Seit einigen Jahren rückt das E-Auto immer weiter in den Fokus der Öffentlichkeit. Durch diese Technologie sollen Alternativen zu konventionellen Fahrzeugen mit Verbrennungsmotor entstehen und zugleich soll eine Unabhängigkeit von politisch instabilen Erdöl liefernden Ländern geschaffen werden. Ein weiterer wichtiger Grund für diesen Trend ist jedoch auch die Einsparung des CO2-Ausstoßes, um so dem damit verbundenen Klimawandel entgegenzuwirken. Bei Einsatz von regenerativen Energiequellen wie Wind- oder Sonnenenergie wird der CO2-Austoß von E-Autos sogar auf null reduziert. Aus Verbrauchersicht hat das E-Auto allerdings zurzeit zwei wesentliche Nachteile: Erstens sind die Anschaffungskosten für eine Lithium-Ionen-Batterie sehr hoch. Nach Ende ihrer Lebensdauer muss die Lithium-Ionen-Batterie zudem wieder ausgetauscht werden, wodurch weitere zusätzliche Kosten entstehen. Zweitens beträgt die Reichweite eines durchschnittlichen E-Autos 150 km und halbiert sich im Winter. In dieser Arbeit wird daher ein semi-empirisches thermoelektrisches Modell einer 50 Ah Lithium-Eisenphosphat-Batteriezelle (LFP-Batteriezelle) in SimulationX erstellt. Das Rint-Modell beschreibt das elektrische Verhalten der LFP-Batteriezelle. Die elektrischen Parameter wie die offene Klemmspannung U_oc, der Ladewiderstand R_ch und der Entladewiderstand R_disch werden bei unterschiedlichen Umgebungstemperaturen (0 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C) und Entladetiefen (0/ 0,2/ 0,4/ 0,6/ 0,8/ 1) mittels XCTS-Batterietestsystem bestimmt. Das thermische Modell berücksichtigt dabei die Wärmeaufnahme bzw. -abgabe über Wärmeleitung, Wärmekonvektion, Wärmestrahlung sowie den Einfluss einer internen Wärmequelle. Die erforderlichen thermischen Parameter wie Wärmeleitfähigkeit λ, Wärmekapazität c_p und Emissionskoeffizient ε werden durch die in der Fachliteratur bekannten theoretischen Methoden erfasst. Außerdem berücksichtigt das Modell die kalendarische und zyklische Alterung der LFP-Batteriezelle und ist modular aufgebaut. Die Ermittlung der kalendarischen und zyklischen Alterung der LFP-Batteriezellen erfolgt an einem Batterieprüfstand bei unterschiedlichen Umgebungstemperaturen (0 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C), Entladeströmen (25 A, 50 A, 100 A), Entladetiefen (0,2/ 0,5/ 0,8) sowie Ladezustandsbereichen (1-0,8/ 1-0,5/ 1-0,2). Durch die modulare Gestaltung kann überdies eine LFP-Batterie mit beliebiger Anzahl von LFP-Batteriezellen generiert werden. Anschließend wird das Batteriemodell von SimulationX über eine S-function nach Matlab/Simulink exportiert und auf Echtzeitfähigkeit geprüft. Der wissenschaftliche Beitrag dieser Arbeit besteht somit in der gesamtheitlichen Betrachtung und Auslegung einer LFP-Batterie für ein Minicar E-Auto (A-Segment) und ein unteres Mittelklasse E-Auto (C-Segment) hinsichtlich Lebensdauer, Batteriepackaging (i.e. der Zellenanzahl), Wärmeentwicklung, Fahrzeugreichweite sowie Batteriekosten. ; Since the past few years, the electric car has moved more and more into the focus of public interest. Through this technology, new alternatives to conventional vehicles with combustion engines should be developed and thereby independence from politically unstable oil supplying countries should be achieved. Another important reason for this trend, however, is also the reduction of the CO2 emission in order to mitigate the associated climate change. When renewable energy sources like wind or solar power are used, the CO2 emission of electric cars is even reduced to zero. Yet, from the customer's perspective, at present, the electric car has two fundamental disadvantages: Firstly, the acquisition costs for a Lithium-Ion battery are very high and after its lifecycle has expired, the Lithium-Ion battery has to be replaced, causing further additional costs. Secondly, the reach of an average electric car amounts to 150 km, a distance which is reduced by half in winter. Therefore, in this thesis, a semi-empirical thermo-electrical model of a 50 Ah Li-ion Iron Phosphate Cell (LFP battery cell) is designed with SimulationX. The resulting Rint model describes the electric behaviour of the LFP battery cell. The electrical parameters like the open circuit voltage U_oc, the charging resistor R_ch and the discharge resistor R_disch are determined at different ambient temperatures (0 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C) and at different depths of discharge (0/ 0.2/ 0.4/ 0.6/ 0.8/ 1) using the XCTS Battery Test System. The thermal model, on the other hand, takes into consideration heat absorption respectively heat emission through heat conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation or the respective influence of an internal heat source. The needed thermal parameters like the heat conductivity λ, the thermal capacity c_p and the coefficient of emission ε are measured by means of the theoretical methods that are commonly known in the scientific literature. Furthermore, the here elaborated model takes into account the calendrical and cyclical aging of the LFP battery cell and is based on a modular design. By means of a battery test station, the calendrical and cyclical aging of the LFP battery cells is measured at different ambient temperatures (0 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C), for different discharging currents (25 A, 50 A, 100 A), at different depths of discharge (0.2/ 0.5/ 0.8) and with respect to different charging state ranges (1-0.8/ 1-0.5/ 1-0.2). Besides, and due to the modular structure, the LFP battery can be designed for any number of LFP battery cells. In a next step, using an S-function, the battery model is exported from SimulationX to Matlab/Simulink and tested for its real-time capability. Hence, the scientific contribution of the present thesis consist in its holistic assessment and dimensioning of an LFP battery for an electric mini car (in the A Class segment) and for an electric lower mid-range car (in the C Class segment) with respect to battery life cycle, battery packaging (i.e. the number of battery cells), heat development, vehicle range and battery costs.
Economic inequality has increased considerably in many Western countries and has recently received increasing attention. The gap between rich and poor is now one of the main issues on the policy agendas and is potentially harmful for public welfare when it exceeds a certain threshold. That is why many policy makers are concerned with increasing levels of inequality. Economists should, therefore, provide an objective basis for decision making with regard to redistributive policies. This dissertation contributes to the literature on economic inequality with a special focus on Germany. Conducting analysis of inequality requires a decision on the exact research subject. This is concerned with the underlying concept of economic resources as well as the extent to which the household context is involved. The studies presented in this thesis differ with respect to both dimensions. The main results are briefly summarized here. Chapter 2 addresses the literature on the dispersion of individual earnings and deals with a very specific case of a wage gap by testing for an earnings premium for German members of parliament (MPs) in 2006. The analysis is based on a unique dataset of German MPs and representative German microdata. After controlling for observable characteristics as well as accounting for election probabilities and campaigning costs, we find a positive earnings premium for MPs which is statistically and economically significant. The results are consistent with the citizen candidate model when comparing politicians to citizens occupying executive positions. However, it shrinks to zero when restricting the control group to top level executives. Hence, answering the question whether the pay of MPs is appropriate is not straightforward and, in turn, depends on the appropriateness of the underlying control group. Chapter 3 extends the analysis of earnings inequality beyond the individual level and considers the household context and studies the role of marital sorting on inequality of couple earnings while taking into account labor supply behavior of spouses. I measure the effect of non-random sorting of spouses on inequality across couple households in West Germany from 1986 to 2010 by matching couples randomly to each other and predicting counterfactual labor supply choices. This allows me to quantify the pure effect of sorting in earnings potential rather than observed earnings. Using German microdata as well as a behavioral microsimulation model, I find that the impact of observed sorting on earnings inequality among couples turned from slightly equalizing to slightly disequalizing in recent years, but is generally rather neutral with regard to inequality. However, after adjusting for labor supply choices, I find that sorting in productivity has a much stronger impact on earnings inequality. This is mainly due to positive correlation in earnings potential and increases in female employment that are more concentrated in the upper part of the distribution. From a policy maker's perspective, this result implies a trade-off between policy measures promoting female labor force participation on the one hand and redistributive policies on the other hand. Chapter 4 quantifies the effect of changes in household composition, especially decreasing household size, on the distribution of total household income and pays special attention to the role of the tax and transfer system in Germany. Changes in household formation are associated with income inequality, since economies of scales in household consumption are more and more lost. The case of Germany is of special interest in this respect since the demographic development is, among other things, characterized by a sharp fall in average household size. Using German microdata, we find that the growth of the income gap between 1991 and 2007 is indeed strongly related to changes in household composition. The result for income inequality before taxes and transfers is much larger than the result for inequality indisposable incomes. This means, that the tax-benefit system largely compensates for inequality due to changes in household composition. Hence, the welfare state implicitly provides incentives affecting individual and household choices with respectto living arrangements. Finally, chapter 5 extends the analysis to the stock dimension of economic resources and looks at the joint distribution of household income and wealth at the top and introduces a family of multidimensional measures of affluence. The analysis is concerned with the role of both income and wealth for the top of the distribution. The proposed multidimensional affluence measures allow for the analysis of the extent, intensity and breadth of affluence within a common framework. We illustrate this by analyzing the role of income and wealth as dimensions of multidimensional well-being in Germany and the US in 2007, as well as for the US over the period 1989-2007. Using comparable microdata, we find that, in general, both dimensions are equally important for multidimensional a uence. However, we find distinct country differences with the country ranking depending on the measure. While in Germany wealth predominantly contributes to the intensity of affluence, income is more important in the US.
Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist die Beschreibung und Erklärung des Wandels sowie die Identifizierung von Agglomerationsvorteilen von Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in industriellen Clustern eines Schwellenlandes. CSR wird verstanden als freiwillige Integration von sozialen Themen in die Unternehmenstätigkeit und in die Interaktionen mit Stakeholdern. Im Fokus der Analyse sind Institutionen und Rahmenbedingungen sowie deren Einfluss auf Akteure, Aktionen, Governance und Ergebnisse von CSR. Die Arbeit basiert auf einer Verbindung der Theorien von CSR, Clustern, globalen Wertschöpfungsketten und Produktionsnetzwerken mit dem Analyserahmen des "Institutional Analysis and Development Framework" nach OSTROM. Dieser Rahmen ermöglicht in einem koherenten Modell die Deskription und Analyse von sozialen, politischen und wirtschaftlichen Institutionen und CSR in einem industriellen Cluster. Anhand einer empirischen Fallstudie zum Schuhproduktionscluster in Jinjiang, Provinz Fujian, VR China, werden die Determinanten und Bedingungen von CSR im Cluster untersucht. Das wirtschaftliche Wachstum in China basiert auf der regionalen Konzentration der Produktion mit einer Branchenspezialisierung in den Küstenprovinzen. Die sozialen Bedingungen der Produktionsprozesse in den klein- und mittelgroßen Unternehmen sind gekennzeichnet durch mangelhafte Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen sowie geringe Entlohnung. Die Analyse stützt sich auf die Auswertung von quantitativen und qualitativen Erhebungen. Ausgehend von einem niedrigen Niveau lassen sich empirisch in einigen Indikatoren Tendenzen einer voneinander unabhängigen wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Aufwertung sowie einer Stakeholderorientierung der klein- und mittelgroßen Unternehmen im Cluster nachweisen. Die Produzenten reagieren auf den lokalen Druck der Arbeiter und nicht auf globale Anforderungen. Durch Veränderungen des institutionellen Arrangements, der Rahmenbedingungen auf dem lokalen Arbeitsmarkt und der Kommunikationsökologie werden die Arbeiter zum Treiber des Wandels von CSR. Bisherige Macht- und Informationsasymmetrien verändern sich zugunsten der Arbeiter. Es bilden sich neue informelle institutionelle Arrangements und vielfältige Formen des Lernens von CSR endogen im Untersuchungsraum. Die KMU lassen sich in Reaktion und Verhalten in Typen klassifizieren. Dieser Heterogenität der KMU steht eine homogene Kodifizierung der Anforderungen zu CSR gegenüber. Im Ergebnis ergibt sich ein Prototyp des Wandels von CSR in einem industriellen Cluster Die Governance von CSR verlagert sich von der globalen auf die lokale sowie von der formellen auf die informelle Ebene. Die Institutionensets des chinesischen Staates und der globalen Wertschöpfungskette beschränken sich auf die Einhaltung eines Mindestniveaus sozialer Bedingungen und haben aufgrund unzureichender Sanktionen und Legitimität nur geringe Geltung. Unternehmerische und institutionelle Macht wird nur zur Erreichung ökonomischer Ziele eingesetzt. 4 Die Governance der Wertschöpfungskette wird von dem Prinzipal Führungsfirmen auf den Agenten lokale Händler übertragen. Diese fungieren als zentrale Schnittstelle zwischen Cluster und Absatzmärkten und werden in der Konzeption der gebundenen Wertschöpfungskette bisher kaum thematisiert. Insofern kann die Konzeption der Koordinationsform der gebundenen Wertschöpfungskette verfeinert werden. Die Vorteile der Clusterung für CSR liegen in der kollektiven Effizienz, in der Netzwerkbildung der Arbeitnehmer und dem Lernen von CSR im Beziehungsgeflecht des Clusters. Eine Förderung des CSR-Prozesses im lokalen Raum könnte in der Praxis in diesen Clustervorteilen ansetzen. Der Fokus würde auf der exekutive Governance und nicht auf der herkömmlichen judikativen Governance von CSR durch Kontrollsysteme aus der globalen Wertschoepfungskette liegen. Der "bottom-up"-Prozess im lokalen Raum würde dadurch gestärkt. ; The aim of this PhD is to describe and to explain of the change and the identification of clustering advantages of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) in industrial clusters in emerging countries. CSR means a voluntary integration of social issues in business activities and the interactions with stakeholders. This research focuses on institutions and prevailling conditions and their impact on players, actions, governance and outcomes of CSR. This PhD is based on theoretical concepts of CSR, clustering, global value chains and production networks and the link with the Institutional Analysis and Development Framework. This framework enables to analyse the social, political and economic institutions in a coherent model in industrial cluster. On the basis of an empirical case study of the footwear cluster in Jinjiang, Fujian Province, PR China, the determinants and conditions of CSR in the cluster are scrutinized. The economic growth in China is based on a regional concentration of specialised production in the coastal provinces. The social conditions of the processes in small and medium sized enterprises in the cluster are dominated by poor working and living conditions and low wages. The research is based on the analysis of quantitative and qualitative surveys. Based on a low level in some indicators there is a trend of independent economic and social upgrading and a stakeholder-orientation of the small and medium-sized enterprises in the cluster. The manufacturers are reacting to local pressure of the workers and not to global 5 requirements. Through changes of institutional arrangements, in the environment of the local labor market and a new ecology of communication the workers are becoming the drivers of the change of CSR. Old asymmetric power and information constellations are changing in favor of the workers. New informal institutional arrangements and a diversity of learning of CSR are formed endogenous in the cluster. The manufacturers are classified according to their reaction and action in types. These heterogeneities are confronted with a homogeneous codification of CSR-requirements. As a result there is a prototype of the change of CSR in industrial clusters. The governance of CSR is shifting from a global to a local and from a formal to an informal level. The institutional sets of the state and of the value chain are limited to commitments of minimum standards of social conditions and have little validity because of insufficient sanctions and legitimacy. Business and institutional power is only used to achieve economic goals. The governance of the value chain is delegated from the principal leadfirm to the agent local trader. These traders are a chain intersections between clusters and markets and are not conceptualised in the conventional concept of captive value chains. The advantages of clustering for CSR are: collective efficiency, network building amongst the workers and knowledge transfer of CSR across networks of relationship in the cluster. A support of the CSR-process could start with these advantages. The focus will be on the executive governance and not the judicative governance. The bottom-up-process would be strengthened.
Die Untersuchung befasst sich mit den Wahlen zum konstituierenden Reichstag in Österreich im Juni 1848 im Vergleich mit jenen zur konstituierenden Nationalversammlung in Frankreich im April 1848, und zwar unter dem Blickwinkel der Verbreitung neuer – vor allem elektoraler und repräsentativer – Politikvor¬stellungen im ländlichen Raum. Dem Ansatz liegen Begrifflichkeiten der in Frankreich seit längerem geführten Debatte um die "Politisierung" der Landbevölkerung zugrunde. Die räumliche Beschränkung auf das Land Niederösterreich (ohne Wien) sowie das Umland von Paris, das ehemalige Département Seine-et-Oise, ermöglicht eine quellennahe Darstellung. Es handelt sich um eine inhaltlich und formal überarbeitete Fassung einer im September 2010 approbierten Dissertation; zusätzliche Archivforschungen in Frankreich im Januar/Februar 2011 haben eine Vervollständigung der Quellenbasis erlaubt. Nach der Darlegung theoretisch-methodischer Positionen zur Anwendung des international vergleichenden Ansatzes folgt eine kurze Wiedergabe der Debatten um die "Politisierung" einschließlich neuerer Kritiken an diesem Konzept (Kapitel 2). Als Ergebnis wird der Ansatz formuliert, nicht von einer "Politisierung" gegenüber einem "apolitischen" Ausgangszustand der ländlichen Bevölkerungen auszugehen, sondern von einem komplexen Bündel differenziert zu analysierender Wandlungen ländlicher Politik. In einem ersten Teil erfolgt eine komparative Darstellung der demographischen, wirtschaftlichen und sozialen Verhältnisse der beiden Untersuchungsräume (Kapitel 3), weiters der kulturellen und mentalen Voraussetzungen der Bevölkerungen hinsichtlich Mobilität, Alphabetisierung, religiösen Verhaltens sowie der Erfahrungen mit politischer Partizipation (Kapitel 4). Eine knappe Darstellung der Revolutionen von 1848 in beiden Gebieten fokussiert ihre Erscheinungsformen im ländlichen Raum (Kapitel 5). Ausführlich verglichen werden die Rechtsgrundlagen der beiden Wahlen, Vorgänge der administrativen Vorbereitung sowie der Wahlwerbung (Kapitel 6). In ihnen werden Modelle elektoraler Politik gesehen, welche von neuen und alten politischen Eliten in beiden Staaten angesichts der revolutionären Situation entworfen und mit den ihnen verfügbaren Kommunikations- und Machtmitteln an die Bevölkerungen herangetragen wurden. Der Wahlvorgang wird zunächst in seiner prozeduralen Dimension geschildert, bevor eine Analyse der Wahlentscheidungen versucht wird (Kapitel 7). Auf diesem Wege wird gezeigt, dass unterschiedliche Vorstellungen zu Sinn und Funktionsweise von Wahlen konkurrierten und sich vermischten. Dies betrifft Divergenzen zwischen den in Kapitel 6 analysierten Modellen der Eliten, aber auch deren Aufeinandertreffen mit in der breiteren Bevölkerung präsenten Vorstellungen. Dies ist in Niederösterreich gut zu beobachten, dessen ländliche Wähler das Wahlmodell ausgehend von älteren Praktiken der Interessenartikulation, die auf ständischer Gliederung der Gesellschaft beruhten, teils ver¬weigerten, teils umfunktionierten; in Seine-et-Oise sind Verhaltensweisen, die für abweichende Vor¬stellungen von Repräsentation und Wahlen sprechen, in marginalem Ausmaß neben einer weitgehenden Akzeptanz des von den Eliten vorgegebenen Modells zu finden. Obwohl die Unterschiede zwischen den beiden Fällen beträchtlich sind und beide vom heute etablierten Idealbild demokratischer Wahlen erheblich abweichen, lassen sie sich in die Geschichte vielfältiger Veränderungen einordnen, in deren Verlauf ältere Vorstellungen vom Wählen im Besonderen, von Politik im Allgemeinen allmählich durch Elemente heute bekannter Modelle verdrängt wurden. ; The manuscript deals with the elections to the Austrian Constituent Diet in June 1848, compared with those to the French National Assembly in April of the same year, with a focus on the dissemination of new concepts and practices of politics – particularly electoral and representative politics – in rural areas. The approach is based on concepts from the debate on the "politicisation" of rural populations which has been conducted in France during the past decades. To facilitate a detailed analysis closely based on primary sources, the study is limited to the province of Lower Austria (excluding Vienna) and the former department of Seine-et-Oise, surrounding Paris. The manuscript is based on a dissertation accepted in 2010, which has been revised in both content and form. Additional archival research in France in January and February 2011 has allowed an augmentation of the primary source basis. After a summary of theoretical and methodical positions regarding the use of international comparison, a brief presentation of the debates on "politicisation" is intended to familiarize the reader both with the concept and with recent criticisms of it (Chapter 2). The resulting approach is based on the idea not of "politicization" versus a prior "apolitical" condition of rural populations, but rather of a complex of interconnected but not identical shifts in rural concepts and practices of politics. In a first section, demographic, economic and social conditions of the two regions are presented and compared (Chapter 3), as are intellectual preconditions regarding mobility, literacy, religious behavior, and prior experiences with political participation (Chapter 4). The revolutions of 1848 are described with particular attention devoted to the forms they took in rural areas (Chapter 5). The legal and normative framework of the elections is compared in detail, as are administrative prepa¬rations and the processes of electoral information (Chapter 6). These are viewed as efforts by which models of electoral politics, proposed by new and old political elites in both countries, were put before the populations using the power and communicative resources at the disposal of the elites. The elections themselves are first closely described under their procedural aspect; then an analysis of voting behaviour is attempted (Chapter 7). These multiple perspectives demonstrate that divergent notions of the meaning and function of elections competed, but also intermixed. This concerns not only rivalry between the elite-proposed models described in Chapter 6, but also their meeting with concepts held by members of the wider population. In Lower Austria, large numbers of rural voters either rejected or, more frequently, reinterpreted and subverted the proposed electoral model on the basis older practices of political articu¬lation predicated on a corporate subdivision of society. In Seine-et-Oise, behaviors pointing to divergent notions of election are comparatively marginal next to a widespread acceptance of the proposed model. Although the two cases studied differ considerably from one another, and both have only quite limited resemblance to late 20th-century ideals of democratic elections, both can be situated within a complex history of the gradual displacement of older concepts of elections specifically and of politics in general by elements of those familiar in the present.
Im Rahmen des Bundesgedenkstättenkonzeptes konnten im letzten Jahrzehnt 20 Dauerausstellungen in Gedenkstätten für Opfer des NS-Regimes neu gestaltet werden. Diese werden in der vorliegenden Dissertation unter pädagogischen und museologischen Fragestellungen untersucht. Experteninterviews mit den Kuratoren der Ausstellungen dienen als empirische Grundlage. Aktionsforschung, im deutschsprachigen Raum als Handlungsforschung entwickelt, ist die wissenschaftliche Methode der Untersuchung des Forschungsgegenstandes, in dem der Autor seit vielen Jahren beruflich tätig ist. Die Arbeit analysiert die Tätigkeitsmerkmale von Museen, Gedenkstätten und Lernorten sowie das Spannungsverhältnis zwischen Gedenken und Lernen in der Bildungsarbeit der Gedenkstätten für NS-Opfer und deren praktische Auswirkungen. Die spezifische Stigmatisierung von Opfergruppen während der NS-Zeit nach politischen, rassistisch-biologischen und sozialen Merkmalen sowie der Umfang des Massenmordes begründen die in Deutschland besonders intensive Form der Gedenkstättenarbeit. Sowohl das Gedenken an die "anderen" Opfer als auch die Verantwortung der "eigenen" Täter in der Gesellschaft markieren dessen gesellschaftspolitische Brisanz. Die theoretische Begriffbestimmung wird mit der empirischen Erforschung der neuen Dauerausstellungen überprüft. Zu den zentralen Ergebnissen der Untersuchung gehört, dass die neuen Ausstellungen auf eine deutlich umfangreichere historische Materialbasis (historisches Wissen, Erkenntnisse über die Baugeschichte und Archäologie der Tatorte sowie schriftliche, audiovisuelle und Objekt-Zeugnisse von Überlebenden) zurückgreifen. Durch die Professionalisierung der "Gedenkstättenkunde" entwickelt sich ein intensiv reflektierter und sensibler Einsatz von Dokumenten, Abbildungen und Objekten in den musealen Präsentationen. Hervorzuheben sind der Ortsbezug der Objekte, deren Quellennachweis, die Würdigung ihrer Provenienz sowie die kritische Reflexion ihrer Aussage. Dies betrifft besonders Fotographien. Die Bedeutung der Objekte für eine prägnante Ausstellungsgestaltung wird in der Dissertation herausgearbeitet. Trotz der Annäherung an Darstellungsweisen zeithistorischer Museen werden die fortwährenden, sachlich bedingten Unterschiede zu Gedenkstätten dargelegt. Die Fokussierung der Darstellung auf den Tatort ermöglicht eine zugleich detaillierte, vielschichtige und das historische Thema komplex darstellende Auseinandersetzung mit einem Ausschnitt der deutschen Geschichte. Die multiperspektivische Darstellung der Geschichte bietet Besuchern die Möglichkeit, einen eigenen Zugang zu ergreifen und dabei möglichst selbsttätig Handlungsperspektiven sowie Werte- und Moralvorstellungen zu überprüfen oder neu zu entwickeln. Damit sind die Gedenkstätten trotz aller noch vorhandenen Forschungslücken erstmals in der Lage, die Geschichte der NS-Verfolgten in ihrer Komplexität umfassend aus deren Perspektive und mit den von ihnen geschaffenen Zeugnissen und Objekten darzustellen. Die auf den Ausstellungen beruhenden Bildungskonzepte werden in den aktuellen Entwicklungen, die dem zeitlichen Abstand zur NS-Zeit und einem zunehmend heterogeneren Publikum geschuldet sind, reflektiert. Die verschiedenen Erwartungshaltungen von Einzelbesuchern und Besuchergruppen werden dabei betont. Insgesamt bieten die Forschungsergebnisse Anschlussmöglichkeiten besonders hinsichtlich pädagogischer Fragestellungen und der Besucherevaluation. ; Over the last decade, as part of the federal concept for memorial sites, twenty new permanent exhibitions were created at memorial sites for victims of the Nazi regime. This dissertation undertakes to examine these exhibitions from an educational and museological viewpoint. Expert interviews with exhibition curators serve as the basis for the empirical study. The author has worked for many years in the field of memorial museums education. He applied "action research", developed in German-speaking countries under the term "Handlungsforschung", as the method of scholarship in his dissertation. The study analyzes the specific characteristics of the work conducted in museums, memorial sites and educational centres and also addresses the strained connection between commemoration and learning in the educational work of the memorial museums for the Nazi victims. The study also evaluates the practical impact of these aims. The very intense form of commemorative work that is conducted in Germany is justified by the nature of its subject matter: the stigmatization of specific victim groups during the Nazi era according to a system of political, racist-biological and social characteristics and the vast dimensions of the genocide. The socially and politically explosive nature of this task is manifested by the commemoration of the "other" victims as well as by the responsibility that Germany bears for addressing its "own" perpetrators in society. The study examines the theoretical terminology with the empirical research conducted on the new permanent exhibitions. The central findings of the study show that the new exhibitions embrace a much more comprehensive foundation of historical material (historical knowledge, building history and archeological significance of the crime sites, written and audio-visual survival testimony and artifacts) as was previously the case. The professionalization of the "field of memorial museums" has led to a more intensively reflected and sensitive approach to handling documents, illustrations and objects on display in a museum. In particular, the significance of the relationship between the artifacts and their location, their sources, an appreciation for their origins and a critical reflection of what it is they convey is achieved. This also applies to photography. The dissertation considers what role these objects play in achieving a concise, coherent exhibition design. Although contemporary museums tend to employ similar methods of presentation, the study attempts to identify the sustained differences that are inevitable given the memorial museums' different subject matters. The focus on the crime site facilitates a detailed, multifaceted and complex confrontation with the presentation of one chapter of Germany history. The presentation of history from multiple perspectives allows visitors to find their own way through the subject matter and to develop their own independent methods for judging the actions, values and morals presented to them. Although research gaps still exist, the memorial museums are nonetheless able for the first time to present the history of Nazi persecution in its complexity from the victim perspective using their own testimony and objects that they created. The study considers the educational concepts that are currently developed from the exhibitions, derived from the distance to the historical events and the need to accommodate an audience that is increasingly heterogeneous. A special emphasis is placed on the divergent expectations of individual and group visitors. The research results should be useful to future work, especially in regard to the pedagogical questions raised and the visitor evaluations.
Ghana ist ein Musterbeispiel dafür, dass ein Entwicklungsland den Weg zu Good Governance schaffen kann. In vielen Studien wird dem Land im afrikanischen Vergleich heute bescheinigt, hier ein Vorreiter zu sein. Dies ist Ausgangslage der vorliegenden Studie, die der Frage nachgeht "Welche Gründe, Muster und Bedingungen führen zur Entstehung von Good Governance?". Im Zentrum der vorliegenden Studie steht, wie aus der erkenntnisleitenden Fragestellung hervorgeht, eine empirische Untersuchung zur Entstehung von Good Governance und damit ein Transformationsprozess. Dieser wird bewusst über einen sehr langen Zeitraum (über ein halbes Jahrhundert) untersucht, um auch langfristige Entwicklungen einbeziehen zu können. Die Studie wird mit Hilfe eines "Mixed-Methods-Ansatzes" sowohl unter Rückgriff auf quantitative als auch auf qualitative Methoden durchgeführt, was sich im Rückblick als sehr ertragreich erwiesen hat. Zunächst wird die Qualität der Governance über den gesamten Zeitraum anhand von sechs Indikatoren gemessen. Danach werden qualitativ die Gründe für die Fort- und Rückschritte analysiert. Dabei lassen sich immer wieder Systematiken herausarbeiten, wie zum Beispiel zirkuläre Entwicklungen, die über viele Jahre den Weg hin zu Good Governance verhinderten, bis jeweils Ausbrüche aus den Kreisläufen geschafft werden konnten. Sowohl in der demokratischen und rechtsstaatlichen Entwicklung als auch bezogen auf die Versorgung der Bevölkerung mit öffentlichen Gütern und die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung. Auch wenn die verschiedenen Bereiche von Good Governance zunächst einzeln untersucht werden, so zeigen sich gleichzeitig deutlich die Wechselwirkungen der Komponenten. Zum Beispiel kristallisiert sich klar heraus, dass Rechtsstaatlichkeit sowohl auf die Stabilität politischer Systeme wirkt, als auch auf die wirtschaftliche Entwicklung. Ebenso beeinflussen diese wiederum die Korruption. Ähnliche Verknüpfungen lassen sich auch bei allen anderen Bereichen nachvollziehen. Die Entwicklung eines Landes kann also nur unter Berücksichtigung eines komplexen Governance-Systems verstanden und erklärt werden. Dabei können die Wechselwirkungen entweder konstruktiv oder destruktiv sein. Die Verflechtungen der einzelnen Bereiche werden in einem Negativ- und dann in einem Positiv-Szenario festgehalten. Diese Idealtypen-Bildung spitzt die Erkenntnisse der vorliegenden Arbeit zu und dient dem analytischen Verständnis der untersuchten Prozesse. Die Untersuchung zeigt, wie Good Governance über das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Faktoren entstehen kann und dass es wissenschaftlich sehr ertragreich ist, Transformationsforschung auf ein komplexes Governance-System auszuweiten. Hierbei werden die vielen empirisch erarbeiteten Ergebnisse zu den einzelnen Transformationen zu komplexen, in sich greifenden Gesamtszenarien zusammengeführt. Da es bisher keine explizite Good Governance-Transformationsforschung gab, wurde hiermit ein erster Schritt in diese Richtung getan. Es wird darüber hinaus deutlich, dass eine Transformation zu Good Governance nicht durch eine kurzfristige Veränderung der Rahmenbedingungen zu erreichen ist. Es geht um kulturelle Veränderungen, um Lernprozesse, um langfristige Entwicklungen, die in der Studie am Beispiel Ghana analysiert werden. In vielen vorangegangenen Transformationsstudien wurde diese zeitliche Komponente vernachlässigt. Ghana hat bereits viele Schritte getan, um einen Weg in die Zukunft und zu Good Governance zu finden. Die Untersuchung dieser Schritte ist Kern der vorliegenden Arbeit. Der Weg Ghanas ist jedoch noch nicht abgeschlossen. ; Ghana is a prime example that a developing country can forge the path towards Good Governance. According to various studies Ghana, compared to other African countries, is a front-runner in this respect. This study asks the question "what are the reasons, models and conditions which lead to Good Governance?". At the heart of this study is an empirical analysis of the emergence of Good Governance in Ghana and the process of transformation. This process is studied over a long period of time (more than fifty years), in order to be able to judge the long-term developments as well as those in the short-term. The survey is conducted using a "Mixed Methods Approach", both quantitative and qualitative analyses methods are used. In hindsight this approach proved to be very effective. Initially the quality of Governance is measured over the entire period of time using six different indicators. The improvements and setbacks are then qualitatively analyzed looking for reasons for these developments. This approach uncovered certain consistent systems i.e. circular developments which, for many years, were an obstacle on the road to Good Governance until Ghana was able to break out of the cycle eventually. Democratic change took place, rule of law was improved just as the provision of the population with public goods and the economic development. Even if the various aspects of Good Governance are studied separately at first, it becomes clear that these aspects are inter-related and influence each other. For example it has been shown, that the rule of law influences the stability of the political as well as the economic system and vice-versa. The development of a country can therefore only be understood and explained using a complex Governance-System. The interactions within this system can either be constructive or destructive. The linkages of the various fields are illustrated first in a negative and then in positive scenario which summarize the findings of this survey. At the same time they contribute to the analytic understanding of the processes analyzed. The study clearly shows how Good Governance emerges from an interaction between different factors. It also shows that it is scientifically very rewarding to consider a complex Governance-System in transformation research. In the study many different, empirically compiled, results concerning the particular transformations are brought together in comprehensive scenarios. As there are no surveys analyzing comprehensive Good Governance-transformations, this study takes the first step in this direction. It is clear that transformation towards Good Governance can not be achieved in a short period of time by changing the general framework. Instead, cultural change, learning processes and long-term development are what is important and these have been analyzed in this study using Ghana as an example. In many earlier studies on transformation this temporal aspect was neglected. Ghana has taken many steps towards Good Governance and the future. The analysis of these steps is core aspect of this survey. The country, however, still has a long way to go.
Mit Hilfe staatlicher Aktionsprogramme versuchen seit Mitte der 90er Jahre die Regierungen fast aller industrialisierter Länder ihre jeweiligen Volkswirtschaften auf die Erfordernisse des Informationszeitalters vorzubereiten und den gesellschaftlichen Wandel hin zur Informationsgesellschaft zu steuern. Ziel der staatlichen Maßnahmen ist es dabei vor allem, günstige Rahmenbedingungen für die Entwicklung neuer Medientechnologien zu schaffen und die Verbreitung interaktiver Medien in der Bevölkerung zu unterstützen. In dieser Arbeit werden die klassischen nationalen Initiativen für die Informations-gesellschaft in Deutschland und den USA einem systematischen Vergleich unterzogen und daraufhin untersucht, inwieweit sie ihre selbst gesteckten Ziele erreichen konnten. Bei den Initiativen handelt es sich zum einen um "Info 2000. Deutschlands Weg in die Informationsgesellschaft" (1996-1998) und zum anderen um die "National Information Infrastructure"- Initiative (1994-1997) der Clin-ton/Gore-Administration. Bei der Untersuchung der Initiativen stehen jene Maßnahmen, Regulierungs- und Förderstrategien im Zentrum, die sich auf die Entwicklungen im Bereich des interaktiven Fernsehens beziehen. "Interaktives Fernsehen" wird dabei als Oberbegriff für interaktive TV-Dienste (Enhanced TV, WebTV, t-commerce), Breitband-Internet (DSL und Kabelmodemsysteme) und Video on Demand verwendet. Staatliche Handlungsmöglichkeiten ergeben sich in diesem Bereich vor allem bei der Regulierung der Telekommunikation, der Anpassung der inhaltlichen Regulierungsvorgaben und durch Vorgaben für die Umstellung auf das digitale Fernsehen Um die Auswirkungen und damit die Paßgenauigkeit der jeweiligen staatlichen Maßnahmen auf die Entwicklung des interaktiven Fernsehens zu beurteilen, wird der in der politikwissenschaftlichen Implementationsforschung entwickelte Ansatz der Synthese von Top-down- und Bottom-up-Analyse verwendet. Das heißt, es wird zunächst gezeigt, wie die Aktionsprogramme im jeweiligen staatlich-institutionellen Kontext umgesetzt wurden (Top-down) und anschließend dar-gestellt, welche konkreten Auswirkungen die einzelnen Maßnahmen auf die Handlungsbedingungen von Medienanbietern und Mediennutzern vor Ort hatten (Bottom-up). Für die Bottom-up-Analyse wurden sechs Medienentwicklungsprojekte bzw. Einführungsversuche von interaktivem Fernsehen anhand von Interviews und Expertengesprächen erhoben. Detailliert werden in diesen Fallstudien die konkreten technischen, wirtschaftlichen und regulatorischen Potenziale und Barrieren dargestellt. Bei den Projekten, die stellvertretend für die Entwicklung des inter-aktiven Fernsehens in Deutschland und den USA stehen, handelt es sich im Einzelnen um: · DVB Multimedia Bayern · InfoCity NRW · IVS Stuttgart · WebTV · Excite@Home · Full Service Network Orlando Die Untersuchung kommt zu dem Schluß, daß staatliche Programme zur Förderung von interaktiven Medienanwendungen vor allem dann erfolgreich sind, wenn ihnen eine intelligente Kombination von "harten" (Regulierungsvorgaben im Telekommu-nikations- und TV-Bereich) und "weichen" Faktoren (Agenda-Setting, symbolische Politik, Glaubwürdigkeit) gelingt. Weiterhin wirkt sich ein offener, partizipativer Implementationsprozeß sowie die Fähigkeit der politischen Spitze, die jeweiligen Implementationsstellen entsprechend einzubinden, positiv auf den Um-setzungs-erfolg aus. Der Vergleich mit den USA zeigt, daß die Politik hierzulande stärker auf Infrastrukturwettbewerb zwischen den verschiedenen Zugangstechnologien setzen sollte und flankierende Maßnahmen zur Medienqualifizierung erforderlich sind. ; Since the mid 90s, governments in almost all industrialized countries have been attempted to prepare their national economies for the information age and to support the change towards the information society via action programs. Governmental measures predominantly aim at favorable legal conditions for the development of new media technologies and try to support the spreading of interactive media applications in the society. In this study, the exemplary national initiatives for the information society in Germany and the U.S. are systematically compared and evaluated in terms of how successful they were in achieving their goals. The examined initiatives are: "Info 2000. Deutschlands Weg in die Informationsgesellschaft" (1996-1998) and the "National Information Infrastructure-Initiative" (1994-1997) of the Clin-ton/Gore administration. The study focuses on measures, regulation issues, and support-strategies which apply to the development of interactive television, whereas "interactive TV" is used as a generic term for the specific development in three sectors: interactive TV-Services (enhanced TV, WebTV, t-commerce), broadband-Internet (DSL and cable modem systems), and video on demand. Governmental actions which are specifically effecting these sectors can be identified within the regulatory regime of the telecom-regulation, certain provisions of the content regulation, and specific measures to coordinate the switch from analog to digital TV. In order to determine the effects and the appropriateness of governmental measures, a synthesis of top-down- and bottom-up-approach, as it was developed in implementation research, is utilized. This means that the respective action programmes are examined in a first step with regard to their implementation within the administrative and institutional context (top-down) and in a second step it is asked, which were the specific effects of theses measures in the local context of content and technology providers as well as users? (bottom-up). The bottom-up-anaysis is based on six media-development ("pilot"-)projects respectively commercial introductions of interactive applications which were extensively researched by way of expert interviews and document analysis. The individual projects were chosen as examples for the general development of interactive TV in Germany and the U.S. The case studies show in great detail the technical, economic and regulatory barriers and potentials, new interactive TV-applications face today. The following projects are described: · DVB Multimedia Bayern · InfoCity NRW · IVS Stuttgart · WebTV · Excite@Home · Full Service Network Orlando The study concludes that it takes an intelligent combination of "hard" (regulation of telecommunications and broadcasting sector) and "soft" factors (agenda-setting, symbolic politics, awareness) for governmental programs to succeed in the field of interactive media development and expansion. Also important for the implementation success is an open and participative implementation proccess and the ability of the political leaders to integrate the respective administrative bodies and interest groups. The comparison with the U.S. shows that Germany has to set up specific provisions to guarantee infrastructure competition between the different access technologies and that special governmental actions are required to improve the media competence of its citizens.
This study investigates, theoretically and empirically, the role of animacy in the development of gender systems. The theoretical background is a grammaticalisation approach to language change. Concerning gender, this presupposes that classifications begin as semantic distinctions in the realm of animacy with flexible, contextually based agreement between the gender-marking elements. This kind of gender is called contextual gender. In the course of time, these classifications will spread into other areas, they become desemanticized and the agreement relation grammaticalizes into one of government where the inherent gender of the head noun controls the gender of the agreeing elements, irrespective of contextual factors When this leads to a great number of violations of the principles of contextual agreement in the realm of animacy, a new cycle of semantic classification will begin, creating layers of classifications. For German and Swedish two different layers are discerned respectively. The empirical starting point of this project was the observation of two opposite developments in the area of female person reference in Germany and Sweden. As a consequence of feminist critique of language, mainly targeted at the use of socalled masculine generics, in Germany the use of female gender-specific nouns increased substantially, the major means being female derivation with –in, so-called motion. Although similar means for female derivation exist in Swedish, i.e. -inna and -ska, the number of derivations used is decreasing. In order to isolate socio-cultural and historical facts from language-internal mechanisms behind the diverging tendencies, a historical sketch of the development of equal rights, of language criticism and of the development of the female suffixes is drawn for the respective countries. It is obvious, that the German strategy to achieve gender-fair language use is established by making women visible by means of motion, while in Sweden the use of gender-neutral forms for a long period of time has been regarded as a sign of equality. This 'neutral' use of former masculine and male-specific forms has been made possible by the merging of the two nominal genders masculine and feminine into uter (Sw. utrum). A contrastive study of comparable German and Swedish newspaper texts shows that the lack of motion in Swedish is partly compensated by composition and attribution with gender-specific lexemes. Still, the 64% gender-specific noun phrases in Swedish cannot compare with the 95% in German. But the use of gender-specific forms for well over half of the person references calls into doubt the general opinion shared by most Swedes that Swedish has a gender-neutral person reference system. Linguistic asymmetry persists as long as gender-specification is restricted to one half of the gendered population, whatever the means for specification. The almost exclusive use of gender-specific forms in German is seen as indicative of a grammaticalisation process. Haspelmaths invisible hand explanation of grammaticalisation is used to show how the development of -in in German fulfils just about every requirement on a grammaticalisation process – language-external as well as -internal – while -inna and -ska neither are promoted sufficiently by the speech community nor does there exist a paradigm that could accommodate them. In contrast to Swedish, where the suffixes remain strictly derivational, it is demonstrated that -in is turning into an inflectional marker. The German gender sub-system for person reference is developing into a semantically based system with genderflexible person denominations. A study of the pronouns agreeing with non-personal-agents in a parallel corpus of EU-documents shows that other aspects than purely referential or formal ones impinge on the choice of agreement forms. Non-personal-agents in certain contexts expose both agency and intentionality, which turns them into suitable agreement partners for animate pronouns. In Swedish, all animate pronouns are sexed, leaving a "Leerstelle" for these inanimate but agentive and intentional referents. In German, this problem is covered by the polysemy of the personal pronouns. Non-personal-agents are shown to be one possiblesource for the spreading of a linguistic innovation from the realm of animacy into inanimate contexts via semantic and thematic roles that share important features with animates proper. The last study makes use of different types of German monolingual corpora in order to investigate the agreement between inanimate nouns with female inherent gender – from non-personal-agents and abstracts to concrete nouns – and agent nouns which can potentially expose agreement by female derivation. Although the results are rather heterogeneous, they allow the formulation of the hypothesis that agreement is more likely to occur with nouns for which a metaphorical bridge to stereotypical conceptions of femininity can be constructed and that key collocations with high frequency such as die Kirche als Trägerin or die DNA als Trägerin der Erbinformation contribute significantly to the spread of the agreement pattern.
Orações condicionais em Língua de Sinais Alemã (DGS) e Língua Brasileira de Sinais (Libras) - Um estudo sociolinguístico empírico Orações coordenadas, como as interrogativas e as declarativas, são bem pesquisadas em várias línguas de sinais urbanas ocidentais. No entanto, orações subordinadas complexas, como orações relativas e condicionais nas línguas de sinais, estão no estágio inicial de investigação. Como os pesquisadores procuraram sinais manuais como marcadores de subordinação, eles não reconheceram que as características não manuais - sobrancelhas levantadas, movimentos da cabeça e do corpo, piscar de olhos e muito mais - são a principal fonte da subordinação. Os sinais manuais (lexicais) são meramente opcionais. Alguns desses recursos não manuais têm mais de uma função gramatical. Por exemplo, sobrancelhas levantadas podem marcar tópicos, sentenças interrogativas ou condicionais, ou são usadas como um marcador prosódico para limites de sentenças. Para detectar um tipo específico de sentença, é útil observar qual combinação de características não manuais, ao lado dos sinais manuais, aparece (Herrmann & Steinbach 2013, Tang & Lau 2012, Wilbur 2000, Liddell 1986, Baker & Padden 1978). Quanto a investigação das sentenças condicionais na DGS e na Libras, não há estudos com dados empíricos. Assim, o objetivo principal da minha tese foi eliciar e registrar orações condicionais, por meio de um jogo de cartas e a explicação de suas regras por sinalizantes nativos (Dachkovsky, em preparação) no Brasil e na Alemanha. Além disso, descrevi a estrutura das sentenças das orações condicionais em ambas as línguas de sinais e as comparei. Além disso, no nível sociolinguístico, levei em consideração as características cruciais vinculadas às comunidades surdas, como idade, idade de aquisição da língua de sinais, formação escolar, formação profissional e competências bilíngues (Schembri & Lucas 2015). As características sociolinguísticas também foram comparadas entre as duas comunidades surdas, pois ambos os países têm diferentes avanços diacrônicos, políticos e educacionais de sua própria língua de sinais. Os dados de vídeo das duas línguas de sinais foram anotados com o ELAN e avaliados no Excel com o código binário para 0 = não existe, 1 = existe, para a ocorrência de sinais manuais e não manuais. Na DGS, identifiquei 146 orações condicionais (por 17 sinalizantes, dos quais 8 são mulheres e 9 são homens, ø idade 43,3 anos) e na Libras foram 84 orações condicionais (por 18 sinalizantes, dos quais 8 são mulheres e 10 são homens, ø idade 38,2 anos). Meus resultados para DGS demonstram que a construção de uma condicional factual precisa de uma combinação de (i) pelo menos duas características não manuais para o antecedente, como sobrancelhas levantadas (79%) e um movimento da cabeça (88%), e (ii) dois outros sinais não manuais para o consequente, como um movimento de oposição da cabeça (95%) e (iii) um piscar de olhos (66%) na fronteira entre as duas frases. Os sinais manuais para ambas as frases são opcionais, existem quatro sinais manuais para o antecedente, WENN1, WENN2 ('se'), VORSTELL ('imaginar') e ZUM-BEISPIEL ('por exemplo'). Para o consequente, existem dois sinais DANN ('então') e BEDEUT ('significa'). Os sinais manuais ocorreram em 66% dos antecedentes e 32% dos consequentes. Os resultados para Libras mostram que os condicionais factuais precisam, no mínimo, de uma combinação de duas características não manuais, como sobrancelhas levantadas (92%) e um movimento da cabeça (99%) sobre o antecedente e uma cabeça oposta (99%) sobre o consequente. Os dois sinais manuais para o antecedente, SE e POR-EXEMPLO, e dois outros sinais para o consequente, um gesto de palma para cima e SIGNIFICAR, são opcionais, também. Em Libras, os sinais manuais ocorreram em 73% do antecedente e 12% do consequente. Comparando as duas línguas entre si, uma combinação de sinais manuais e não manuais em condicionais é muito comum. Mas nas construções anteriores em Libras, essa combinação é mais proeminente do que em DGS, especialmente para os marcadores não manuais. Já a DGS possui maior utilização de sinalização manual para o consequente. O uso de BEDEUT e SIGNIFICAR no início de um consequente é semelhante. Libras tem um gesto de palma para cima para o consequente, que está em desenvolvimento e pode ser visto no futuro como um lexema gramaticalizado. DGS tem mais variantes para o marcador manual do antecedente do que Libras. O sinal VORSTELL é um sinal para uma condicional contrafactual em DGS e um equivalente em Libras não pôde ser encontrado, talvez apenas o sinal pode sinalizar uma condicional contrafactual, mas isso ainda não foi verificado. Mas uma possível característica não manual com a boca que representa o fonema /tƒ/ de origem portuguesa. No nível sociolinguístico, apresento algumas descobertas. Na característica sociolinguística 'idade' com três grupos de idade diferentes (18-29, 30-50, 51-90 anos), pode ser visto que os sinalizantes mais jovens de DGS usaram mais variantes manuais do que os sinalizantes mais velhos. Os sinalizantes mais jovens em Libras tendem a usar mais SE do que os grupos de meia-idade e idosos. No recurso 'aquisição de língua' existem dois grupos, 'pré-lingual' (antes dos 6 anos) e 'póslingual' (após 6 anos). Os sinalizantes pré-linguais em Libras tendem a marcar as condicionais com marcadores não manuais e usam menos sinais manuais em comparação com os sinalizantes pós-linguais. Esta ocorrência é semelhante ao mesmo grupo no DGS. Além disso, os sinalizantes de DGS pré-linguais tendem a produzir mais variação. A formação escolar nos dois países tem grande influência na língua dos sinalizantes, que é a mesma na Alemanha e no Brasil: quem frequentou uma escola de surdos, usa uma versão mais ampla de marcadores manuais e não manuais nas condicionais do que os demais grupos, que frequentaram apenas escolas regulares. Alunos de escolas regulares mostram um maior contato com o idioma português do que seu grupo pendente, o que é expresso por sinais manuais. No grupo com formação profissional diferente (acadêmico/não acadêmico), informantes surdos com formação superior e trabalhos como professor ou instrutor, utilizam mais sinais manuais como SE e WENN1e suas variantes e menos recursos não manuais. Informantes surdos em DGS e Libras, que trabalham como não acadêmicos (p.e. com artesanato), preferem usar mais recursos não manuais do que sinais manuais em orações condicionais, o que é percebido como uma língua mais natural. Para competências bilíngues, a perspectiva é diferente em ambas as línguas de sinais: os sinalizantes de DGS com alta competência em alemão produzem orações condicionais com mais marcadores não manuais e manuais do que o outro grupo com competência mais elementar. Sinalizantes de Libras com alto nível de português usam menos marcadores manuais e não manuais do que seu grupo de controle. Em síntese, ambas as línguas de sinais não relacionadas são tipicamente vistas como "línguas de sinais dominantes não manuais" (Zeshan 2006), porque os marcadores não manuais são fortemente predominantes e os sinais manuais são opcionais. A origem dos sinais manuais está ligada ao contato linguístico das línguas faladas e escritas circundantes, alemão e português. O contato linguístico é transmitido pelos diferentes sistemas de educação especial e política linguística para surdos de ambos os países. O uso de características não manuais semelhantes em ambas as línguas de sinais - como sobrancelhas levantadas e movimentos de cabeça - estão ligados à emoção básica humana universal "surpresa" (Ekman 1979), que agora estão gramaticalizadas (Pfau & Steinbach 2011). Meier (2002) afirma, a esse respeito, que as línguas de sinais possuem menos recursos (anatômicos) para marcadores gramaticais do que as línguas faladas. Essa é a razão pela qual as línguas de sinais parecem mais "uniformes" e são, não surpreendentemente, mais semelhantes entre si. ; Coordinated clauses, such as interrogative and declarative clauses, are well researched in various western-urban sign languages. However, complex subordinated clauses, like relative and conditional clauses in sign languages, have just begun to come to the attention of researchers. Researchers have so far mainly identified manual signs as markers for subordination, they did not recognize that the nonmanual features – raised eyebrows, head and body movements, eye blinks and more – are the main indicators for subordination. The manual (lexical) signs are merely optional. Interestingly, most of these nonmanual features fulfil more than one grammatical function. For example, raised brows can mark topic, interrogative or conditional clause, or they are used as prosodic markers for sentence boundaries. In order to detect a specific clause marking function, it is recommended to examine which combination of nonmanual features, next to the manual signs, appear in video data material (Herrmann & Steinbach 2013, Tang & Lau 2012, Wilbur 2000, Liddell 1986, Baker & Padden 1978). For the investigation of conditional clauses in DGS and Libras, there is still a lack of studies with valid empirical data. Hence, the main aim of my thesis is to elicit and record conditional clauses. Elicitation was achieved with the means of a card game and the explanation of its rules by native signers (Dachkovsky, in prep.) in Brazil and Germany. Furthermore, I aim to describe the sentence structure of conditional clauses in both sign languages and compare them. Additionally, on the sociolinguistic level, I take into consideration crucial features linked to Deaf communities, such as age, age of sign language acquisition, school background, professional background and level of bilingualism (Schembri & Lucas 2015). The sociolinguistic features are also compared between both signing communities, because diachronic, political and educational development of the sign languages and the corresponding Deaf communities is different in both countries. Video data of the two sign languages were annotated using ELAN and evaluated in Excel with the binary code for 0 = doesn't exist, 1 = exists, for the occurrence of manual and nonmanual signs. In DGS, I identified 146 conditional clauses (by 17 signers in total, 8 women and 9 men, ø age 43,3 y) and in Libras 84 conditional clauses (by 18 signers in total, 8 women and 10 men, ø age 38,2 y). My results for DGS demonstrate that the construction of a factual conditional requires a combination of (i) at least two nonmanual features for the antecedent, such as raised eyebrows (79%) and a head movement (88%), and (ii) two other nonmanual signs for the consequent, such as an oppositional head movement (95%), and (iii) an eye blink (66%) at the boundary between both phrases. The manual signs marking the antecedent and the consequent are optional. There are four manual signs for the antecedent in DGS: WENN1, WENN2 ('if'), VORSTELL ('imagine') and ZUM-BEISPIEL ('for example'). For the consequent, two signs DANN ('then') and BEDEUT ('mean') were identified. The manual signs occurred in 66% of the antecedents and 32% of the consequents. Results for Libras show that factual conditionals require at minimum a combination of two nonmanual features, such as raised eyebrows (92%) and a head movement (99%) over the antecedent, and an (opposite) head movement (99%) over the consequent. The two manual signs for the antecedent, SE ('if') and POR-EXEMPLO ('for example'), and the two manual signs for the consequent, a palm-up-gesture and SIGNIFICAR ('mean'), are optional, too. In Libras, the manual signs occurred in 73% of the antecedent and 12% of the consequent. Contrasting both languages shows that a combination of different manual and nonmanual signs in the construction of conditionals is very common. In the antecedent constructions in Libras, this combination is more prominent than in DGS, especially for nonmanual markers. DGS, on the other hand, shows a higher use of manual signs for the consequent. The use of BEDEUT and SIGNIFICAR at the beginning of a consequent is similar in both sign languages. Libras utilizes a palm-up-gesture for the consequent, which is currently undergoing grammaticalization. As a result, this gesture might develop into a grammatical conditional marker. DGS offers more variants for the manual marker of the antecedent than Libras. The sign VORSTELL signifies a counterfactual conditional in DGS and an exact equivalent in Libras couldn't be found. The sign POR-EXEMPLO can possibly signal a counterfactual conditional, but this has not yet been checked. However, a possible nonmanual feature with similar meaning was identified - a mouth pattern which correspond to the Portuguese phoneme /tƒ/ from the Portuguese language. On a sociolinguistic level, the result of my study also revealed interesting correlations. In the sociolinguistic feature 'age', the informants were split in three different age groups (18-29, 30-50, 51-90 y). The data show can be shown that younger signers of DGS have used more manual variants than older signers. Younger signers in Libras tended to use more SE compared to the middle aged and senior groups. In the feature 'language acquisition' the informants were split into two groups, 'prelingual' (before 6 y) and 'postlingual' (after 6 y). Prelingual signers in Libras tend to mark the conditionals mainly with nonmanual markers and fewer manual signs compared to postlingual signers. The same difference between prelingual and postlingual signers has been attested for DGS. Additionally, the prelingual DGS-signers tend to produce more variation. The school background of the Deaf in both countries (Germany and Brazil) has a strong influence on their language: people who have attended a Deaf school use a broader variety of manual and nonmanual markers in conditionals in comparison to those who have attended only mainstream schools. Students from mainstream schools show a greater language contact than their pendant group, which is expressed by the higher usage of manual signs. In the feature dealing with professional backgrounds (academic/craftsmen) Deaf informants with higher education and professions like teacher or instructor, were found to use more manual signs like SE and WENN1 and its variants and fewer nonmanual markers. Deaf informants in DGS and Libras who work as craftsmen prefer to use more nonmanual markers over manual signs in conditional clauses, which is perceived as a more natural way of signing. In terms of bilingual capabilites, both sign languages differ: DGS signers with high German language competence produce conditional clauses with more nonmanual and manual markers than the other group with lower competence. Libras signers with higher Portuguese skills use fewer manual and nonmanual markers than their counterparts with lesser Portuguese competence. In summary, the two non-related sign languages investigated in this PhD-thesis are typically seen as "non-manual dominant sign languages" (Zeshan 2006), because the nonmanual markers are strongly predominant and the manual signs are optional. The origin of the manual signs can be linked to language contact with the surrounding spoken and written languages, German and Portuguese. Language contact is furthered by the different special education systems and language policies for the Deaf in both countries. The use of similar nonmanual features in both sign languages – like raised eyebrows and head movements – are linked to the universal human nonmanual gesture expressing the basic emotion 'surprise' (Ekman 1979), which have developed into grammatical markers (Pfau & Steinbach 2011). Meier (2002) claims in this context, that sign languages have lesser (anatomic) resources for grammatical markers than spoken languages. That is the reason why sign languages look more "uniform" and are, unsurprisingly, more similar to each other. ; 2021-08-11
This Bericht ("report") in two parts about Russian policy in the Iraq-crisis of 1997/98, in its first part analyzes the Russian security and economic interests with respect to Iraq, including the dynamics of Russian internal politics involved. A second part begins by enumerating the obvious weaknesses in the American diplomatic and political stance in the face of this crisis which could be made use of by Primakov to Moscow's advantage, with a view to more farreaching goals. It then deals with the very real dilemmas posed by the challenge of "non-conventional" means of mass destruction, above all substances for biological and chemical warfare, dilemmas which have not been truly confronted as yet. For it is suspected that Iraq still possesses such substances or, at the very least, is capable of reproducing them very swiftly, once inspections are lifted. In conclusion the probable consequences of the Iraq-crisis for Russian-American relations and the world as well as Russia's own future are outlined. (BIOst-Dok)
Ein explosionsartiger Anstieg der Mediennutzung (ausländisches Satellitenfernsehen, ein eigener nationaler Satellitenkanal sowie Foto- und Videopraxen) verändert nicht nur die "Öffentlichkeit", sondern den lokalen sozialen Raum in einem speziellen global-lokalen Spannungsfeld insgesamt. In diesem Artikel wird gezeigt, wie Frauen in der Hauptstadt des Jemen Fernsehen und andere Bildmedien strategisch nutzen, indem sie entlang der Grenzen von Sichtbarkeit und Unsichtbarkeit die geschlechterspezifischen sozialen Räume ihrer Lebenswelt verändern. Medienbilder eröffnen als Teil der Lebenswelt der Akteure (Blick-) Räume und ermöglichen (Blick-) Kontakte. Die Blicke prägen den sozialen Raum und spielen bei der wechselseitigen Konstitution von Räumen und Körpern eine Rolle. Dies wird sowohl auf der performativen als auch auf der diskursiven Ebene verhandelt. Die vorgestellte Fallstudie ist Teil eines Forschungsprojekts, das auf einem einjährigen Feldaufenthalt, Feldnotizen und 45 Stunden audiovisuellem Material beruht. Anhand der Diskurse der jungen Frauen über eigene Bilderpraxen wird nachvollzogen, wie sie die "Gefährdung" einer gesellschaftlichen Ordnung durchbuchstabieren, wie sie ihr Interesse an Veränderung artikulieren und welche strategischen Überlegungen sie anstellen, um "sichtbar" zu werden. Dabei verweist der Beitrag auf kulturell unterschiedliche Lesarten dessen, was man sehen kann.
