córdoba´s pericentral and intermediate areas, which occupy more than 30% of the city´s urbanized land (and where the majority of this city´s inhabitants reside). It is there where this thesis´ case study is located: the pericentral districts that surround the central area. They originated as suburban extensions around 1940, and consolidated as middle-class/low-density residential neighborhoods before 1970. Today, they occupy some of the best environmental and urban quality areas of the city. Even land-use regulation specifically limits occupancy to single-family dwellings on individual plots to maintain the desired low-density residential neighborhood pattern. We can discuss the futility of studying urban sectors considered already consolidated and stable; however, when analyzed in detail, pericentral areas show complex demographic, spatial, and functional transformations that contradict this characterization: Despite the fact that these neighborhoods materializes the supposedly "most perfect" residential model known until now, a model "that solves each and every one of the urban-life needs", its social and built fabric resents. The current scenario shows a constant population-shrinking process, in spite of the demographic growth of both Córdoba and the AMCBA. Young people leaves these neighborhoods, while the remaining population ages. Abandoned buildings constantly increase; the ones offered in the real estate market have difficulties to find buyers, or even to maintain their price, which contradicts its privileged status within the city. At the same time -and unlike areas in a similar position- these neighborhoods are not the object of major real estate investments. Local academics and urban planners overlook this situation, in part because it is the result of processes with relative less impact in the city, and in part because these processes are not covered by current local urban models -based on the rationalist and deterministic urban theory of early 20th century-, which conceptualize suburban neigh6 borhoods as an urban panacea. It is impossible to deduce a hypothesis that explains the current nor the trend scenario of pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba in terms of that framework. Therefore, this thesis discussed those theoretical models, and its capacity to explain Córdoba´s development. It proposed a theoretical framework that allowed understanding, explaining, and operating effectively in the city. It did so based on the discussion of an informal phenomenon unfailingly (but not exclusively) detected in pericentral neighborhoods: the emergent micro-densification. Given the impossibility of advantageously placing their properties in the housing market -due to factors such as land-use restrictions, and specific conditions of the local real estate market-, the landowners seek new ways to valorize their properties, facilitate access to housing for their children, or profitably invest their savings, obtaining an additional income outside the "traditional" real estate market. They increase the number of functional units in their plots, occupying the vacant building area or refurbishing obsolete constructions, while maintaining the intervention scale in relation to the existing urban fabric. These neighborhoods´ housing supply diversifies; and it not only prevents the expulsion of population, but it also attracts new inhabitants. In addition, in an originally residential fabric, it incorporates non-residential activities that enrich the urban fabric. Finally, micro-densification in pericentral neighborhoods presents a differential quality: its "emergent" condition. The process carries out without general planning (and of course outside the legal framework); inhabitants/landowners decide to do so, without any prior agreement. It is an atomized and fragmented process, result of necessity or opportunism. It is the sum of individual actions reconstructed as a "trend", or an "emerging pattern" within the general organization of pericentral neighborhoods, revitalizing the urban fabric in a subtle but definitive way. This research hypothesized that emergent micro-densification in these neighborhoods is a process of revitalization that harnesses the potential of their urban fabric; it does so in a more sustainable and efficient way than the current urban development patterns. Faced with the manifest opposition between this hypothesis and the current local urFaced with the manifest opposition between this hypothesis and the current local urban development framework, it was necessary to construct a theoretical framework able to solve the apparent contradictions detected -that the latter cannot explain-, and frame the working hypothesis. Therefore, this thesis is framed under the systemic complexity approach, that is, the analytical study of complex systems. This theoretical framework has the capacity to explain emergent processes as integral part of a city, its development over time, its complexity, and the factors on which urban sustainability and efficiency depend. The systemic approach understands the city as a complex and dynamic system, in constant development; a system determined more by interrelationships between its components, and between those components and the context, than by the individual conditions of each component. The quality and quantity of these interactions is paramount, to the point of defining the urban condition of a human agglomeration in the territory: urbanity is not given merely by the size or density of a human agglomeration; it is defined in terms of the synergy produced by a large number of different interactions between different agents; a process called synekism. The generation of innovation, and technological/social/political development that characterize the urban condition is an inherent result of these interactions, and a direct function of the intensity, diversity, and redundancy of them in the territory, over time. 7 A sustainable and efficient urban system will be one that, by maximizing material and human resources (and according to the system´s load capacity), develops decentralized, multi-exchange networks; one capable of generating synergy and inclusive development. This implies an energy efficient city, but also efficient in the consumption of any type of resources; a compact city, which prioritizes participatory political mechanisms and intensive use of public spaces, but also pedestrian mobility, and functional and social diversity. It also implies flexibility and adaptability in the face of changes, through processes of resilience or transformation. According to local urban development models, emergent and informal processes such as micro-densification are a sign of crisis within the urban system: anomalies due to the development of harmful processes, in conflict with the rest of the urban structure; conflicts that may even lead to the city´s collapse. But according to the theoretical approach proposed in this thesis, these processes can also be identified as an attempt by the system to self-regulate and adapt to new situations: as a response to a scenario of tension; a way in which the system self-organizes, and responds to that tension seeking a new equilibrium. The research is then structured in order to answer the following questions: • First, what are the specific conditions that catalyze micro-densification in the pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba? • Second, since micro-densification is a response to a particular situation within the urban system, what is the degree of sustainability and efficiency that transformations through micro-densification provides to pericentral neighborhoods (in particular) and to Córdoba (in general)? • Finally, having identified the impact of such processes on the urban structure, and its transformative and organizational potential, can the study of emergent processes make a conceptual or instrumental contribution to local urban planning? The research continued with a document analysis that reconstructs the specific condition of pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba -which catalyzes the phenomenon of emergent micro-densification-. This stage developed in two parts: In the first place, we historically reconstruct pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba, and the reasons for their urbanization pattern, which consolidates them as residential, (virtually) mono-functional, low-density, middle-class neighborhoods. Secondly, we analyzed Córdoba´s current scenario -with respect to the production and access to urban habitat- establishing urban, regional, and global variables that determine the city´s current development trends. This analysis allowed us to develop a comprehensive argument that explains all the processes that until now were conceptualized as "simultaneous but contradictory". It also explains and predicts the "unthinkable" situation of pericentral neighborhoods. After reconstructing the current scenario and defining different development patterns in Córdoba (including the "formal" pericentral neighborhoods´ pattern), we inferred a trend scenario in the short and medium term (10 years). We continued analyzing the micro-densification phenomenon, in terms of its social, functional, and spatial urban fabric transformations. As a result, a possible future scenario was proposed in which the micro-densification pattern has been formalized, transforming qualitatively and quantitatively the spatial-functional and socio-economic fabric. We specified their potential and strengths (as well as their weaknesses), against the future trend scenario of Córdoba and the pericentral neighborhoods. 8 Based on these results, we analyzed the different urban development patterns in Córdoba according to the variables defined as structural conditions of sustainability and efficiency: The sustainability and efficiency of the micro-densification scenario are much greater than those of the current trends scenario. Therefore, we verified the working hypothesis, and opened the discussion of this thesis. A first line of discussion dealt with development that fosters progressive revitalization, instead of complete renewal of urban fabric, or creation of new urban land on city´s rural periphery. Development that promotes a compact, diverse, and inclusive city, both socially, spatially and functionally; based on the multiplication and diversification of city-building agents. Development that considers these processes, as well as the mechanisms of empowerment, participation, and governance as instruments to achieve greater sustainability and efficiency in urban development. A city capable of generating more creative synergy, which translates into social, technological, and economic benefits. We denatured both the role of the State and the real estate market in the urban development of Córdoba; we proposed a dialectical articulation of different logics of urban development, explaining both the production and access strategies to habitat, and the apparent contradictions in urban development of Latin American middle cities. This thesis´ argument has an analytical and explanatory character, useful for analyzing other urban systems in Argentina and Latin America. It allows the generalization of both the results and the theoretical approach to urban phenomena, understanding the city as a complex system open to its surroundings and far from equilibrium. On the other hand, this thesis emphasized the role of emergent processes in an urban system. So far, emergent micro-densification has little impact on Córdoba´s urban structure. However, it is a vital mechanism to prevent pauperization and loss of resources in pericentral and intermediate urban areas -that is to say, to avoid the partial collapse of the urban structure-, while generating urbanity in areas characterized as mere residential fragments. It is essential to give importance in urban development and in generation of synergy to emergent processes. Incorporating them into critical analysis and diagnosis involves developing planning tools capable not only of recognizing the need to decentralize urban development and sharing decision-making, but also capable of incorporating uncertainty as a variable. In addition, they must be flexible enough to detect changes and the need for adjustment and adaptation over time. This thesis makes its greatest contribution to urban studies by helping to understand the role of emergent phenomena, highlighting contradictions and tensions within the traditional local urban models, and exclusions and inequities driven by those models.
Córdoba es la segunda ciudad más poblada de la Argentina, y posee el ejido municipal más extenso del país, siendo un importante centro industrial y de servicios del centro del país. Es además la cabecera de la segunda región metropolitana argentina, el Área Metropolitana de Córdoba (AMCBA). Si bien el desarrollo de sus áreas centrales y periurbanas es un tema bastante desarrollado académicamente, actualmente hay un vacío de conocimiento en la situación actual de las áreas pericentrales e intermedias de esta ciudad -aun cuando ocupan más del 30% del área urbanizada y donde habita la mayor parte de su población-. Es en estas áreas donde se ubica el objeto de estudio de esta tesis: los barrios pericentrales que forman un anillo alrededor del área central. Originados como extensiones suburbanas alrededor de 1940, y consolidados como barrios residenciales de clase media y media alta de baja densidad antes de 1970, ocupan lo que son hoy algunas de las áreas con mejor calidad ambiental y urbana de la ciudad. Los barrios pericentrales son considerados generalmente consolidados y estables; sin embargo, analizados en detalle, muestran complejas transformaciones: un vaciamiento poblacional constante, a pesar del crecimiento demográfico en general de Córdoba y el AMCBA; aumento de inmuebles abandonados; y a diferencia de sectores en una similar posición, no son objeto de grandes inversiones inmobiliarias de renovación urbana. Esta situación es invisibilizada, en parte por ser resultado de procesos con poco impacto relativo en la ciudad, y en parte porque estos procesos no están contemplados por los modelos urbanos locales vigentes –basados en la teoría racionalista y determinista de principios del siglo XX-, que conceptualizan a los barrios pericentrales como una "panacea urbana". Esta tesis puso en disputa estos modelos, partiendo de la discusión sobre un fenómeno informal detectado indefectiblemente (aunque no exclusivamente) en estos barrios pericentrales: la microdensificación emergente. La imposibilidad de colocar los inmuebles existentes en el mercado hace que los propietarios busquen nuevas formas de valorizar sus propiedades, de facilitar el acceso a la vivienda a sus hijos o de invertir sus ahorros de forma segura, obteniendo una fuente adicional de ingresos: en cada parcela edificada se aumenta la cantidad de unidades funcionales, aprovechando la superficie construible vacante o refuncionalizando las construcciones obsoletas, aunque manteniendo el grano y la escala de intervención respecto al tejido existente. La oferta de hábitat en estos barrios se diversifica, y no sólo evita la expulsión de población, sino que también atrae a nuevos habitantes. Además, en un tejido originalmente sólo residencial, incorpora actividades de comercio y servicios que enriquecen el tejido funcional. El proceso se realiza sin planificación general (y por supuesto fuera del marco legal): es la suma de acciones individuales que se reconstruyen como una "tendencia" o "patrón emergente", revitalizando el tejido urbano de forma sutil pero definitiva. Se planteó como hipótesis que la microdensificación emergente es un proceso de revitalización que aprovecha el potencial del tejido de estos barrios de forma más sostenible y eficiente que el modelo impuesto formalmente. 10 La tesis se encuadró bajo el enfoque sistémico de la complejidad. Este enfoque entiende a la ciudad como un sistema complejo y dinámico, en desarrollo constante; determinado más por las interrelaciones entre sus componentes y entre esos componentes y el contexto, que por las condiciones de cada elemento individualmente. La calidad y cantidad de estas interacciones es primordial, al punto de definir la condición urbana de una aglomeración. Según estas premisas, un sistema urbano sostenible y eficiente será aquel que, maximizando recursos materiales y humanos (y de acuerdo a la capacidad de carga del sistema) desarrolle de redes de intercambio múltiples, diversas y descentralizadas, que generen procesos de sinergia y desarrollo inclusivos. La investigación se estructuró entonces de forma tal de responder las siguientes preguntas: • En primer lugar, ¿cuáles son las condiciones específicas que catalizan la microdensificación en los barrios pericentrales de Córdoba? • Siendo la microdensificación una respuesta a una situación particular dentro del sistema urbano, ¿Cuál es el grado de sostenibilidad y eficiencia que aporta a los barrios pericentrales (en particular) y a Córdoba (en general)? • Y tras haber identificado su impacto en la estructura urbana, su potencial transformador y organizativo, ¿puede el estudio de los procesos emergentes hacer un aporte conceptual e instrumental a los modelos locales de planeamiento urbano? Primeramente, un análisis documental reconstruyó la condición específica de los barrios pericentrales, y el escenario actual de Córdoba con respecto a la producción y acceso al hábitat urbano. Luego se infirió un escenario tendencial a corto y mediano plazo, que sirvió para definir distintos patrones de territorialización, incluyendo el patrón "formal" de los barrios pericentrales. Se continuó con el análisis específico de la microdensificación, proponiendo un escenario posible a mediano plazo donde el patrón de microdensificación ha sido plenamente desarrollado, transformando cuali y cuantitativamente el tejido espacio-funcional y socioeconómico. A partir de estos resultados, se realizó un análisis comparativo de los distintos patrones de desarrollo urbano de Córdoba en cuanto a su sostenibilidad y eficiencia. Se demostró que el patrón de microdensificación en los barrios pericentrales es mucho más sostenible y eficiente que los patrones formales existentes, y se abrió la discusión que se desarrolla en la última parte de esta tesis: El argumento desarrollado en esta investigación y los resultados que de él se desprenden tienen un carácter analítico y explicativo útil para el análisis de otros escenarios en el contexto urbano argentino y latinoamericano. En primer lugar, sobre preferir la revitalización progresiva frente a la renovación total o la creación de nuevo suelo urbano en la periferia; promover una ciudad compacta, diversa e inclusiva tanto social como funcionalmente; basada en la multiplicación y diversificación de los agentes productores de ciudad; que considera estos procesos, así como los mecanismos de empoderamiento, participación y gobernanza como instrumentos para lograr mayor sostenibilidad y eficiencia en el desarrollo urbano. Por otro lado, esta tesis puso en relevancia el rol de los procesos emergentes en un sistema urbano como mecanismo vital para generar esta revitalización. Finalmente, se discute el aporte del enfoque sistémico para comprender, explicar y proponer intervenciones a la disciplina. ; Córdoba ist die Hauptstadt der gleichnamigen Provinz im Nordosten Argentiniens. Sie ist der Mittelpunkt der zweitgrößten Metropolregion des Landes (bekannt unter der spanischen Abkürzung AMCBA) und ein wichtiges kulturelles und wirtschaftliches Zentrum des Landes. Derzeit scheint die Stadt durch zwei gegensätzlichen Prozesse geprägt, die zeitgleich von statten gehen: Einerseits die Erneuerung des Zentralbereichs und der Umgebung durch Hyperverdichtung, mit dem damit verbundenen Verlust des sozialen und architektonischen Erbes und dem Zusammenbruch der vorhandenen Infrastruktur-Netzwerke. Anderseits die Expansion der gebauten Stadt auf ländliche und industrielle Gebiete der städtischen Peripherie, was aufgrund einer abnehmenden Belegungsdichte immer mehr zu einer Verdünnung der Stadtstruktur führt. Darüber hinaus konzentriert sich der Wohnungsbau auf immer kleinere Gruppen und dies obwohl sich sowohl der Wohnungsbau beschleunigt als auch das Angebot an urbanen Wohnräumen erhöht: Während private Immobilienprojekte fast ausschließlich auf Bevölkerungsgruppen mit hohem Einkommen und Investoren, die nicht in der Stadt wohnen, ausgerichtet sind, sind die staatlichen Investitionen im sozialen Wohnungsbau ausschließlich für die Bevölkerungsgruppen mit den niedrigsten Einkommen bestimmt. Dadurch entsteht ein Defizit an Wohnangeboten für die Mittelschicht Córdobas, die fast 45% der Stadtbevölkerung ausmacht. Diese Schwerpunktsetzung ist auch bei lokalen Stadtforschern und Stadtplanern zu erkennen. Die aktuelle Situation der perizentralen Gebiete und Zwischenbereiche der Stadt sind weniger präsent, obgleich diese mehr als 30 % der urbanisierten Stadtfläche einnehmen und von der Mehrheit der Stadtbevölkerung bewohnt werden. Um diese Wissenslücke zu schließen, stehen die perizentralen Stadtviertel, die das Stadtzentrum umschließen, im Mittelpunkt dieser Arbeit. Sie sind ab 1940 als Erweiterungen der Vorstadt entstanden und etablierten sich im Laufe der 1960er Jahre als Wohngebiete mit einer geringen Bevölkerungsdichte, die heute von der Mittelschicht bewohnt werden und die höchste Umweltqualität und urbane Qualität der Stadt aufweisen. Die Gesetzgebung begrenzt dabei die Bebauung der Grundstücke auf Einfamilienhäusern, um die gewünschte geringe Bevölkerungsdichte beizubehalten. Man könnte die Untersuchung von bereits konsolidierten und stabilen urbanen Sektoren als sinnlos betrachten. Doch, wenn sie im Detail analysiert werden, zeigen sich komplexe demografische, räumliche und funktionale Transformationen, die von Interesse sind. Obwohl sich über die Jahre hinweg in diesen Stadtvierteln das bis zu diesem Moment angeblich "perfekteste" Wohnmodell materialisiert hat, nämlich ein Modell, welches "alle möglichen städtischen Wohnbedürfnisse erfüllt", leidet das soziale Gefüge und die bebaute Umwelt darunter. Das aktuelle Szenario zeigt, trotz des demografischen Wachstums von Cordoba und der Metropolregion AMCBA, einen konstanten Bevölkerungsrückgang in diesen Stadtvierteln: Junge Leute verlassen die Wohngegenden, während die zurückbleibende Bevölkerung altert und die Anzahl an verlassenen Gebäude stetig steigt. Für die auf dem Immobilienmarkt angebotenen Gebäude ist es schwierig, den Immobilienwert zu halten geschweige denn Käufer zu finden. Im Gegensatz zu anderen Bereichen der Stadt, die sich in einer ähnlichen Position befinden, sind diese Stadtviertel nicht im Fokus großer Immobilienaktivitäten. Dies widerspricht ihrer privilegierten Lage innerhalb der Stadtstruktur. 2 Diese Entwicklungen wurden lange Zeit übersehen. Zum einen da sie das Ergebnis von Prozessen sind, die wenig Auswirkungen auf die Stadt haben und zum anderen weil diese Prozesse in den heutigen lokalen städtischen Wohnmodellen nicht berücksichtigt werden, welche auf rationalistischen und deterministischen Theorien aus dem Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts basieren und diese perizentralen Stadtviertel als städtisches Allheilmittel betrachten. Es ist unmöglich eine Hypothese abzuleiten, die aktuelle oder zukünftige Szenarios der perizentralen Stadtviertel in Córdoba unter diesen Rahmenbedingungen erklärt. Daher stellt diese Arbeit solche Modelle und ihre Fähigkeit, die Entwicklung der Stadt zu erklären oder in ihr effektiv zu arbeiten, in Frage und schlägt einen theoretischen Rahmen vor, der zum Verständnis, zur Erklärung und zur effektiven Umsetzung in der Stadt beitragen soll. Dies erfolgt auf Grundlage der Auseinandersetzung mit einem informellen Phänomen, welches deutlich (aber nicht ausschließlich) in diesen perizentralen Stadtvierteln erkennbar ist: die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung. Aufgrund der bereits genannten Unmöglichkeit, existierende Immobilien gewinnbringend auf den Markt zu bringen, suchen Eigentümer neue Wege, um ihr Wohneigentum aufzuwerten, ihren Kindern den Zugang zu einer Wohnung zu erleichtern oder ihre Ersparnisse sicher zu investieren und sich dadurch eine zusätzliche Einnahmequelle außerhalb des traditionellen Immobilienmarktes zu sichern. Aus diesem Grund erhöhen die Eigentümer die Anzahl der funktionalen Einheiten auf ihrem Grundstück, indem sie freie Fläche bebauen oder veraltete Konstruktionen renovieren. Das Stadtgefüge wird dabei durch diese Eingriffe nicht tiefgreifend verändert. Des Weiteren wird das Wohnraumangebot in diesen Stadtvierteln umfangreicher und verhindert nicht nur die Verdrängung der alten Bewohner, sondern zieht auch neue an. Auch werden dem ursprünglichen Wohngebiet zusätzliche nicht-residentielle Nutzungen hinzugefügt, die das Stadtgefüge bereichern. Letztendlich hat die Mikroverdichtung der perizentralen Nachbarschaften eine spezielle Eigenschaft, und zwar seinen emergenten / aufkommenden Zustand: Der Prozess erfolgt ohne allgemeine Planung (und auch außerhalb des rechtlichen Rahmens). Hauptakteure dieses Wandels sind die Eigentümer selbst, die ohne jegliche vorherige Absprachen agieren. Ob aus Notwendigkeit oder aus Opportunismus heraus, es handelt sich dabei um einen fragmentierten Prozess. Es beinhaltet eine Vielzahl individueller Aktionen, die als ein "Trend" oder "neu aufkommendes Muster" innerhalb der allgemeinen Organisation der perizentralen Stadtviertel zu begreifen sind und das Stadtgefüge auf subtile aber endgültige Art und Weise erneuern. Die vorliegende Arbeit stellt die Hypothese auf, dass die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung in diesen Stadtvierteln von Córdoba ein Revitalisierungsprozess ist, der das Potenzial des Stadtgefüges nachhaltiger und effizienter nutzt als das formell auferlegte Stadtentwicklungsmodell. Aufgrund des offenkundigen Gegensatzes zwischen dieser Hypothese und den aktuellen Rahmenbedingungen der lokalen Stadtentwicklung, ist es notwendig, einen theoretischen Rahmen zu schaffen, der die offensichtlichen Widersprüche auflöst und die Arbeitshypothese einrahmt. Diese These ordnet sich dem systemischen Ansatz der Komplexität zu, der analytischen Erforschung von komplexen Systemen. Dieser theoretische Rahmen ermöglicht, die aufkommenden Prozesse als integraler Bestandteil einer Stadt (ein "urbanes System"), seine Entwicklung im Laufe der Zeit, seine Komplexität und die Faktoren, von denen die urbane Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz abhängen, zu erklären. Der systemische Ansatz begreift die Stadt als ein komplexes und dynamisches System in ständiger Entwicklung; ein System, das eher durch die Wechselbeziehungen zwischen seinen Komponenten und zwischen diesen und dem Kontext bestimmt wird, als durch den einzelnen Zustand jedes Elements. Die Qualität und Quantität dieser Interaktionen steht dabei an erster Stelle und definiert sogar den urbanen Zustand eines Ballungsgebietes. Urbanität ist nicht allein durch ihre Größe oder ihre Dichte gegeben, sondern ist gemäß der Synergie definiert, die durch eine Vielzahl an verschiedenen Interaktionen und Wech3 selwirkungen zwischen unterschiedlichen Akteuren produziert wird. Dieser Prozess heißt Synoikismos. Die Entfaltung der technologischen, sozialen und politischen Entwicklungen und Innovationen, die den städtischen Zustand charakterisieren, ist das inhärente Ergebnis dieser Interaktionen und eine direkte Funktion ihrer Intensität, Vielfalt und Redundanz, sowohl räumlich als auch zeitlich. Laut diesen Voraussetzungen ist ein nachhaltiges und effizientes Städtesystem eines, das durch die Maximierung der menschlichen und materiellen Ressourcen (und der Systembelastbarkeit entsprechend) mehrere unterschiedliche und dezentrale Austauschnetzwerke entwickelt, die inklusive Synergie- und Entwicklungsprozesse erzeugen. Dies bedeutet zum einen eine energieeffiziente Stadt, auch effizient im Konsum jeglicher Ressourcen und zum anderen eine kompakte Stadt, welche mehrere Begegnungen zwischen verschiedenen Akteuren ermöglicht, die Beteiligung an politischen Mechanismen und die intensive Nutzung des öffentlichen Raums, die Fußgängermobilität und eine funktionale und soziale Vielfalt in der Stadt fördert. Dies schließt auch Flexibilität und Anpassungsfähigkeit an Veränderungen durch Widerstands- oder Transformationsprozesse ein. Laut den lokalen Stadtentwicklungsmodellen, sind aufkommende und informelle Prozesse, wie die Mikroverdichtung, ein Zeichen der Krise im städtischen System: Anomalien, die durch die Entwicklung von schädlichen Prozessen im Konflikt mit dem Rest der Stadtstruktur entstanden sind. Konflikte, die sogar zum Zusammenbruch führen können. Laut dem theoretischen Ansatz dieser Arbeit jedoch, können diese Prozesse auch als Versuch des Systems verstanden werden, sich selbst zu regulieren und sich an neue Situationen anzupassen: Als Antwort auf ein ungelöstes Spannungsszenario; eine Art und Weise, in der das System sich selbst organisiert, um auf diese Spannung zu reagieren, indem ein neues Gleichgewicht gesucht wird. Die Arbeit strukturiert sich anhand von diesem theoretischen Rahmen, um die folgenden Fragen beantworten zu können: • Erstens, welche besonderen Rahmenbedingungen führen zu der aufkommenden Mikroverdichtung in den perizentralen Stadtvierteln in Córdoba? • Begreift man die Mikroverdichtung als Antwort auf eine bestimmte Situation innerhalb des städtischen Systems, stellt sich folgende zweite Frage: Welches Ausmaß an Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz ermöglichen die Prozesse der Mikroverdichtung in den perizentralen Stadtvierteln im Speziellen und in Córdoba im Allgemeinen? • Nach der Identifizierung der Auswirkungen dieser Prozesse auf die Stadtstruktur, sowie des damit einhergehenden transformativen und organisatorischen Potenzials steht die dritte Frage im Raum: Kann die Erforschung von aufkommenden Prozessen dieser Art einen konzeptionellen und instrumentellen Beitrag zur lokalen Stadtplanung leisten? Um diesen Fragen nachzugehen wurde im weiteren Verlauf der Forschung eine Dokumentenanalyse durchgeführt, um den spezifischen Zustand der perizentralen Stadtviertel, der das Phänomen der aufkommenden Mikroverdichtung ermöglicht, zu rekonstruieren. Diese Analyse vollzog sich in zwei Schritten: Als Erstes wurden die perizentralen Stadtviertel und der Grund für ihr besonderes Urbanisierungsmuster historisch rekonstruiert und dadurch als (nahezu) monofunktionelle Wohnviertel mit einer geringen Bevölkerungsdichte identifiziert. Als Zweites wurde das aktuelle urbane Szenario Córdobas hinsichtlich der Produktion von und dem Zugang zu städtischem Habitat analysiert, um urbane, regionale und globale Variablen zu entwickeln, die die Entwicklungstrends der Stadt bestimmen. Dieses Vorgehen ermöglichte die Formulierung eines umfassendes Arguments, das alle Prozesse erklärt, die bisher als "gleichzeitig aber widersprüchlich" erfasst wurden. Darüber hinaus erklärt und prognostiziert dieses Argument die "undenkbare" Situation von perizentralen Stadtvierteln. Nach der Rekonstruktion des aktuellen Szenarios wurde ein kurzes und mittelfristiges (10 Jahren) Trendszenario des Phänomens abgeleitet. Dies diente dazu, die unterschiedlichen 4 Entwicklungsmuster in Córdoba zu vergleichen und deren Auswirkungen auf die Stadtstruktur zu bewerten. Im weiteren Verlauf der Arbeit wurde die Analyse der Mikroverdichtung hinsichtlich der Veränderungen im sozialen, funktionalen und räumlichen Stadtgefüge fortgeführt. Als Ergebnis wurde ein mögliches Zukunftsszenario vorgeschlagen, bei dem das Muster der Mikroverdichtung formalisiert und somit das räumlich-funktionale und sozioökonomische Gefüge der Stadtviertel transformiert wurde. Anschließend wurden das Potenzial und die Stärken (und Schwächen) gegenüber dem mittelfristigen Trendszenario von Córdoba und den perizentralen Stadtvierteln spezifiziert. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen wurden verschiedene Stadtentwicklungsmuster von Córdoba mithilfe der Variablen analysiert, die als strukturelle Bedingungen für Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz definiert waren. Mit dem Ergebnis, dass die Nachhaltigkeit und die Effizienz der Mikroverdichtungsszenarien deutlich größer war als in den aktuellen Trendszenarien. Die vorliegende Analyse konnte somit die Hypothese dieser Arbeit belegen. Im letzten Abschnitt der Arbeit wurde der Diskussionsteil eröffnet. Die erste Diskussion befasste sich mit der Entwicklung, die eine progressive Revitalisierung fördert anstatt einer vollständigen Erneuerung des Stadtgefüges oder der Schaffung von neuem städtischem Land in der ruralen Peripherie der Stadt. Zudem fördert sie sowohl auf soziale, räumliche als auch funktionale Art und Weise eine kompakte, vielfältige und integrative Stadt. Diese Entwicklung beruht auf der Multiplikation und Diversifizierung der Akteure, die im Städtebau involviert sind, und betrachtet diese Prozesse, sowie die Ermächtigungs-, Beteiligungs- und Staatsführungsmechanismen als Instrumente zur Erlangung einer größeren Nachhaltigkeit und Effizienz in der Stadtentwicklung. Das bedeutet, eine Stadt, die in der Lage ist, kreativere Synergien zu schaffen und so zu sozialen, technologischen und wirtschaftlichen Vorteilen kommt. Des Weiteren betonte diese Arbeit die Rolle der aufkommenden Prozesse in einem städtischen System. Die aufkommende Mikroverdichtung hat wenig Einfluss auf die städtische Struktur von Córdoba. Jedoch ist es ein wichtiger Mechanismus, um die Verarmung und den Verlust von Ressourcen in perizentralen Bereichen und Zwischengebieten zu verhindern, d.h. um den partiellen Zusammenbruch der städtischen Struktur zu vermeiden und gleichzeitig Urbanität in Gebieten zu schaffen, die als bloße Wohnungsviertel charakterisiert sind. In der Stadtplanung ist es wichtig, auf aufkommende Prozesse in der Stadtentwicklung und auf die Erzeugung von Synergien Wert zu legen. Ihre Einbeziehung in die kritische Analyse beinhaltet die Entwicklung von Planungsinstrumenten, die nicht nur die Notwendigkeit der Dezentralisierung der Stadtentwicklung und der Entscheidungsfindung erkennen können, sondern die auch in der Lage sind, die Ungewissheit als Variable zu integrieren. Darüber hinaus müssen sie flexibel genug sein, um Veränderungen und die Notwendigkeit für Korrekturen und Anpassungen im Laufe der Zeit zu erkennen. Das Argument dieser Arbeit hat einen analytischen und erklärenden Charakter, der für die Analyse von anderen urbanen Szenarien in Argentinien und Lateinamerika nützlich ist. Dies ermöglicht die Verallgemeinerung sowohl der Ergebnisse als auch der theoretischen Annäherung an städtische Phänomene, basierend auf dem Stadt-Verständnis als komplexes, für ihre Umgebung offenes System, welches weit entfernt vom Gleichgewicht ist. Der größte Beitrag dieser Arbeit zur Urbanistik ist das Verständnis der Rolle der aufkommenden Phänomene und die Analyse der Widersprüche und Spannungen innerhalb der traditionellen lokalen Stadtmodelle, die auch Ausgrenzungen und Ungerechtigkeit im Zugang zu Stadt hervorhebt. Die Rolle des Staates und des Immobilienmarktes in der Stadtentwicklung von Cordoba wurde denaturiert und eine dialektische Artikulation der Logik des territorialen Lebensraumes in der Stadt, die sowohl Produktions- und Zugangsstrategien als auch die scheinbaren Widersprüche in der Stadtentwicklung der lateinamerikanischen mittelgroßen Städten erklärt, wurde vorgeschlagen. ; Córdoba is the capital of the province of Córdoba, in Argentina. It is also the principal city of the second-most populous metropolitan area of the country, the Greater Córdoba Metropolitan Area (AMCBA according to its acronym in Spanish), with strengths in business, automotive industry, culture, education, and research. Currently, the city seems to develop in two simultaneous and opposing processes: On the one hand, renovation by densification of the central area and its extensions, with losses of social and built heritage, and the collapse of infrastructure networks that this entails. On the other hand, extension of the urbanized area over rural and industrial periphery, with dwindling occupancy densities that dilute the urban structure more and more in the territory. Besides that, although housing production accelerates -increasing its supply-, it is concentrated in ever smaller groups: while real estate projects are targeted almost exclusively at high-income sectors and investors who do not live in the city, State investment in social housing is allocated exclusively to lower income sectors. This situation produces a deficit in proposals aimed at the so-called "middle class", even though it makes up of almost 45% of the city´s population. In addition, these processes concentrate the interest of the greater part of both local academics and urban planners. This situation produces a knowledge gap in the current situation of Córdoba´s pericentral and intermediate areas, which occupy more than 30% of the city´s urbanized land (and where the majority of this city´s inhabitants reside). It is there where this thesis´ case study is located: the pericentral districts that surround the central area. They originated as suburban extensions around 1940, and consolidated as middle-class/low-density residential neighborhoods before 1970. Today, they occupy some of the best environmental and urban quality areas of the city. Even land-use regulation specifically limits occupancy to single-family dwellings on individual plots to maintain the desired low-density residential neighborhood pattern. We can discuss the futility of studying urban sectors considered already consolidated and stable; however, when analyzed in detail, pericentral areas show complex demographic, spatial, and functional transformations that contradict this characterization: Despite the fact that these neighborhoods materializes the supposedly "most perfect" residential model known until now, a model "that solves each and every one of the urban-life needs", its social and built fabric resents. The current scenario shows a constant population-shrinking process, in spite of the demographic growth of both Córdoba and the AMCBA. Young people leaves these neighborhoods, while the remaining population ages. Abandoned buildings constantly increase; the ones offered in the real estate market have difficulties to find buyers, or even to maintain their price, which contradicts its privileged status within the city. At the same time -and unlike areas in a similar position- these neighborhoods are not the object of major real estate investments. Local academics and urban planners overlook this situation, in part because it is the result of processes with relative less impact in the city, and in part because these processes are not covered by current local urban models -based on the rationalist and deterministic urban theory of early 20th century-, which conceptualize suburban neigh6 borhoods as an urban panacea. It is impossible to deduce a hypothesis that explains the current nor the trend scenario of pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba in terms of that framework. Therefore, this thesis discussed those theoretical models, and its capacity to explain Córdoba´s development. It proposed a theoretical framework that allowed understanding, explaining, and operating effectively in the city. It did so based on the discussion of an informal phenomenon unfailingly (but not exclusively) detected in pericentral neighborhoods: the emergent micro-densification. Given the impossibility of advantageously placing their properties in the housing market -due to factors such as land-use restrictions, and specific conditions of the local real estate market-, the landowners seek new ways to valorize their properties, facilitate access to housing for their children, or profitably invest their savings, obtaining an additional income outside the "traditional" real estate market. They increase the number of functional units in their plots, occupying the vacant building area or refurbishing obsolete constructions, while maintaining the intervention scale in relation to the existing urban fabric. These neighborhoods´ housing supply diversifies; and it not only prevents the expulsion of population, but it also attracts new inhabitants. In addition, in an originally residential fabric, it incorporates non-residential activities that enrich the urban fabric. Finally, micro-densification in pericentral neighborhoods presents a differential quality: its "emergent" condition. The process carries out without general planning (and of course outside the legal framework); inhabitants/landowners decide to do so, without any prior agreement. It is an atomized and fragmented process, result of necessity or opportunism. It is the sum of individual actions reconstructed as a "trend", or an "emerging pattern" within the general organization of pericentral neighborhoods, revitalizing the urban fabric in a subtle but definitive way. This research hypothesized that emergent micro-densification in these neighborhoods is a process of revitalization that harnesses the potential of their urban fabric; it does so in a more sustainable and efficient way than the current urban development patterns. Faced with the manifest opposition between this hypothesis and the current local urFaced with the manifest opposition between this hypothesis and the current local urban development framework, it was necessary to construct a theoretical framework able to solve the apparent contradictions detected -that the latter cannot explain-, and frame the working hypothesis. Therefore, this thesis is framed under the systemic complexity approach, that is, the analytical study of complex systems. This theoretical framework has the capacity to explain emergent processes as integral part of a city, its development over time, its complexity, and the factors on which urban sustainability and efficiency depend. The systemic approach understands the city as a complex and dynamic system, in constant development; a system determined more by interrelationships between its components, and between those components and the context, than by the individual conditions of each component. The quality and quantity of these interactions is paramount, to the point of defining the urban condition of a human agglomeration in the territory: urbanity is not given merely by the size or density of a human agglomeration; it is defined in terms of the synergy produced by a large number of different interactions between different agents; a process called synekism. The generation of innovation, and technological/social/political development that characterize the urban condition is an inherent result of these interactions, and a direct function of the intensity, diversity, and redundancy of them in the territory, over time. 7 A sustainable and efficient urban system will be one that, by maximizing material and human resources (and according to the system´s load capacity), develops decentralized, multi-exchange networks; one capable of generating synergy and inclusive development. This implies an energy efficient city, but also efficient in the consumption of any type of resources; a compact city, which prioritizes participatory political mechanisms and intensive use of public spaces, but also pedestrian mobility, and functional and social diversity. It also implies flexibility and adaptability in the face of changes, through processes of resilience or transformation. According to local urban development models, emergent and informal processes such as micro-densification are a sign of crisis within the urban system: anomalies due to the development of harmful processes, in conflict with the rest of the urban structure; conflicts that may even lead to the city´s collapse. But according to the theoretical approach proposed in this thesis, these processes can also be identified as an attempt by the system to self-regulate and adapt to new situations: as a response to a scenario of tension; a way in which the system self-organizes, and responds to that tension seeking a new equilibrium. The research is then structured in order to answer the following questions: • First, what are the specific conditions that catalyze micro-densification in the pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba? • Second, since micro-densification is a response to a particular situation within the urban system, what is the degree of sustainability and efficiency that transformations through micro-densification provides to pericentral neighborhoods (in particular) and to Córdoba (in general)? • Finally, having identified the impact of such processes on the urban structure, and its transformative and organizational potential, can the study of emergent processes make a conceptual or instrumental contribution to local urban planning? The research continued with a document analysis that reconstructs the specific condition of pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba -which catalyzes the phenomenon of emergent micro-densification-. This stage developed in two parts: In the first place, we historically reconstruct pericentral neighborhoods of Córdoba, and the reasons for their urbanization pattern, which consolidates them as residential, (virtually) mono-functional, low-density, middle-class neighborhoods. Secondly, we analyzed Córdoba´s current scenario -with respect to the production and access to urban habitat- establishing urban, regional, and global variables that determine the city´s current development trends. This analysis allowed us to develop a comprehensive argument that explains all the processes that until now were conceptualized as "simultaneous but contradictory". It also explains and predicts the "unthinkable" situation of pericentral neighborhoods. After reconstructing the current scenario and defining different development patterns in Córdoba (including the "formal" pericentral neighborhoods´ pattern), we inferred a trend scenario in the short and medium term (10 years). We continued analyzing the micro-densification phenomenon, in terms of its social, functional, and spatial urban fabric transformations. As a result, a possible future scenario was proposed in which the micro-densification pattern has been formalized, transforming qualitatively and quantitatively the spatial-functional and socio-economic fabric. We specified their potential and strengths (as well as their weaknesses), against the future trend scenario of Córdoba and the pericentral neighborhoods. 8 Based on these results, we analyzed the different urban development patterns in Córdoba according to the variables defined as structural conditions of sustainability and efficiency: The sustainability and efficiency of the micro-densification scenario are much greater than those of the current trends scenario. Therefore, we verified the working hypothesis, and opened the discussion of this thesis. A first line of discussion dealt with development that fosters progressive revitalization, instead of complete renewal of urban fabric, or creation of new urban land on city´s rural periphery. Development that promotes a compact, diverse, and inclusive city, both socially, spatially and functionally; based on the multiplication and diversification of city-building agents. Development that considers these processes, as well as the mechanisms of empowerment, participation, and governance as instruments to achieve greater sustainability and efficiency in urban development. A city capable of generating more creative synergy, which translates into social, technological, and economic benefits. We denatured both the role of the State and the real estate market in the urban development of Córdoba; we proposed a dialectical articulation of different logics of urban development, explaining both the production and access strategies to habitat, and the apparent contradictions in urban development of Latin American middle cities. This thesis´ argument has an analytical and explanatory character, useful for analyzing other urban systems in Argentina and Latin America. It allows the generalization of both the results and the theoretical approach to urban phenomena, understanding the city as a complex system open to its surroundings and far from equilibrium. On the other hand, this thesis emphasized the role of emergent processes in an urban system. So far, emergent micro-densification has little impact on Córdoba´s urban structure. However, it is a vital mechanism to prevent pauperization and loss of resources in pericentral and intermediate urban areas -that is to say, to avoid the partial collapse of the urban structure-, while generating urbanity in areas characterized as mere residential fragments. It is essential to give importance in urban development and in generation of synergy to emergent processes. Incorporating them into critical analysis and diagnosis involves developing planning tools capable not only of recognizing the need to decentralize urban development and sharing decision-making, but also capable of incorporating uncertainty as a variable. In addition, they must be flexible enough to detect changes and the need for adjustment and adaptation over time. This thesis makes its greatest contribution to urban studies by helping to understand the role of emergent phenomena, highlighting contradictions and tensions within the traditional local urban models, and exclusions and inequities driven by those models.
Newsletter No. 59 March 1995 Code Number: NL95023 File Sizes: Text: 134K Graphics: Line Drawings (gif) 26K MEETING REPORTS Penetration of Science and Mathematics in the Education of Children in the Primary Schools Sherburne Abbott National Academy of Sciences Advisory Committee on the Environment (ACE) Julia Marton-Lefevre, Executive Director, ICSU ICSU's ACE held its 9th meeting in Paris, in January, and reviewed ICSU's involvement in various programmes dealing with the environment, including the three Global Observing Systems (GCOS, GOOS and GTOS), the IGBP (International Geosphere- Biosphere Programme) and the WCRP (World Climate Research Programme). ACE also continued to advise the Executive Board of ICSLI about rotation of ICSUappointed members of relevant environmental bodies. Special Committee on Science in the former Soviet Union (FSU) and in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) (COMSCEE) Julia Marton-Lefevre Executive Director, ICSU The ICSU Special Committee, COMSCEE, held its annual meeting in Paris in January, and, before continuing to develop its own programme, it reviewed relevant activities carried out by ICSU family members. These were submitted in response to a request from the Chairman of COMSCEE. A review of the activities of partner organisations represented on COMSCEE, such as the European Union, OECD and UNESCO also took place. Electronic Publishing in the Scientific Domain: An international conference of experts to identify issues of concern and to advise on future action for the benefit of science D.F. Shaw Fellow of the Keble College, Oxford ICSU Press and UNESCO have set up a Programme Committee to plan the Conference of Experts in Electronic Publishing, which is to be held in Paris at UNESCO HQ during the week 19-23 February 1996. The first meeting of this Committee was held at ICSU HQ on 15/16 December 1994 and this report summarises the arrangements so far proposed. INASP Board Meeting London, 9 and 10 February 1995 Carol Priestley, Director, INASP The International Network for the Availability of Scientific Publications (INASP) held its meeting on 9 and 10 February in London. It is now in its third year of operation. The Network continues to be run from the small secretariat in London, headed by Carol Priestley as Director, and supported by Pru Watts-Russell as the other member of professional staff. Ard Jongsma returned to the Netherlands in June 1994 to take up work as a freelance journalist. It has, however, been possible to retain his services on a consultancy basis for preparation of some of the INASP publications. The SC-IGBP reports on the 9th meeting Neil Swanberg Deputy Executive Director, IGBP The ninth meeting of the Scientific Committee of the IGBP (SC-IGBP) was held in early December in the small skiresort of Thredbo, Australia. For one day prior to the meeting, the members of the SC participated in a Global Change Seminar at the Australian Academy of Sciences in Canberra, Australia. A series of talks by leading Australian scientists and IGBP Core Project Chairmen provided an excellent counterpoint between national and regional focus and global interests. After this, the SC members proceeded to Thredbo for their meeting. Situated in the Smoky mountains, about a 3-hour drive from Canberra, this off-season locale (late Austral spring) offered a pleasant, inspiring and costeffective environment for the meeting. The all-too-brief glimpse of the Australian countryside and wildlife en route was welcomed by all. Establishment of the new Scientific Committee on Water Research: From COWAR to SCOWAR lanusz Kindler* Chairman The Committee on Water Research (COWAR) was established by ICSU in 1964, as a forum for information exchange among the international nongovernmental scientific associations working in the field of water. In 1976, COWAR became a joint ICSUUITA (Union of International Technical Associations) Committee. By the end of 1992, the General Committee of ICSU reviewed COWAR and recommended that it should become more research oriented in order to meet the challenges of the post-UNCED period. In fact, in recent years COWAR had already been involved in the UNCED process, among others, summarizing research needs of the water sciences arising from the concept of sustainability ({{Water in our common future}}, UNESCO/IHP, 1994). SPOTLIGHTS ON SCIENCE + 1 C? It happened before ! N. Petit-Maire Vice-President, lUGS The world socio-economic and political structures rest, for a large part, upon the presentday climatic conditions, widely dictating the regional availability of fresh water, food and shelter. The study of the realistic archives of the Past (ice and deep-sea cores, continental sediments) provided by long term geological records has shown that the present-day scenario is only transitory within the huge variability of the Earth's climate. Changes in the solar energy received by the planet have induced, at least in the last 2 millions years, alternate cold and warm phases: over the last 20,000 years only, average global temperature has shifted from a glacial maximum (-3 C relative to nowadays) to a warm pattern (+1 C) which peaked between 9,000 and 6,000 years ago, then slowly degradated, due to the slow astronomical trend presently leading the globe toward a new cold phase, at the slow pace of - 0.01 C / century. 6th Meeting of the OECD Megascience Forum Paris, 24-25 January 1995 Francoise Praderie. Coordinator, Megascience Forum During its sixth meeting held in Paris on 24-25 January, government representatives attending the Megascience Forum discussed what the Forum had achieved since the meeting of the OECD Committee for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP) at Ministerial level recommended its creation in March 1992. GETTING TO KNOW World Data Centre C-Glaciology Ailsa Macqueen Manager of World Data Centre - Glaciology and William Mills Scott Polar Research Institute This article provides a brief introduction to World Data Centre C for Glaciology (WDCC), one of the less well-known members of the ICSU family. WDC-C has much to offer all those whose research interests relate in any way to snow and ice. European Network for Research in Global Change (ENRICH) Anver Ghazi ,Head, ENRICH Office With less than 250 weeks left to go until the beginning of the twenty first century, formidable tasks remain for the scientific community to monitor and detect, understand and predict changes in the Earth System and its interactions with human beings. A crucial challenge is to make scientific research results accessible and usable for those involved in the decision making process related to the concept of Sustainable Development. Major international scientific programmes under the umbrella of ICSU, such as the IGBP and WCRP, are dealing with these issues. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT Science Publishing in Latin America Kai Inge Hillerud, Chairman, ICSU Press ICSU Press and COSTED/IBN organized jointly on 27-30 November 1994 a Workshop on {{Scientific Publications in Latin America}} in Guadalajara, Mexico. Cosponsors of the workshop were UNESCO, the University of Guadalajara, the Third World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), and the Academia de la Investigacion Cientifica (Mexico). Guadalajara and the Scientific Magazines of Latin America Ennio Candotti Editor, Ciencia Hoje There is a clear message coming forth from Guadalajara: there is Science in Latin America. Here, we find a rich biological, environmental and cultural diversity. Historical documents of great value for the history of civilization and for natural paleo-history developed here. In Latin America, complex societies were formed and have survived against the most cruel economic and political pressures. E. Candotti, Editor, Ciencia Hoje, Rio de Janeiro, at the Workshop on Scientific Publications in Latin America in Guadalajara Developing a New Science Agenda for Africa A. RANDFORUM's Mandate Prompted by the fact that Africa had so far failed to put into place mechanisms for the economic and social development of Africa, The Research and Development Forum for ScienceLed Development in Africa (RANDFORUM) was established two years ago with the following guidelines: NEWS IN BRIEF New President of the Third World Academy of Sciences Jose Israel Vargas from Brazil was elected President of the Third World Academy of ciences (TWAS) at its recent Council meeting held in Trieste, Italy on 27 January 1995. NEWS IN BRIEF First International Course in Biotechnology of Plants and Microorganisms 25 October to 13 December 1995 Rehovot, Israel The COBIOTECH's Training Centre of Biotechnology in Agriculture, in cooperation with the Otto Warburg Centre for Agricultural Biotechnology, established at the Faculty of Agriculture, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, is organizing the {{First International Course in Biotechnology of Plants and Microorganisms}} to be held at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel, from 25 October to 13 December 1995. LOOKING AHEAD Future Meetings METEOHYTEC 21 UPDATE WMO International Conference on Meteorological and Hydrological Technology and its Management - METEOHYTEC 21 Geneva, 22-26 May 1995. International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics General Assembly Boulder, Colorado, U.S.A. July 3-14, 1995 Data Challenges of the 21st Century An Inter-Association Workshop, sponsored by the International Association of Seismology and Physics of the Earth's Interior (IASPEI), and co-sponsored by the International Association of Geodesy (lAG), the International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy (lAGA), the ICSU Committee on Data for Science and Technology (CODATA), and the ICSU Panel on World Data Centers (WDC). ICSU Forum 22 October 1995 and SAC IV, 23-27 October 1995 Beijing International Convention Center, Beijing, China The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP) The records of ancient China give detailed descriptions of weather and landscape, providing invaluable documentation of climate and landuse change. We search these records for indicators of global change, and whether changes in China did, or did not, correspond to dramatic changes in warm or cold, wet or dry, periods in other parts of the globe. ICSU Forum on Earth System Research The ICSU Forum taking place on 22 October in Beijing is the third one to accompany a Scientific Advisory Council meeting for the IGBP. The first in Paris (France) in September 1990 addressed global change studies in the different ICSU Unions, the second in Ensenada (Baja California, Mexico) covered different aspects of the follow-up to Agenda 21 and the Rio Conference, and the third Forum addresses scientific issues with regard to Earth system research. The Forum, with an approach to the global change work of the ICSU bodies, provides an introduction to the more specific scientific research and results of the IGBP. Conference and Business Forum Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico 26-29 November 1995 This Conference is jointly organized by the Scientific Committee for Biotechnology (COBIOTECH) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) andthe Instituto de Biotecnologia (IBT) de la Universidad Nacional Aut6norna de Mexico (UNAM). This is a first interdisciplinary brainstorming event to discuss the needs, opportunities, and tools for promoting biotechnology through methods of cooperation between all Third Scientific Symposium {{Global Change, Local Challenge}} Geneva, 20-22 September 1995 Background The Human Dimensions of Global Environmental Change Programme (HDP) addresses processes that transcend political and cultural boundaries. Understanding and responding to these global scale phenomena requires international coordination and cooperation. HDP contributes to global change research by providing mechanisms to foster collaboration among natural and social scientists, develop compatible and comparable data sets, elaborate common methodologies, and exchange research results. Preparations for 25th meeting of ICSU General Assembly The 25th General Assembly of ICSU will take place in Washington, D.C., in September 1996, hosted by the U.S- National Member of ICSU, the National Academy of Sciences. The General Assembly will open on the evening of 24 September 1996 and will conclude its business by the afternoon of 27 September. A day will be set aside during the Assembly for a Scientific Symposium the programme of which is presently being finalized. OBITUARIES Tribute to Cyril Ponnamperuma by Professor Julian Chela-Flores from Venezuela, TWAS Fellow (Written for TWAS Nezvsletter) PUBLICATIONS ICSU 1995 Year Book The 1995 ICSU Year Book was published in March This valuable reference tool contains 475 pages of information on the Council, its Members, Committees, Associates and partners with details of their activities and chief scientific officers. In addition to an alphabetical address list of over 2,000 leading scientists throughout the world, the Year Book contains a comprehensive calendar of international scientific meetings from the present to the year 2000. It is an essential publication for scientific and university libraries, institutions and individuals with serious interests in scientific research. Guidelines for Scientific Publishing Second edition ICSU Press Publishing Services has concentrated its efforts on being a source of advice and counsel to ICSU bodies in matters relating to scientific publishing, including financial, legal and technical aspects, and as an agent for any family member wishing to engage in the publication of books or journals. It is within this context of this advisory role that these revised Guidelines for Scientific Publishing have been issued. This book may be obtained from the ICSU Secretariat. Universality of Science The eighth edition of Universality of Science}} (1995/1996) is now ready for distribution. This handbook of ICSU's Standing Committee on Freedom in the Conduct of Science (SCFCS) gives advice to organizers of international scientific meetings. The 51-page booklet has kept the same blue cover ever since the first edition and is widely known as {{The Blue Book}}. CALENDAR OF MEETINGS 27 March - 7 April 10-11 April: 12 - 28 April 20 - 21 April 24 - 26 April 02 - 03 May 04 - 05 May 6 May 29 May - 4 June 15 -16 June 21 June 22 - 23 June Copyright 1995 ICSU
This study examines Public Expenditure Tracking Survey (PETS) and Quantitative Service Delivery Survey (QSDS) carried out in Africa with the objective of assessing their approaches, main findings, and contributions. Section 2 investigates the context, motivations, and objectives of PETS and QSDS that have been carried out in Sub-Saharan Africa. Section 3 examines the institutional arrangements for resource allocation and service delivery in social sectors. Section 4 presents some of the main findings of tracking surveys. Section 5 analyzes methodological approaches used in previous tracking surveys in order to identify factors that could explain the difference in past surveys' success, and identify potential methodological harmonization. Section 6 presents a series of good practice principles that arise from past experience, and discusses how they could be implemented. Section 7 proposes potential future surveys and endeavors.
Croatia has been facing a population decline, mainly due to a low birth rate and the emigration of young and qualified workers. Considering the historical and dynamic aspects of emigration (Draženović, Kunovac and Pripužić, 2018), leading to depopulation, it is necessary to investigate all contributing factors in Croatia and explore potential models and measures to mitigate these unfavourable processes. Apart from Germany, Croatian citizens have emigrated mostly to Ireland and Austria since the country acceded to the EU (Pokos, 2017). Research confirms that the number of Croatian citizens who immigrated to Germany, Ireland and Austria in 2016 was, on average, 62% higher than the official data reported by the Republic of Croatia (Jerić, 2019). The increasingly intensive emigration of the young and able-bodied population additionally contributes to a rapidly ageing population, exerting strong pressure on the sustainability of the pension system (Družić, Beg and Raguž Krištić, 2016) and underscores the importance of investigating the reasons for emigration and the factors essential for return. Migration is also an important area of interest for the European Union due to its exceptional impact on all aspects of society. Increased opportunities for mobility, advances in technology that provide access to information sources, and societal changes strongly suggest the need for policymakers to examine the micro, meso, and macro drivers that influence migration or potentially influence a person's decision not to migrate or remigrate. Governments require migration analysis to create informed migration policies, including citizen participation in the policy development process. The perspectives of migrants and their behaviour should be taken into account when creating policies to better understand the key success factors needed for the desired outcomes of migrants (European Commission, 2020). According to Fargues (2017), migration is a complex process that is constantly changing as a result of various local, international, and global situations, highlighting the need for con¬tinual investigation and repeated surveying of the population. Within the current demographic climate, the World Youth Alliance Croatia (SSMH) launched the project "Network 2050 – Demography, From Challenges to Answers", co-financed by the European Social Fund. The project is based on intersectoral cooperation, identified as necessary for improving collaborative efforts to address the effects of negative demographic trends on the social and economic development of Croatia and develop measures for demographic revitalisation. This paper will present the data and analysis of the empirical results of the research conducted by the Institute for Migration and Ethnic Studies. The study focuses on emigrants' opinions and perspectives regarding the factors that influenced their decision to migrate. This includes their own perceptions of the situation in Croatia, as well as abroad in their host country, which played a role in their decision-making process and continues to potentially impact them. Additionally, the paper explores the emigrants' perception of their current life circumstances. The target group comprised Croats currently living as expatriates in European countries. A total of 497 respondents, Croats currently living abroad, most of whom left Croatia between 2016 and 2021, took part in the survey. Three main research questions guided the investigation: 1) What are the key drivers of migration at the micro, meso, and macro levels that influence the decision to emigrate or stay, according to the perception of emigrants from Croatia?; 2) What factors influence the decision of Croats to stay abroad?; and, 3) What are the key factors that influence the decision to return to Croatia? For the purposes of this paper, the general results related to research questions 1 and 2 will be presented. The instrument used for data collection was an online questionnaire that respondents filled out independently. The questionnaire consisted of 62 questions, mostly closed-ended, with only a few open-ended questions to accommodate additional information if participants chose to elaborate on their perceptions. Including this option also allowed for the possibility of results that were not expected by the research team. The questions were divided into five thematic chapters: sociodemographic data, migration status, socioeconomic status, returnee motivational status, and identity and value system. The questionnaire was administered with special attention to the time of completion, clarity, and appropriateness of the questions. The data collection process included advertising the research project and posting calls for participation on various social media networks across platforms managed by members of various Croatian dias¬pora groups. Additionally, advertising was conducted through social groups and institutions, as well as using the snowball method. Data was collected during the period from July to October 2021. At the beginning, the purpose of the questionnaire was explained, and respondents were informed that their participation was voluntary with the possibility to withdraw at any time. Consistency in the questionnaire administration was achieved by exclusively offering it online. A total of 500 responses were received, of which 497 were valid, while three questionnaires were partially filled. Only key socio-demographic information was collected and, together with the respondents' personal perceptions, it was examined in relation to the key drivers of emigration. Their perception is the key feedback that can help state authorities and policymakers in designing measures aimed at retaining the population and attract¬ing potential returnees. Their perception was viewed as potentially showing indica¬tors of migration drivers, push and pull factors, as well as demonstrating public perception around key issues and policies, and the type of information (including its accuracy) used to inform migration. Respecting the perception of the general public when creating policies is in line with the concepts promoted by the EU Parliament (2020), which encourages the participation of citizens in decision-making. According to the obtained sociodemographic data, 208 respondents (41.9%) were female, and 289 respondents (58.1%) were male. The most represented age category (39%) was 30–39 years old. Additionally, 24% of respondents were between 40 and 49 years old, 22% were between 18 and 29 years old 9.5 % were between 50 and 59 years old, 3.2% were 60–69 years old and 2% were between 70 and 81 years old. This indicates that the majority of respondents who leave are younger than 40, i.e. in the reproductive age group. The results obtained support the relevance of the research by Družić, Beg and Raguž Krištić (2016), who warn about the loss of the young population in Croatia, which results in population ageing. The majority (78.3%) were born in Croatia, and the next significant group (13.1%) was born in Bosnia and Herzego¬vina. The largest group of respondents, at the time of the questionnaire, lived in Germany, followed by the numerically significant groups in Great Britain, Ireland and Sweden. The trend shown by the majority of respondents coming from Germany is in line with the large wave of migration to Germany since 2013 when Croatia entered the EU, and since July 2015 when the labour market in Germany was opened to Croatia. Jurić (2022) and Pokos (2017) describe Germany as still the most desirable country for Croatian emigration. The results showed that macro-level factors related to working conditions and employment rates influence micro-level factors, such as socioeconomic status. Work opportunities and the working environment were perceived as somewhat important because respondents believe that these aspects affect their personal quality of life. An interesting result is that the number of respondents who stated that they were married or in a partnership doubled after moving. It is worth mentioning that Jang, Cast¬erline and Snyder (2014) warn that the longer the time spent abroad, the stronger the ties made, potentially leading to the establishment of family life connected to the host country. This could negatively affect the potential decision to return. The influence of this factor at the micro level requires further research to show the possible impact of marriages abroad on the mobility of new families and their possible return to Croatia, especially if Croatia's goal is to encourage the return of its emigrants. The results of this study, as well as the recommendations of researchers such as Kis, Ozdemir and Ward (2015) on the importance of improving working conditions and wages as a means of improving living conditions, are useful for formulating strategies for population retention. Additionally, certain political restrictions can negatively affect the achievement of the country's migration goals (Boswell, 2002), which, in the case of Croatia, involves return migration and population retention.
