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Актуальность. Основной целью государственной политики в области здравоохранения и демографии любого государства является снижение смертности и увеличение продолжительности жизни за счет повышения ее качества. Особое значение для достижения этой цели заключается в проблеме сохранения и укрепления здоровья населения и особенно подрастающего поколения, поскольку «хорошее здоровье населения является важным условием обеспечения экономического и социального прогресса любой страны». Целью настоящей работы является обобщение опыта ФЗОЖ в Республике Молдова и выявление основных тенденций в состоянии здоровья подрастающего поколения и возможности продвижения европейского опыта в сфере укрепления здоровья. Материалы и методы. Было проведено описательное исследование, которое включает анализ международной и национальной законодательной базы в области формирования здорового образа жизни, опыт экономически развитых государств по укреплению здоровья населения и обзор научных исследований в данной области. Результаты. Представлена характеристика проблем и достижений в области формирования здорового образа жизни (ФЗОЖ) у подрастающего поколения Республики Молдова на современном этапе. Выявлены приоритеты и ключевые принципы политики здравоохранения, фундаментальные стратегии формирования здорового образа жизни, элементы и главные задачи этой деятельности. Приведена законодательная база Республики Молдова, в которой отражены цель, задачи, необходимые меры по формированию ЗОЖ. К сожалению, формирование ЗОЖ еще не полностью осознана как приоритетная деятельность центральными и местными административными органами. Поэтому необходимы важные и настойчивые действия по созданию и внедрению решений Правительства и Программ ЗОЖ на всех уровнях. Выводы. Социально-экономические преобразования, которые произошли в Республике Молдова с момента объявления независимости, отрицательно сказывались на показателях здоровья населения в целом, в том числе подрастающего поколения. В Республике Молдова принимаются важные, но неполные меры по реализации европейских приоритетов в области формирования здорового образа жизни. Тем не менее, необходимо не только разработка, но и реализация всех правительственных решений и учебных программ в области ФЗОЖ на всех уровнях. Необходимо мобилизовать все заинтересованные стороны для действий по ФЗОЖ на индивидуальном, семейном, административном уровнях. ; Актуальність. Основною метою державної політики в галузі охорони здоров'я та демографії будь-якої держави є зниження смертності та збільшення тривалості життя за рахунок підвищення її якості. Особливе значення для досягнення цієї мети полягає в проблемі збереження і зміцнення здоров'я населення і особливо підростаючого покоління, оскільки «гарне здоров'я населення є важливою умовою забезпечення економічного і соціального прогресу будь-якої країни». Метою цієї роботи є узагальнення досвіду ФЗОЖ в Республіці Молдова і виявлення основних тенденцій в стані здоров'я підростаючого покоління і можливості просування європейського досвіду в сфері зміцнення здоров'я. Матеріали та методи. Було проведено описову дослідження, яке включає аналіз міжнародної та національної законодавчої бази в області формування здорового способу життя, досвід економічно розвинених держав по зміцненню здоров'я населення і огляд наукових досліджень в даній області. Результати. Представлена характеристика проблем та досягнень в області формування здорового способу життя (ФЗСЖ) у підростаючого покоління Республіки Молдова на сучасному етапі. Виявлено пріоритети і ключові принципи політики охорони здоров'я, фундаментальні стратегії формування здорового способу життя, елементи і головні завдання цієї діяльності. Наведено законодавча база Республіки Молдова, в якій відображені мета, завдання, необхідні заходи по ФЗСЖ. На жаль, ФЗСЖ ще не повністю усвідомлена як пріоритетна діяльність центральними і місцевими адміністративними органами. Тому необхідні важливі і наполегливі дії по створенню і впровадженню рішень Уряду та Програм ФЗСЖ на всіх рівнях. Висновки. Соціально-економічні перетворення, які відбулися в Республіці Молдова з моменту оголошення незалежності, негативно позначалися на показниках здоров'я населення в цілому, в тому числі підростаючого покоління. У Республіці Молдова приймаються важливі, але неповні заходи по реалізації європейських пріоритетів в області формування здорового способу життя. Проте, необхідно не тільки розробка, а й реалізація всіх урядових рішень і навчальних програм в області ФЗСЖ на всіх рівнях. Необхідно мобілізувати всі зацікавлені сторони для дій по ФЗСЖ на індивідуальному, сімейному, адміністративному рівнях. ; Background. The main goal of state policy in the field of health and demography of any state is to reduce mortality and increase life expectancy by improving its quality. Of particular importance for achieving this goal is the problem of preserving and strengthening the health of the population and especially the younger generation, since "the good health of the population is an important condition for ensuring the economic and social progress of any country." The purpose of this work is to summarize the experience of healthy lifestyle development in the Republic of Moldova and to identify the main trends in the health of the younger generation and the possibility of promoting the European experience in health promotion. The purpose of this work is to summarize the experience of healthy lifestyle development in the Republic of Moldova and to identify the main trends in the health of the younger generation and the possibility of promoting the European experience in health promotion. Materials and methods. A descriptive study was carried out, which includes an analysis of the international and national legal framework in the area of healthy lifestyle development, the experience of economically developed countries in improving public health and a review of scientific research in this area. Results. A description of the problems and achievements in the field of healthy lifestyle development in the younger generation of the Republic of Moldova at the present stage is presented. The priorities and key principles of health policy, the fundamental strategies of healthy lifestyle development, the elements and main objectives of this activity are identified. The legislative base of the Republic of Moldova is given, which reflects the goal, objectives, necessary measures for healthy lifestyle development. Unfortunately, the formation of healthy lifestyles is not yet fully understood as a priority activity by central and local administrative authorities. Therefore, important and persistent actions are needed to create and implement decisions of the Government and healthy lifestyle development programs at all levels. Conclusions. Socio-economic transformations that have occurred in the Republic of Moldova since the declaration of independence. In the Republic of Moldova, important but incomplete measures are being taken to implement European priorities in the area of promoting a healthy lifestyle. Everything is not only the development, but also the implementation of all government decisions. It is necessary to mobilize all interested parties for actions on HLMF at the individual, family, and administrative levels.

Dottorato di ricerca in Ortoflorofrutticoltura ; La comunità scientifica internazionale concorda che i cambiamenti climatici in atto, sono causa delle attività antropiche. Si stima che annualmente l'agricoltura influisca mediamente con le emissioni in atmosfera di gas serra in modo diretto ed indiretto, ad una quota compresa tra 9~12 Pg CO2 eq yr-1, pari a circa al 24% delle emissioni globali. Nel settore agricolo la variabilità e le incertezze su come i cicli biogeochimici del suolo, influenzino tali emissioni, limitano le attuali politiche di mitigazione a scala regionale, in quanto, le emissioni di GHG sono fortemente influenzate dal tipo di coltura, dalle condizioni climatiche e dalle pratiche agricole locali. Nella Provincia di Viterbo, che ricopre una superficie pari a circa 2.810 km2, caratterizzata da un clima tipicamente mediterraneo con siccità estiva, ci sono stati pochi studi approfonditi riguardanti il bilancio del carbonio che si determina durante la coltivazione delle colture erbacee. In questo contesto, per quantificare e contrastare i flussi di gas serra responsabili dei cambiamenti climatici, la ricerca effettuata nell'ambito di questo lavoro, ha riguardato la misura ed il monitoraggio dei flussi di carbonio (Net Ecosystem Exchange) a livello di sito sperimentale con la tecnica eddy covariance, determinando il bilancio del carbonio, (NECB) per le annate agrarie a partire dal 2009 sino al 2013. A livello regionale, si è stimato, per l'anno 2009, il flusso di NEE, durante la coltivazione del frumento duro (Triticum durum Desf.) e del trifoglio incarnato (Trifolium incarnatum L.), colture agrarie caratteristiche del panorama agricolo della Provincia di Viterbo. Per determinare la distribuzione spaziale dei flussi sono state utilizzate immagini satellitari LANDSAT ed il modello di simulazione DNDC 9.5. Le informazioni agronomiche utilizzate come input dal modello per la simulazione regionale sono state estratte da un database di pratiche agronomiche, realizzato durante il dottorato, il quale raccoglie dettagliate informazioni sulla gestione colturale utilizzata nella Provincia di Viterbo. I risultati ottenuti a livello di sito ci hanno permesso di comprendere come le colture di erbai e di trifoglio sono dei sink, con un range che varia da -25,65 g C equivalenti m-2 a -464,78 g C equivalenti m-2, in quanto riescono a immagazzinare nell'agroecosistema più carbonio di quanto ne perdono, mentre il frumento duro si è rivelato una fonte di carbonio (source) ma con valori molto bassi pari a 16,05 g C equivalenti m-2. Il caso di studio sviluppato a livello regionale ha permesso di valutare la distribuzione spaziale dei flussi di NEE nella provincia di Viterbo. Questa applicazione preliminare ha consentito una maggiore comprensione, di come le pratiche agricole, associate alla gestione delle colture erbacee prese in esame, possano influire tali flussi, diminuendo in parte le incertezze dovute alle variabili che entrano a far parte nei cicli biogeochimici del terreno, migliorando la comprensione delle dinamiche dei flussi dei gas serra nel settore agricolo della Provincia di Viterbo. Questa ricerca con dovuti approfondimenti potrebbe essere un punto di partenza, per possibili attuazioni di strategie volte alla riduzione e mitigazione, dell'impatto negativo che hanno i gas serra rilasciati dal settore agricolo nei cambiamenti climatici. ; The international scientific community agrees that climate changes are caused by human activities. It is estimated that annually agriculture affects atmospheric emissions of greenhouse gases directly and indirectly, to a share between 9 ~ 12 Pg CO2 eq yr-1, approximately 24% of global emissions. In the agricultural sector the variability and uncertainty of how the biogeochemical cycles of the soil affect the fluxes of such emissions, are not well known and are currently under investigation, since GHG emissions are strongly influenced by the type of crop, climatic conditions and the local agricultural practices. In the agricultural sector of the province of Viterbo, that covers an area of approximately 2.810 km2, characterized by a Mediterranean climate with dry summer, there have been a few studies taking into account the fluxes of carbon that are determined during the cultivation of field crops. In this context, in order to quantify and to contrast the fluxes responsible for climate change, the research carried out in these years of study, has measured and monitored carbon fluxes (Net Ecosystem Exchange) at the experimental site with the eddy covariance technique, defining the carbon balance, (NECB) for the agricultural years from 2009 until 2013. At the regional level, the fluxes of NEE were estimated during the cultivation of durum wheat (Durum wheat Desf.) and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.), two characteristic crops of agricultural landscape of Viterbo. To determine the spatial fluxes of NEE, images from LANDSAT 2009 satellite and the DNDC 9.5 simulation model have been used. The information used as agricultural inputs in the model to simulate at the regional level was extracted from the database of crop management, assembled during this PhD research. This database contains information about agronomic practices characteristic for the Province of Viterbo, applied during the crops cultivation. The results obtained at the site allowed us to understand how the fodder crop and grassland are sink of carbon, with a range that varies from -25.65 g C m-2 equivalent to -464.78 g C m-2 equivalent, because they can store more carbon in the agro ecosystem than they lose, while durum wheat has revealed a carbon source but with very low values 16.05 g C m-2 equivalent. At the regional simulation the spatial distribution of the fluxes of NEE has allowed to understand how farming practices, associated with the management of the examined field crops, may affect these fluxes, partly by reducing the uncertainties due to the variables that become part in biogeochemical cycles of the soil, improving the understanding of the dynamics of the fluxes of greenhouse gases in the agricultural sector of the Province of Viterbo. This research with further in-depth analysis could be a starting point for possible implementations of reduction strategies and mitigation in agriculture landscape in Central Italy.

International audience ; "I order the suspension of the parliamentary, administrative and supervisory functions of the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation. The Constitution. and legislation. will remain in force to the extent that they do not conflict with this Decree". Moscow, Kremlin, 21 September 1993, 8pm, Presidential Decree (Ukaz) n° 1400.Presented by some as a way out of the intractable conflict which had opposed the President and Parliament for months, denounced by others as a coup, Boris Yeltsin's decree provoked a crisis which would last fourteen days, during which political conflict turned into violent confrontation. From 21 September to 4 October 1993, Russia experienced a major political crisis. In response to Yeltsin's Ukaz, Members of Parliament supported by General Rutskoi, Russian Vice-President, met in extraordinary session, refused to comply with the presidential decision, occupied Parliament (the White House) and held out against the security forces. Protests were organised in the city: Yeltsin's supporters gathered near the Moscow Soviet (Mossovet), those supporting the deputies assembled near the White House. The political confrontation ended with the storming of Parliament by the army on 4 October, under the orders of the President, and the arrests of the rebel deputies and their supporters. The toll: more than 150 dead and 400 injured.Twenty years after October 1993, this Conference aims to propose a sociological analysis of this crucial but neglected political crisis. To this end, it seeks to question the official version of the event, which was principally the work of the victors, who imposed their vision of the confrontation and its consequences, in particular concerning the institutional outcomes. The Conference also restores the place of alternative accounts and memories. It analyses the diverse individual and collective trajectories of actors of the period. Focussing on the period prior to the conflict, its development and its consequences, the Conference explores both the winners and the losers of the conflict, its active participants and its observers. Particular attention is paid to the issue of the explosion of violence, its effects on the crisis and its outcome. ; « Je décrète la suspension des fonctions législatives, administratives et de contrôle du Congrès des députés du peuple et du Soviet suprême de la Fédération de Russie. (…) La Constitution (…) et la législation (…) restent en vigueur dans la mesure où elles ne contredisent pas le présent Décret ». Moscou, Kremlin, 21 septembre 1993, 20 heures, Ukaz du Président n° 1400.Présenté par les uns comme un moyen de sortir du conflit insoluble qui oppose le Président au Parlement depuis des mois, dénoncé par les autres comme un coup de force, ce décret de B. Eltsine ouvre la voie à une crise qui durera quatorze jours au cours desquels le conflit politique basculera dans l'affrontement violent. Du 21 septembre au 4 octobre 1993, la Russie connaît une crise politique majeure. En réponse à l'ukaz de B. Eltsine, les députés soutenus par le général Routskoï, Vice-président de la Russie, se réunissent en session extraordinaire, refusent de se soumettre à la décision présidentielle, s'enferment au Parlement (Maison Blanche) et tiennent le siège contre les forces de l'ordre. Des manifestations sont organisées dans la ville : les partisans d'Eltsine se réunissent près du Soviet de Moscou (Mossovet), ceux des députés près de la Maison Blanche. L'affrontement politique se conclut par le bombardement du Parlement par l'armée le 4 octobre sur ordre du Président et par l'arrestation des députés insoumis et de leurs partisans. Bilan : plus de 150 morts et 400 blessés.Vingt ans après octobre 1993, le colloque a pour objectif de proposer une sociologie de cette crise politique cruciale mais aujourd'hui négligée. Dans cette perspective, il vise à interroger le récit officiel de l'événement, œuvre avant tout des vainqueurs dont la vision de l'affrontement et de ses conséquences, notamment institutionnelles, s'est imposée. Le colloque souhaite redonner place à des récits et des souvenirs alternatifs. Il entend analyser dans leur diversité les trajectoires individuelles et collectives des acteurs de l'époque. Portant sur la période précédant le conflit, sur son déroulement puis sur ses conséquences, il s'intéresse tant aux vainqueurs qu'aux perdants du conflit, à ses participants engagés et à ses observateurs. Une attention particulière est accordée à la question du surgissement de la violence et de ses effets sur la crise et son dénouement. ; «… Постановляю прервать осуществление законодательной, распорядительной и контрольной функций Съездом народных депутатов Российской Федерации и Верховным Советом Российской Федерации. (…) Конституция (…), законодательство (…) продолжают действовать в части, не противоречащей настоящему Указу». Москва, Кремль, 21 сентября 1993 г., 20.00, Указ Президента, № 1400.Этот указ Бориса Ельцина, который одни представляют как единственный способ выйти из многомесячного неразрешимого конфликта между президентом и парламентом, а другие обличают как акт насилия, спровоцировал продлившийся 14 дней кризис, в ходе которого политическое противостояние переросло в вооруженный конфликт. С 21 сентября по 4 октября 1993 г. Россия пребывала в состоянии острейшего политического кризиса. В ответ на указ Ельцина депутаты, поддержанные вице-президентом России генералом Руцким, собрались на экстренное заседание, отказались подчиняться президентскому решению, забаррикадировались в Белом Доме и оказались в осаде. В городе начались демонстрации: сторонники Ельцина стали собираться у Моссовета, сторонники Парламента – у Белого Дома. Политическое противостояние закончилось 4 октября обстрелом Парламента силами армии, действовавшей по приказу президента, и арестом мятежных депутатов и их сторонников. Итоги: более 150 погибших и 400 раненых. Спустя двадцать лет после октября 1993 г. организаторы конференции предлагают провести социологический анализ этого важнейшего политического кризиса, о котором сегодня вспоминают так редко. Цель встречи – рассмотреть официальную версию событий, созданную победителями, которые смогли утвердить свое видение сути и последствий (прежде всего, в институциональной сфере) октябрьских событий. Поэтому на конференции прозвучали также и альтернативные воспоминания и интерпретации. Ее участники анализируют все разнообразие личных и коллективных траекторий политических акторов эпохи, рассматривают период, предшествовавший конфликту, сам его ход и последствия. В центре внимания стоят как победители, так и побежденные, как вовлеченные участники, так и наблюдатели. Особое внимание уделяется переходу к насилию и его влиянию на развертывание кризиса, а потом на его разрешение.

Il commercio equo e solidale (Cees) è andato sviluppandosi nel mondo occidentale nel corso degli ultimi quaranta anni, quale risposta alla crescente consapevolezza del fatto che i vantaggi derivanti dagli scambi e dall'espansione del commercio internazionale non risultano equamente ripartiti tra tutti i Paesi e tra i vari strati della popolazione di ciascuno dei Paesi stessi. La progressiva estensione del fenomeno in termini di ampliamento delle aree geografiche coperte e di aumento del quantitativo e delle tipologie dei beni commerciati, nonché il proliferare dei soggetti coinvolti e la loro stessa eterogeneità ha via via evidenziato le potenzialità connesse a tale realtà divenuta, nel corso di pochi decenni, da settore di nicchia, modello di riferimento per un commercio giusto nel panorama internazionale di mercato. Orbene, allo scopo di inquadrare precisamente il fenomeno e di sviscerarne i contenuti si è ritenuto opportuno suddividere la trattazione del tema in quattro macro-blocchi inerenti rispettivamente: la descrizione socio-economica del Cees, i progetti di normazione presenti in materia a livello sovranazionale-nazionale e regionale, le altre esperienze parallelamente sviluppate in altri paesi europei, nonché l'analisi degli strumenti contrattuali in uso nel settore con particolare riguardo ai contratti di Ctm. Il punto di partenza è rappresentato da una serie di considerazioni di ordine introduttivo, con particolare riguardo alla dimensione socio-economica del fenomeno, alla luce della sua crescente evoluzione e del suo attuale valore in termini di incidenza all'interno del nuovo ordine globale delle relazioni economiche. A seguire, dato il taglio essenzialmente giuridico della ricerca, si è ritenuto opportuno penetrare immediatamente la realtà del commercio equo con specifico riferimento alle problematiche ed alle prospettive connesse all'opportunità di una regolamentazione giuridica del fenomeno stesso, le quali costituiscono, precisamente, l'oggetto centrale del presente studio. In particolare si è scelto di elaborare una serie di riflessioni introduttive a proposito dei differenti approcci posti in essere in materia, considerando la complessità del quadro di riferimento nonché la varietà degli intenti. Orbene, nel tentativo di ricostruire le ragioni che hanno determinato l'esigenza di regolamentare la materia, si è pensato in primo luogo di esaminare i numerosi tentativi di autoregolamentazione attuati in tal senso, con riferimento da un lato alle cc. dd. Carte dei Criteri ed in particolare alla Carta Italiana, elaborate allo scopo di identificare i requisiti ed i soggetti destinati ad operare in tale contesto, e dall'altro lato ai sistemi di certificazione privati e specializzati posti in essere allo scopo di etichettare i prodotti del Cees e garantire così la conformità a determinati standard, nonché il rispetto dei principi propri del settore in esame. Una volta esaminati i percorsi inerenti la via dell'autoregolamentazione e le peculiarità connesse agli stessi si è ritenuto interessante procedere nell'analisi dei percorsi di eteroregolamentazione posti in essere in materia, e ciò in particolare sulla scorta dei limiti e delle incongruenze intrinsecamente legate alla strada dell'autodisciplina. La creazione di un preciso schema legislativo in materia, corrispondente ad una vera e propria legge, consentirebbe, infatti - ed è precisamente ciò che la ricerca è tesa a dimostrare - di realizzare, al di là del riconoscimento ufficiale del fenomeno, anche una specifica individuazione dei prodotti del Cees e dei soggetti coinvolti, ciò che determinerebbe, attraverso l'istituzione di un rigoroso sistema sanzionatorio, la conseguente eliminazione del rischio che gli stessi si trovino in un certo senso a miscelarsi inconsapevolmente con soggetti estranei ai principi del movimento, traducendosi implicitamente in una enorme garanzia per il consumatore. Una volta accertata la necessità di regolamentare la materia e una volta enucleate le motivazioni attraverso le quali si è giunti ad affermare la preferenza di soluzioni di tipo eteroregolamentative, si è scelto di proseguire nell'analisi dettagliata dei percorsi e degli interventi legislativi elaborati su scala sovranazionale, nazionale e regionale; ciò al fine di riflettere più compiutamente sul taglio che un intervento regolativo in materia dovrebbe avere. I paragrafi elaborati nell'ambito della Parte II e precisamente inerenti una ricognizione e valutazione critica dei progetti di normazione presenti in materia, si muovono in effetti proprio in tale ottica, nel tentativo di chiarire se, posta la complessità degli interventi legislativi predisposti a vari livelli, sia ravvisabile all'interno di uno di questi un possibile modello da seguire. Sempre allo scopo di riflettere sui profili regolamentativi del fenomeno del Cees e posta la necessità di rintracciare un modello indicativo sulla base del quale pervenire all'elaborazione di un preciso schema di inquadramento legislativo, si è scelto di dedicare le successive fasi della ricerca all'esame delle esperienze maggiormente rilevanti nel settore condotte all'interno di altri paesi. La terza parte-sezione del lavoro di ricerca si incentra, infatti, sull'analisi degli schemi e delle soluzioni legislative elaborate a livello europeo (e non solo) in tale ambito, ciò allo scopo di valutare le affinità e le compatibilità, ma anche eventualmente le divergenze esistenti rispetto al nostro sistema. Ebbene, a parte lo studio delle strategie tracciate all'interno del contesto europeo, ed in modo particolare in paesi come la Spagna e la Francia - attraverso l'analisi delle varie proposte e normative concretamente poste in essere - si è ritenuto interessante proporre anche l'esame di una realtà profondamente differente, sia per struttura che per impostazione, quale, appunto, quella canadese, e ciò considerato in particolare anche il carattere innovativo di una indagine comparata tra le due dimensioni (quella italiana e quella, appunto, canadese). Alla luce di tali considerazioni, nonché allo scopo di rendere effettivamente concreti i profili teorici anzi sviluppati, si è scelto di completare la ricerca mediante l'analisi di alcuni contratti commerciali, utilizzati nella pratica degli affari e recanti appunto norme rispettose dei principi del Cees. In particolare, l'ultima sezione del lavoro, inerente temi di giustizia sociale e diritto dei contratti - con specifico riferimento alla disciplina giuridica del contratto inteso appunto quale mezzo attraverso cui orientare il corretto funzionamento del mercato concorrenziale e fornire adeguate tutele ai consumatori - si sofferma sull'analisi della modulistica contrattuale (Il "Fair Trade Partnership Agreement"; l'"Annual Plan"; il "Fair Trade Purchasing Contract"; il "Delivery Order") utilizzata da Ctm Altromercato nelle operazioni di acquisto, nonché di trasporto e vendita dei prodotti equo-solidali. Tale modulistica, reperita grazie ad una profonda collaborazione con la sede legale del Consorzio, è stata ritenuta particolarmente interessante sotto un duplice profilo: da una parte, infatti, tali strumenti contrattuali potrebbero rappresentare una effettiva garanzia per quel consumatore socialmente responsabile che voglia visionarli al fine di constatare direttamente il rispetto di determinati standard e principi e che voglia, cioè, accertare che i prodotti che acquista siano effettivamente rispettosi di quegli standard; dall'altra parte, tali contratti rappresenterebbero una sorta di garanzia sociale, vale a dire un mezzo attraverso il quale far rispettare i suddetti valori e recuperare, in una prospettiva più ampia, anche determinati diritti. ; The fair trade phenomenon expanded in the western world during the last forty years because the benefits of trade and the expansion of international trade are not equitably distributed among all countries and between different levels of population. The gradual extension of phenomenon, the expansion of the geographic areas covered, the increase of quantity and types of traded goods and the proliferation of actors, gradually showed the strength related to this reality, which has become, in a few years, a true reference model for a fair trade on the international market. However, in order to classify precisely the phenomenon and to reveal its contents, it was considered appropriate to divide the discussion of the topic into four macro-blocks, respectively associated to: -the socio-economic description of the fair trade; -the different standardization projects elaborated in this field at the supranational, national and regional levels; -the other experiences developed in a comparative perspective with other European countries (and not only); -the analysis of contractual instruments used in the sector with particular regard to the contracts used by CTM Altromercato. The starting point is represented by some different preliminary considerations, with special emphasis on socio-economic phenomenon, considering its increasing trend and its current value in terms of incidence on the new global order of economic relations. Secondly, as legal research, it was considered appropriate to immediately penetrate the reality of fair trade, with specific reference to the problems and prospects related to the best legal regulation of this phenomenon, which represents the central object of this study. In particular, we chose to develop some general discussion about the different approaches elaborated in this area, considering the complexity of the framework and the variety of proposals. However, reconstructing the underlying reasons for a legal adjustment of this phenomenon, it was thought primarily to examine the many attempts to self-regulation, referring firstly to the "Carte dei Criteri" and especially the "Carta Italiana", drawn up to identify the requirements and the people suitable to operate in that context, and secondly concerning the private certification schemes, specialized in this field, and created to label the products of fair trade and thus to ensure compliance with standards and respect for the principles of the sector. After examining the pathways of self-regulation and the peculiarities connected to the same, it was considered interesting to carry out the analysis of a different form of regulation, called "heteroregulation", considering, in particular, the limitations and inconsistencies intrinsically linked to the self-discipline. In fact, the creation of a clear legislative framework, corresponding to a real law, would- and this is precisely what the research is oriented to prove - to establish, in addition to official recognition of the phenomenon, the specific identification of the fair trade products and of the parties involved and moreover, establishing a strict system of sanctions, to realize the subsequent elimination of the risk that they are, unconsciously, mixed with persons outside the principles of the movement, meaning a huge guarantee for the consumers. Once we have established the need to regulate this field and once outlined the reasons for a preference of heteroregolamentative type solutions, it was interesting to analyze the detailed paths and the legislative actions drawn up at the supranational , national and regional level, to reflect more broadly on the style that a regulatory intervention in this area would have. The paragraphs elaborated in the II part, concerning a critical evaluation of the projects of regulation existing in this context, want to clarify if, considering the complexity of the sector, a potential model to follow exists. Thirdly, in order to reflect on the regulation profiles of fair trade phenomenon and considering the need to find a legislative framework, it was chosen to dedicate the next stages of research to examine of the most important experiences carried on in this field from other countries. The third part-section of the research is focused on the analysis of legislative solutions developed at European level (and not only) in this context; the aim is to value the similarities and the compatibility, but also the differences, compared to our system. In addiction to the study of strategies, outlined in the European context, and particularly in the countries like Spain and France - through the analysis of various proposals and regulations put in practice - it was considered interesting to propose also the examination of Canadian perspective, considering in particular the innovative nature of a comparative study between these two dimensions (Italian and Canadian). For these considerations and to realize the theoretical profile, it was decided to complete the research with the analysis of some commercial contracts, which are used in the practice of business and containing the fair trade rules and the principles. In particular, the last section of work, concerning the social justice issues and the law of contracts - with particular reference to the legal framework of the contract conceived like an instrument to ensuring the proper functioning of the competitive market and protect consumers - is focused on the analysis of contractual forms ( "Fair Trade Partnership Agreement", "Annual Plan, "Fair Trade Purchasing Contract" and "Delivery Order") used by CTM Altromercato in transactions of purchase, transportation and sale of fair trade products. These contracts, obtained thanks to a strong collaboration with the legal office of the Consortium CTM Altromercato, were considered particularly interesting: first of all, these instruments could be a contractual guarantee for a consumer socially responsible, who wants to view them and to observe directly the relevance of these standards and principles, and to ensure that the products meet those standards; on the other hand, these contracts represent a kind of social security, namely an instrument to enforce these values and also to recover, in a broader perspective, specific rights.

Purpose. The most ambitious economic and geopolitical project at present is the New Silk Road initiative, which can radically modify transport and cash flows in Eurasia and around the world. It includes the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road projects and involves the creation of an extensive infrastructure network on the way from the western borders of China through the countries of Central Asia and Iran to Europe. Therefore, the purpose of this work is a detailed comprehensive study and analysis of the development of the Belarusian-Chinese cooperation on the Silk Road Economic Belt project, as well as determination of its further prospects. Methodology In the course of the study, we used statistical, territorial-sectoral and retrospective analysis with elements of economic and mathematical modeling of the functioning of economic systems. Findings. The Republic of Belarus has become the most important link in the creation of the Silk Road Economic Belt. It has a unique geographical advantage, extremely convenient economic and cultural conditions, being a key country in Eastern Europe, located at the junction of the European Union, and the Eurasian Economic Union. The country attracts with a developed transport infrastructure, a high level of education and professional resources. The New Silk Road project is focused primarily on railway communication. The main potential for the Republic of Belarus in transit traffic is associated with the use of containers. It is containerized cargo transportation that is actually the only way to transport goods in Eurasian transit. Originality. At this stage of project development, the construction of a full-scale functional, effective model that would allow predicting the results of the implementation of a specific subproject with the required accuracy is currently impossible. However, at the present stage, the originality is the so-called «problem statement» based on the obtained analytical data. They allow identifying existing problems during project implementation, formulating possible solutions and using them during economic analysis of the efficiency of other international projects of the analytical type (solving analytical economic problems). Practical value. The article discusses the prospects and difficulties of the development of transportations by express container trains of goods and cargo from the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the Republic of Belarus. To overcome the imbalance in foreign trade with China, measures were proposed to solve this problem; attention was paid to the project for the construction of Eurasia high-speed highway (HSR), which should connect China with Western Europe through Russia and Belarus. ; Цель. Наиболее грандиозным экономическим и геополитическим проектом в настоящее время является инициатива «Новый шелковый путь», которая может радикальным образом модифицировать транспортные и денежные потоки в Евразии и во всем мире. Она включает проекты «Экономический пояс Шёлкового пути» и «Морской шёлковый путь XXI века» и предполагает создание обширной инфраструктурной сети по пути от западных границ Китая через страны Центральной Азии и Иран в Европу. Поэтому целью данной работы является подробное разностороннее изучение и анализ развития белорусско-китайского сотрудничества по проекту «Экономический пояс Шелкового пути», а также определение дальнейших его перспектив. Методика. В процессе исследования использован статистический, территориально-отраслевой и ретроспективный анализ функционирования экономических систем. Результаты. Республика Беларусь стала важнейшим звеном в создании «Экономического пояса Шелкового пути». Она обладает уникальным географическим преимуществом и чрезвычайно удобными экономическими и культурными условиями, будучи ключевой страной в Восточной Европе, находясь на стыке Европейского Союза и Евразийского экономического союза, привлекает развитой транспортной инфраструктурой, высоким уровнем образования и профессиональными ресурсами. Проект «Новый шелковый путь» ориентирован в первую очередь на железнодорожное сообщение. Основной потенциал для Республики Беларусь в транзитных перевозках – использование контейнеров (фактически единственного способа транспортировки товаров в евразийском транзите). Научная новизна. На данной стадии развития проекта построение полномасштабной функциональной и эффективной модели для прогнозирования результатов реализации конкретного подпроекта невозможно. Однако на современном этапе научную новизну представляет так называемая «постановка задачи» на основе полученных аналитических данных. Они позволяют определить существующие проблемы при реализации проекта, сформулировать возможные решения и использовать их при проведении экономического анализа эффективности других международных проектов аналогичного типа (решения аналогичных экономических задач). Практическая значимость. Рассмотрены перспективы и сложности развития перевозок ускоренными контейнерными поездами товаров и грузов из Китайской Народной Республики (КНР) в Республику Беларусь. Для преодоления дисбаланса во внешней торговле с Китаем предложены меры по решению этой проблемы, уделено внимание проекту строительства высокоскоростной магистрали (ВСМ) «Евразия», которая должна соединить Китай с Западной Европой через Россию и Беларусь. ; Мета. Найбільш грандіозним економічним і геополітичним проектом у наш час є ініціатива «Новий шовковий шлях», яка може радикальним чином модифікувати транспортні та грошові потоки в Євразії і в усьому світі. Вона включає проекти «Економічний пояс Шовкового шляху» та «Морський шовковий шлях XXI століття» й передбачає створення великої інфраструктурної мережі на шляху від західних кордонів Китаю через країни Центральної Азії й Іран у Європу. Тому мета цієї роботи – докладне різнобічне вивчення й аналіз розвитку білорусько-китайської співпраці за проектом «Економічний пояс Шовкового шляху», а також визначення подальших його перспектив. Методика. У процесі дослідження використано статистичний, територіально-галузевий та ретроспективний аналіз функціонування економічних систем. Результати. Республіка Білорусь стала найважливішою ланкою у створенні «Економічного поясу Шовкового шляху». Вона має унікальну географічну перевагу й надзвичайно зручні економічні й культурні умови, є ключовою країною в Східній Європі, перебуває на стику Європейського Союзу та Євразійського економічного союзу, привертає увагу розвиненою транспортною інфраструктурою, високим рівнем освіти та професійними ресурсами. Проект «Новий шовковий шлях» орієнтований у першу чергу на залізничне сполучення. Основний потенціал для Республіки Білорусь у транзитних перевезеннях – використання контейнерів (фактично єдиний спосіб транспортування товарів у євразійському транзиті). Наукова новизна. На цій стадії розвитку проекту побудова повномасштабної функціональної та ефективної моделі для прогнозування результатів реалізації конкретного підпроекту неможлива. Проте на сучасному етапі наукову новизну представляє так звана «постановка задачі» на основі отриманих аналітичних даних. Вони дозволяють визначити наявні проблеми під час реалізації проекту, сформулювати можливі рішення та використати їх під час проведення економічного аналізу ефективності інших міжнародних проектів аналітичного типу (розв'язання аналітичних економічних задач). Практична значимість. Розглянуто перспективи й трудності розвитку перевезень прискореними контейнерними поїздами товарів і вантажів із Китайської Народної Республіки (КНР) у Республіку Білорусь. Для подолання дисбалансу в зовнішній торгівлі з Китаєм запропоновано заходи щодо вирішення цієї проблеми, приділено увагу проекту будівництва високошвидкісної магістралі (ВСМ) «Євразія», яка повинна з'єднати Китай із Західною Європою через Росію та Білорусь.

Purpose. The most ambitious economic and geopolitical project at present is the New Silk Road initiative, which can radically modify transport and cash flows in Eurasia and around the world. It includes the Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st Century Maritime Silk Road projects and involves the creation of an extensive infrastructure network on the way from the western borders of China through the countries of Central Asia and Iran to Europe. Therefore, the purpose of this work is a detailed comprehensive study and analysis of the development of the Belarusian-Chinese cooperation on the Silk Road Economic Belt project, as well as determination of its further prospects. Methodology In the course of the study, we used statistical, territorial-sectoral and retrospective analysis with elements of economic and mathematical modeling of the functioning of economic systems. Findings. The Republic of Belarus has become the most important link in the creation of the Silk Road Economic Belt. It has a unique geographical advantage, extremely convenient economic and cultural conditions, being a key country in Eastern Europe, located at the junction of the European Union, and the Eurasian Economic Union. The country attracts with a developed transport infrastructure, a high level of education and professional resources. The New Silk Road project is focused primarily on railway communication. The main potential for the Republic of Belarus in transit traffic is associated with the use of containers. It is containerized cargo transportation that is actually the only way to transport goods in Eurasian transit. Originality. At this stage of project development, the construction of a full-scale functional, effective model that would allow predicting the results of the implementation of a specific subproject with the required accuracy is currently impossible. However, at the present stage, the originality is the so-called «problem statement» based on the obtained analytical data. They allow identifying existing problems during project implementation, formulating possible solutions and using them during economic analysis of the efficiency of other international projects of the analytical type (solving analytical economic problems). Practical value. The article discusses the prospects and difficulties of the development of transportations by express container trains of goods and cargo from the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the Republic of Belarus. To overcome the imbalance in foreign trade with China, measures were proposed to solve this problem; attention was paid to the project for the construction of Eurasia high-speed highway (HSR), which should connect China with Western Europe through Russia and Belarus. ; Цель. Наиболее грандиозным экономическим и геополитическим проектом в настоящее время является инициатива «Новый шелковый путь», которая может радикальным образом модифицировать транспортные и денежные потоки в Евразии и во всем мире. Она включает проекты «Экономический пояс Шёлкового пути» и «Морской шёлковый путь XXI века» и предполагает создание обширной инфраструктурной сети по пути от западных границ Китая через страны Центральной Азии и Иран в Европу. Поэтому целью данной работы является подробное разностороннее изучение и анализ развития белорусско-китайского сотрудничества по проекту «Экономический пояс Шелкового пути», а также определение дальнейших его перспектив. Методика. В процессе исследования использован статистический, территориально-отраслевой и ретроспективный анализ функционирования экономических систем. Результаты. Республика Беларусь стала важнейшим звеном в создании «Экономического пояса Шелкового пути». Она обладает уникальным географическим преимуществом и чрезвычайно удобными экономическими и культурными условиями, будучи ключевой страной в Восточной Европе, находясь на стыке Европейского Союза и Евразийского экономического союза, привлекает развитой транспортной инфраструктурой, высоким уровнем образования и профессиональными ресурсами. Проект «Новый шелковый путь» ориентирован в первую очередь на железнодорожное сообщение. Основной потенциал для Республики Беларусь в транзитных перевозках – использование контейнеров (фактически единственного способа транспортировки товаров в евразийском транзите). Научная новизна. На данной стадии развития проекта построение полномасштабной функциональной и эффективной модели для прогнозирования результатов реализации конкретного подпроекта невозможно. Однако на современном этапе научную новизну представляет так называемая «постановка задачи» на основе полученных аналитических данных. Они позволяют определить существующие проблемы при реализации проекта, сформулировать возможные решения и использовать их при проведении экономического анализа эффективности других международных проектов аналогичного типа (решения аналогичных экономических задач). Практическая значимость. Рассмотрены перспективы и сложности развития перевозок ускоренными контейнерными поездами товаров и грузов из Китайской Народной Республики (КНР) в Республику Беларусь. Для преодоления дисбаланса во внешней торговле с Китаем предложены меры по решению этой проблемы, уделено внимание проекту строительства высокоскоростной магистрали (ВСМ) «Евразия», которая должна соединить Китай с Западной Европой через Россию и Беларусь. ; Мета. Найбільш грандіозним економічним і геополітичним проектом у наш час є ініціатива «Новий шовковий шлях», яка може радикальним чином модифікувати транспортні та грошові потоки в Євразії і в усьому світі. Вона включає проекти «Економічний пояс Шовкового шляху» та «Морський шовковий шлях XXI століття» й передбачає створення великої інфраструктурної мережі на шляху від західних кордонів Китаю через країни Центральної Азії й Іран у Європу. Тому мета цієї роботи – докладне різнобічне вивчення й аналіз розвитку білорусько-китайської співпраці за проектом «Економічний пояс Шовкового шляху», а також визначення подальших його перспектив. Методика. У процесі дослідження використано статистичний, територіально-галузевий та ретроспективний аналіз функціонування економічних систем. Результати. Республіка Білорусь стала найважливішою ланкою у створенні «Економічного поясу Шовкового шляху». Вона має унікальну географічну перевагу й надзвичайно зручні економічні й культурні умови, є ключовою країною в Східній Європі, перебуває на стику Європейського Союзу та Євразійського економічного союзу, привертає увагу розвиненою транспортною інфраструктурою, високим рівнем освіти та професійними ресурсами. Проект «Новий шовковий шлях» орієнтований у першу чергу на залізничне сполучення. Основний потенціал для Республіки Білорусь у транзитних перевезеннях – використання контейнерів (фактично єдиний спосіб транспортування товарів у євразійському транзиті). Наукова новизна. На цій стадії розвитку проекту побудова повномасштабної функціональної та ефективної моделі для прогнозування результатів реалізації конкретного підпроекту неможлива. Проте на сучасному етапі наукову новизну представляє так звана «постановка задачі» на основі отриманих аналітичних даних. Вони дозволяють визначити наявні проблеми під час реалізації проекту, сформулювати можливі рішення та використати їх під час проведення економічного аналізу ефективності інших міжнародних проектів аналітичного типу (розв'язання аналітичних економічних задач). Практична значимість. Розглянуто перспективи й трудності розвитку перевезень прискореними контейнерними поїздами товарів і вантажів із Китайської Народної Республіки (КНР) у Республіку Білорусь. Для подолання дисбалансу в зовнішній торгівлі з Китаєм запропоновано заходи щодо вирішення цієї проблеми, приділено увагу проекту будівництва високошвидкісної магістралі (ВСМ) «Євразія», яка повинна з'єднати Китай із Західною Європою через Росію та Білорусь.

Satire is an extreme paradigm of freedom of expression, but uncertainties exist about its conceptual definition and related legal regime. The development of communication has produced numerous literary figures similar to each other such as the chronicle (an impersonal and non-interpretive recording of events that have occurred), criticism (subjective analysis and judgment relating to events that have occurred) and satire (sarcastic criticism of characters, behaviors and actions of individuals for the purpose of social denunciation). The elements that characterize the satire, developed over the centuries, are essentially twofold: attention to contradictions (of politics, society, religion, culture) and moralistic intent to promote social change. Religious satire affects ecclesiastical power and its contradictions, but it also affects religious symbols and the contents of religions. Different legal consequences follow. When it affects the patrimony of faith of believers it is not acceptable. Religious satire generates a kind of conflict between different constitutional values, that is, between the right to the free expression of thought and the right to the reputation and protection of religious feelings. The right to satire in general is recognized by legal systems (both international and national) as a subjective right of constitutional relevance, which derives from the freedom of expression and thought. In the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, thought, conscience and religion are homologous (as legal goods or as ethical values). Therefore, thought, conscience and religion cannot be in opposition to each other. Considerable uncertainties exist about the legal discipline of the right to satire, which can never offend the fundamental rights of the person, his dignity and his reputation. The Nice Charter has favored an orientation which considers the right of free expression in its broadest and most expansive form. However, the prevailing value of fundamental human rights has always been affirmed, which cannot be offended by the exercise of the right to satire. The strength of the right to satire consists in the recognition of its constitutional rank, but also in the limits it must have. The jurisprudence has elaborated the "formal" obligations, among which the most important are: continence and functionality. ; La satira è un paradigma estremo della libertà di espressione, ma esistono incertezze sulla sua definizione concettuale e sulla relativa disciplina giuridica. Lo sviluppo della comunicazione ha prodotto numerose figure letterarie simili tra loro come la cronaca (una registrazione impersonale e non interpretativa di fatti accaduti), la critica (analisi soggettiva e giudizio relativi a fatti accaduti) e la satira (critica sarcastica di personaggi, comportamenti, modi di fare individuali con scopo di denuncia sociale). Gli elementi che caratterizzano la satira, sviluppatisi nel corso dei secoli, sono sostanzialmente due: attenzione alle contraddizioni (della politica, della società, della religione, della cultura) e intento moralistico per promuovere un cambiamento sociale. La satira religiosa colpisce il potere ecclesiastico e le sue contraddizioni, ma colpisce anche i simboli religiosi e i contenuti delle religioni. Ne conseguono differenti conseguenze giuridiche. Quando colpisce il patrimonio di fede dei credenti essa non è accettabile. La satira religiosa genera una specie di conflitto tra differenti valori costituzionali, e cioè tra il diritto alla libera espressione del pensiero e il diritto alla reputazione e alla tutela del sentimento religioso. Il diritto di satira in generale è riconosciuto dagli ordinamenti giuridici (sia internazionali, sia nazionali) come diritto soggettivo di rilevanza costituzionale, che deriva dalla libertà di espressione e di pensiero. Pensiero, coscienza e religione – per esempio nella Carta dei diritti fondamentali dell'Unione europea – sono omologhi (come beni giuridici o valori etici). Pertanto pensiero, coscienza e religione non possono essere in contrapposizione tra loro. Notevoli incertezze esistono sulla disciplina giuridica del diritto di satira, che non può mai offendere i diritti fondamentali della persona, la sua dignità, la sua reputazione. La Carta di Nizza ha favorito un orientamento, che considera il diritto di libera espressione nella sua forma più ampia ed espansiva. È tuttavia sempre stato affermato il valore prevalente dei diritti umani fondamentali, che non possono essere offesi dall'esercizio del diritto di satira. Negli ordinamenti giuridici nazionali, la forza del diritto di satira consiste nel riconoscimento del suo rango costituzionale, ma anche nei limiti che deve avere. La giurisprudenza ha elaborato i vincoli "formali", tra i quali i più importanti sono il limite della continenza e della funzionalità. ; Satyra jest skrajnym wyrazem wolności wyrażania opinii. Zarówno jej ujęcie konceptualne, jak i relewantny reżim prawny, nie są wolne od kontrowersji. Jedną z konsekwencji rozwoju komunikacji międzyludzkiej jest wypracowanie licznych rodzajów literackich, które przejawiają pewne podobieństwa. Do takich należą m.in. kronika (bezosobowy i pozbawiony interpretacji zapis zaistniałych zdarzeń), krytyka (subiektywna analiza i ocena odnosząca się do zaistniałych zdarzeń) i satyra (sarkastyczna krytyka osób lub indywidualnych zachowań czy sposobów postępowania, mająca na celu ich społeczne zdemaskowanie). Ukształtowane w ciągu wieków elementy charakteryzujące satyrę są zasadniczo dwa: skoncentrowanie na wewnętrznych sprzecznościach (polityki, społeczeństwa, religii, kultury) oraz intencja moralizatorska, mająca na celu pobudzenie przemian społecznych. Satyra religijna bierze na cel władze religijne i ich niekonsekwencję, odnosi się jednak również do symboli religijnych i religijnych wierzeń. Wiążą się z tym różne konsekwencje prawne. Satyra, która skierowana jest na dziedzictwo wiary, musi być uznana za nieakceptowalną. Każda satyra religijna wiąże się natomiast z konfliktem pomiędzy różnymi wartościami konstytucyjnymi, to jest pomiędzy prawem do wyrażania opinii oraz prawem do dobrego imienia i do ochrony uczuć religijnych. Generalnie rzecz ujmując, prawo do satyry jest uznawane przez systemy prawne (zarówno na poziomie międzynarodowym, jak i na poziomie krajowym) jako prawo podmiotowe o znaczeniu konstytucyjnym, które wynika z wolności wyrażania opinii i wolności myśli. Myśl, sumienie i religia – zgodnie z ujęciem przyjętym na przykład w Karcie Praw Podstawowych Unii Europejskiej – są wartościami homologicznymi (jako dobra prawne czy wartości o charakterze etycznym). Nie mogą więc być między sobą w sprzeczności. Istotne wątpliwości dotyczą natomiast przepisów odnoszących się do prawa do satyry, która nie może naruszać podstawowych praw osoby, jej godności czy jej dobrego imienia. Karta Praw Podstawowych przyczyniła się do ugruntowania tendencji polegającej na ujmowaniu prawa do wyrażania opinii w jego najszerszej, ekspansywnej formie. Konsekwentnie potwierdzane jest jednak również znaczenie praw człowieka, które nie mogą być naruszane w konsekwencji realizowania prawa do satyry. W krajowych porządkach prawnych znaczenie prawa do satyry wiąże się z uznaniem jego konstytucyjnej rangi, ale także z ograniczeniami, którym ono musi podlegać. W orzecznictwie wypracowano relewantne kryteria formalne, wśród których najważniejsze znaczenie posiadają: powściągliwość i funkcjonalność.

Introduction. Collective memory research helps to uncover the deeply imbedded meaning of the past in the present, to follow the identity development process in various communities, to find narrative structures that define societal foundations. Simultaneously, such research can be complicated from the empirical point of view. The scientific novelty of the given article lies in the fact that theoretical and methodological approaches to collective memory research have not yet been summarized and systematized up to this date. The goal of this research is to provide such a review and determine the most valid research methods in Memory Studies. The relevance of the presented research is determined by the fact that the proposition of a methodological apparatus for Memory Studies is necessary for the finalization of its formation as an independent discipline.Methodology and sources. Collective memory theory served as the theoretical-methodological foundation of the conducted research, it allowed to view the past not as a set given but as an object undergoing interpretation and representation. Such academics as M. Halbwachs, M. Bloch, A. Warburg, Jan and Aleida Assmann, J. Olick, A. Erll and others developed the following theory. A range of scientists dedicated their work to the discovery of collective memory research methods, among them M. Bulanova, W. Kansteiner, A. Erll, B. Zelizer, A. Confino, T. Kapitonova, V. Belokrylova, etc. J. Olick made a considerable impact into the understanding of the given issue, having suggested to view memory as a process developing in time, which required to define the methods of analysis that would be able to take this characteristic into account. However, a complete list as well as a general system and classification of methods have not been developed in the academic literature up to the present day. Having appeared at an intersection of various humanities and social sciences, Memory Studies adopts empirical research methods from Sociology, Political science, Culture Studies, Psychology, Media Studies, Visual Studies, etc. In course of the presented research, the relevant empirical research works in the Memory Studies field by international and Russian authors have been analyzed, we considered the research carried out by Ch. Lindt, A. Vasil'ev, T. Emel'yanova, A. Timofeeva, V. Kasamara, E. Hakokongas, E. Keightley, M. Meyers, B. Zelizer, and others. That allowed us to determine the most frequently applied collective memory research methods, to compile their overview and develop the author classification of the used methods.Results and discussion. An overview of key theoretical approaches to collective memory research was provided. They include functional, phenomenological, post-structural, social-historical and information approaches. J. Olick enriched the list of five theoretical approaches suggested by M. Bulanova by introducing the process-relativist approach to studying collective memory. The main research methods applied in Memory Studies were outlined; moreover, a classification of key disciplinary traditions that academics turn to in memory research was introduced featuring sociological, psychological, information, cultural and historical traditions as well as a separate branch of Computer Sciences.Conclusion. As a result of the conducted research, a systematic overview and an author's classification of theoretical-methodological approaches to collective memory analysis were introduced. The findings of the given research can be implemented by a range of academics working on the issues of group identity building, ways of working with contested past, historical events representation in the present, the functioning of memory communities, etc. The defining of the methodological apparatus of Memory studies serves as a moving force for the effective development, generalization and bringing to a common understanding the further research of collective memory structures formation and distribution as well as concepts related to it. ; Введение. Исследования коллективной памяти помогают раскрыть глубоко заложенные значения прошлого в настоящем, проследить процесс формирования идентичности различных сообществ, выявить нарративные структуры, определяющие общественные ориентиры. При этом подобные исследования являются проблематичными с эмпирической точки зрения. Научная новизна представленного исследования заключается в том, что до сих пор в академической литературе не были объединены и систематизированы теоретические и методологические подходы к анализу коллективной памяти. Цель данной статьи – сделать подобный обзор и определить наиболее валидные методы исследования в мемори стадиз. Актуальность проведенного исследования заключается в том, что утверждение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз необходимо для его окончательного оформления в самостоятельную область знания.Методология и источники. Теоретико-методологической основой проведенного исследования стала теория коллективной памяти, позволившая рассмотреть про-шлое не как устоявшуюся данность, а как объект, подвергающийся интерпретации и репрезентации. Данную теорию развивали такие исследователи как М. Хальбвакс, М. Блох, А. Варбург, Ян и Алейда Ассманн, Дж. Олик, А. Эрлл и др. Ряд ученых уделял внимание рассмотрению методов исследования коллективной памяти, среди них М. Буланова, В. Канштайнер, А. Эрлл, Б. Зелизер, А. Конфино, Т. Капитонова, В. Белокрылова и др. Дж. Олик внес значительный вклад в понимание данного вопроса, предложив рассматривать память как процесс, развивающийся во времени, что тре-бовало определить методы анализа, способные учитывать эту характеристику. Однако целостного перечня, а также единой системы и классификации методов на сего-дняшний день в академической литературе не разработано. Возникнув на стыке различных социальных и гуманитарных наук, мемори стадиз заимствует методы проведения эмпирических исследований из социологии, политологии, культурологии, психологии, медиа стадиз, визуальных исследований и т. д. В рамках проведения представленного исследования были проанализированы актуальные эмпирические труды в рамках мемори стадиз ряда зарубежных и российских авторов, таких как Ш. Линд, А. Васильев, Т. Емельянова, А. Тимофеева, В. Касамара, Е. Хакоконгас, Е. Кейтли, М. Мейерс, Б. Зелизер и др. Это позволило выявить наиболее часто используемые для исследования коллективной памяти методы анализа, составить их обзор и разработать авторскую классификацию применяемых методов.Результаты и обсуждение. Были рассмотрены основные теоретические подходы к исследованию коллективной̆ памяти. К ним относятся функциональный, феномено-логический, постструктурализм, социально-исторический и информационный. Дж. Олик дополнил перечень из пяти теоретических направлений, предложенных М. Булановой, указав на необходимость отметить процессо-релятивистский подход к изучению коллективной памяти. Были выявлены методы исследования, применяемые в мемори стадиз, и разработана классификация основных дисциплинарных традиций, которыми руководствуются академики при выборе метода исследования памяти: социологическая, психологическая, информационная, культурологическая и историческая, а также отдельный блок компьютерных наук.Заключение. В исследовании был сделан систематический обзор и разработана авторская классификация теоретико-методологических подходов к анализу коллективной памяти. Данные результаты могут быть использованы исследователями проблем построения идентичности групп, способов работы со сложным прошлым, ре-презентации исторических событий в настоящем, функционирования сообществ памяти и т. д. Определение методологического аппарата мемори стадиз выступает в качестве движущей силы эффективного развития, универсализации и приведения к единому пониманию дальнейших исследований формирования и распространения структур коллективной памяти и взаимосвязанных концептов.

Le attività di ricerca descritte in questa tesi si focalizzano sullo sviluppo dei quartieri ad energia netta zero (NZE settlements) in un caso di studio reale in Italia. Questo studio fa parte di un più ampio progetto di ricerca chiamato ZERO-PLUS (acronimo di "Achieving near Zero and Positive Energy Settlements in Europe using Advanced Energy Technology"), che fa a sua volta riferimento al programma internazionale Horizon 2020. Il progetto prevede la costruzione di quattro quartieri NZE in casi di studio reali in Europa, cioè in Italia, Francia, Cipro e Regno. In particolare, l'insediamento italiano è composto da soluzioni avanzate per l'involucro edilizio, sistemi innovativi di produzione di energia e gestione integrata delle risorse energetiche a livello di quartiere. Tuttavia, l'obiettivo di ottenere edifici ad alte prestazioni energetiche può essere raggiunto solo se si considera l'influenza contemporanea delle caratteristiche tecniche e dell'occupazione. Studi recenti riportano che, man mano che gli edifici diventano più efficienti dal punto di vista energetico, il comportamento degli occupanti gioca un ruolo sempre più importante nel consumo. Pertanto, una costruzione progettata per essere un "Net Zero Energy Building" (NZEB) potrebbe generare un consumo maggiore del previsto se le ipotesi fatte nel processo di simulazione non sono rispettate durante l'uso reale. D'altra parte, le prestazioni effettive di tecnologie innovative e ad alta efficienza devono essere verificate rispetto alle prestazioni previste. In quest'ottica, uno degli obiettivi di questo studio è quello di evidenziare i punti critici che possono influenzare le prestazioni energetiche, reali e attese, di nuovi edifici volti a soddisfare lo standard di energia netta zero. L'analisi è stata quindi eseguita attraverso la simulazione dinamica calibrata di un edificio continuamente monitorato. Nel dettaglio, le impostazioni dei parametri di comfort da parte degli occupanti e la loro interazione con l'involucro e i sistemi influenzano direttamente il funzionamento degli edifici e i relativi usi energetici. Gli strumenti di simulazione (EnergyPlus e DesignBuilder) sono stati impiegati per dimostrare il potenziale impatto degli stili di vita degli occupanti e delle diverse composizioni domestiche sull'uso di energia e sulle condizioni di comfort termico. I risultati rivelano chiaramente il loro impatto. I risparmi in termini di consumo annuale di energia possono arrivare fino al 60% nel passaggio da comportamenti errati a "verdi". Infatti, questo studio mira a focalizzare l'attenzione sull'urgente bisogno di modelli di riferimento relativi a problemi comportamentali umani che influenzano l'uso di energia negli edifici, in particolare negli NZEB. Infine, l'importanza dei fattori psicologici viene sempre più riconosciuta nel guidare il movimento NZEB. Questo studio sviluppa un esteso "Technology Acceptance Model" (TAM) per spiegare l'intenzione dei consumatori di adottare gli NZEB nel contesto dei quartieri NZE lo esamina attraverso un'ampia indagine condotta attraverso i canali dei social media. I risultati mostrano che la conoscenza soggettiva, l'utilità percepita, i cambiamenti climatici percepiti, l'atteggiamento nei confronti degli NZEB nel contesto dei quartieri NZE e le preoccupazioni ambientali generali misurate dalla scala "New Ecological Paradigm" (NEP), sono i determinanti psicologici significativi dell'intenzione di adottare gli NZEB nel contesto dei quartieri NZE. Si è anche riscontrato che la mancanza di conoscenze soggettive relative agli NZEB, e in particolare ai quartieri NZE, potrebbe costituire una potenziale barriera psicologica tra i consumatori intervistati. I fattori psicologici identificati forniscono riferimenti ai responsabili politici per sviluppare efficacemente strategie di intervento comportamentale per i consumatori e allocare risorse negli schemi di promozione dei quartieri NZE. This thesis focus on research activities within the context of the development of a Near Zero Energy (NZE) settlement in a real case study in Italy. This study is part of a wider research project called ZERO-PLUS (acronym of "Achieving near Zero and Positive Energy Settlements in Europe using Advanced Energy Technology"), which is in the International Horizon 2020 programme. The project involves the construction of four real-life case study NZE settlements in Europe, i.e. in Italy, France, Cyprus, and UK. In particular, the Italian settlement is composed of advanced solutions for the building envelope, innovative energy production systems, and integrated resources energy management at the settlement level. However, the objective of obtaining high performance energy buildings can be reached only if considering the contemporaneous influence of technical characteristics and occupancy. Recent studies report that as buildings become more energy efficient, the behavior of occupants plays an increasing role in energy consumption. Therefore, a construction designed to be a Net Zero Energy Building (NZEB) might consume higher than expected if the occupant behavior assumptions made in the simulation process are not respected during the real use. On the other hand, the effective performance of innovative and high efficiency technologies must be checked against predicted performance. In this view, one of the goals of this study is to highlight the critical points that may affect the energy performance, real and expected, of new buildings aimed at meeting the net zero energy standard. The analysis has, therefore, been performed through calibrated dynamic simulation of a continuously monitored building. In detail, indoor comfort settings by the occupants and their interaction with the envelope and the systems directly affect the operation of buildings and related energy uses. Simulation tools (EnergyPlus and DesignBuilder) were employed to demonstrate the potential impact of occupant behavior lifestyles and different household compositions on energy use and thermal comfort conditions. The results clearly reveal their impact. The savings in terms of annual energy consumption can reach up to 60% in the transition from wrong to "green" behaviour. Indeed, this study aims at focusing the attention on the urgent need of reference models related to human behaviors that influence the energy use in buildings, especially in NZEBs. Finally, the importance of psychological factors is also increasingly being recognized in driving the NZEB movement. This study develops an extended Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to explain consumers' intention to adopt NZEBs in NZE settlement framework and examines it through an extensive survey conducted via social media channels. The results show that subjective knowledge, perceived usefulness, perceived climate change, attitude towards NZEBs in NZE settlement framework and general environmental concern measured by the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale, are the significant psychological determinants of intention to adopt NZEBs in NZE settlement framework. It is also found that lacking subjective knowledge related to NZEBs, and in particular NZE settlements, could be a potential psychological barriers among the surveyed consumers. The identified psychological factors provide references for policymakers to effectively develop consumers' behavioral intervention strategies and allocate resources in NZE settlements promoting schemes.

El Il presente saggio vuole evidenziare l¿evoluzione nel sindacato giudiziale sull¿equilibrio contrattuale avutosi nell¿ordinamento italiano tanto per effetto dei principi sovranazionali, quanto per l¿operare della clausola di solidarietà sociale, sancita all¿art. 2 della Costituzione italiana, la quale, ponendosi come norma non meramente programmatica bensì immediatamente precettiva, sta avendo un impatto dirompente nel sistema italiano. Essa impone alle parti di un contratto divenuto squilibrato obblighi di rinegoziazione anche atipici e altresì al di fuori dei casi espressamente previsti dal legislatore.L¿utilizzo giurisprudenziale della clausola stessa, come si avrà modo di vedere a proposito del potere giudiziale di riduzione della caparra confirmatoria eccessiva, nonché l¿obbligo di rinegoziare un contratto di mutuo divenuto usurario per la variazione del tasso soglia degli interessi, se certo scardina completamente il principio di certezza del diritto, incidendo sull¿autonomia contrattuale ancorché lecitamente esplicatasi, rappresenta talvolta una valvola di salvezza per adattare un sistema pressoché rigido alle sopravvenienze che, comportando la caducazione del contratto, costituirebbero un grave pregiudizio per la parte che le deve sopportare. Si pensi ad esempio ad un contratto di mutuo divenuto usurario in un momento successivo alla sua pattuizione. Ancorché la stessa sia stata lecita in quanto originariamente contenuta nei limiti del c.d. tasso soglia, per effetto del superamento dello stesso a causa di una riduzione sopravvenuta del limite oltre il quale gli interessi sono considerati usurari, diventando usuraria potrebbe essere colpita da nullità, con conseguente obbligo immediato di restituire l¿intera somma data a mutuo.Se certo non può dirsi nuovo l¿obbligo di rinegoziare, certamente una novità è rappresentata dai poteri di intervento giudiziali non solo cassatori bensì anche correttivi, i quali permettono di ¿correggere¿ la volontà delle parti al fine del permanere del vincolo contrattuale, e ciò in un senso non solo normativo bensì anche economico. Per altro verso si fa sempre più largo l¿idea che gli obblighi di rinegoziazione delle parti possano essere, ove non spontaneamente adempiuti, ottenuti in via coercitiva attraverso l¿operare dell¿art. 2932 c.c., salvo valutare i problemi che al riguardo si porrebbero in termini di ¿compiutezza¿ del programma negoziale.Dopo avere evidenziato dunque l¿evoluzione avutasi all¿interno dell¿ordinamento italiano, mediante uno sguardo anche comparatistico alla stessa problematica, si affronteranno due casi specifici: l¿ipotesi della caparra confirmatoria, che in Italia non prevede espressamente un rimedio volto ad una sua riduzione, ove pattuita in misura eccessiva, analogamente a quanto invece si prevede per la penale, e successivamente si affronterà la problematica della così detta ¿usura sopravvenuta¿. Entrambe le fattispecie hanno trovato una soluzione grazie appunto all¿operare dell¿art. 2 Cost., che ha permesso il permanere in vita della pattuizione mediante un suo riequilibrio, non già ad opera della parte, bensì in ultima istanza ad opera del giudice ove la prima non vi provveda da sé.Il crescente potere giudiziale di incidere sul regolamento contrattuale, per effetto del citato principio costituzionale, se certo può incidere in termini di certezza del diritto e di autonomia contrattuale, talvolta rappresenta l¿unico strumento di tutela per la parte debole del rapporto. --- This essay aims to underline the evolution of the judicial power of examination on the issue of contractual balance as a result of the international principles introduced in the Italian judicial system and of the social solidarity clause provided by article 2 of the Italian Constitution. The latter, as it is a mandatory and not merely a programmatic rule, has been having a shattering impact on the Italian system as it prescribes to the parties of a contract that has become unbalanced obligations that are atypical and not expressly provided by law.As we will analyze in regards of the power of the judge to reduce a disproportionate commitment deposit and on the topic of the obligation to renegotiate a loan that became usurious through the increasing variation of interests, the use in the courts of the solidarity clause, even if it completely dismantles the principle of legal certainty by affecting the contractual autonomy already legitimately performed by the parties, it represents a safety valve for re-adjusting a system that is rigid towards unexpected occurrences. Differently, this situation would lead to a voidable contract and consequently to jeopardize the party that has to bear these unexpected occurrences. For instance, we can consider as the case in point a loan contract that has afterwards become usurious. Whether the agreement was at first legitimate since originally contained in the legal interest rate limit, in case of a subsequent decreasing of this limit above which the interest are considered usurious, the original agreement, by exceeding it, would be nullified and the party would be forced to immediately return the entire amount of money loaned.Although the obligation to renegotiate is not news, the power of intervention granted to the judge, who is enabled not only to annul but also to adjust the terms of the contract, is for sure something new. This power allows the correction of the will of the parties in order to save the contractual obligation from both a legal and an economical point of view. From another perspective, the idea of applying article 2932 of the Civil Code in order to enforce the obligation to renegotiate in case the parties do not spontaneously comply, always taking in consideration any kind of issues could arise in terms of the completeness of the negotiation, has made its way into the Italian judicial system too. After underlining the evolution occurred in the Italian judicial system, two specific cases will be analyzed throughout a comparative perspective of the issue. First, the case of the commitment deposit: in Italy it is not expressly provided with a remedy that enables to decrease it in case the amount the parties agreed on, is disproportionate (as it happens instead with the penalty clause); secondly, the issue of the so-called ¿supervened usury¿. Both cases have found a solution through the application of the above-mentioned article 2 of the Italian Constitution: the agreement can survive throughout a new balance applied not by the party of the contract, but by the judge as last resort, in case the first do not provide for it.In conclusion, the increasing power of the judge to affect the contractual agreement, granted by the constitutional principle, although it weighs in terms of legal certainty, sometimes is the only instrument able to protect the weak party of the contractual relation ; Artículo revisado por pares

Importance: The presented research topic is particularly relevant in terms of development of market relations inRussia, when indicated problems whose solution determines the positive results of reforming the economic system, an important place in which occupies the militaryindustrial complex (MIC). Among them special urgency are those that relate to the need to develop such economic relations that would ensure and guarantee the efficiency, competitiveness and sustainability of defense enterprises. In the new economic conditions, it became necessary to address the problems of financial security organizations, the military-industrial complex, the creation of an effective system to manage this process during the crisis and the need to find ways to stabilize the reproduction process inRussia. The conversion of potential military-economic opportunities in the real military power takes place on the basis of the functioning of the military economy that ensures the production and distribution of arms and military equipment. The war economy is responsible, on the one hand, the economic opportunities of the country, on the other – the nature and requirements of modern warfare. It is designed to ensure the maintenance of a constant high combat readiness of the armed forces and must be able to rapidly increase its power to the level required for the breakdown of military aggression. Problems of realization of military and economic potential are determined by the degree of use of the military and economic opportunities, as well as the effective use of financial resources.Objectives: The aim of the article is to analyze the problems of the formation and execution of defense spending. Objectives of the article: identify design characteristics of the defense component of the federal budget during the crisis of Economic Development. Methods: Methodological basis of this article are of economic and statistical methods of analysis.Results: Given that the management of the defense industry will be converted, you must use the positive experience of the international economic order to ensure the sustainability of their financial security. However, in the interests of the state and society to establish an efficient funding of defense enterprises requires a special approach for the following reasons: an effective system of financing of defense enterprises need to ensure the economic security of the country; establish a mechanism of redistribution of financial resources through economic transformation strengthens state control over the targeted use of funds; necessary, new approaches to the assessment and decision-making to improve the financial sustainability of defense enterprises. From a stable financial situation of the company and the development of DIC depends on the economy as a whole. The study gives reason to believe that at the present time inRussiaslowed down the pace of development of defense industry enterprises, has developed an unbalanced branch structure. In this regard, the study of problems related to the development of theoretical and practical tools for assessing the financial security of defense enterprises require special attention. The implementation of sound financial and economic policy, improving financial support to enterprises of the military-industrial complex of the state, identifying ways to improve the financial sustainability in transformation of the market economy is an objective necessity.Conclusions and Relevance: The practical significance of the work lies in the orientation of the provisions of the conclusions and recommendations of the work on the widespread use in improving the mechanism for defense and security, and the proposals contained in the article (to improve the planning and use of funds allocated from the state budget on defense) may be used by the legislative and executive bodies the Russian Federation, including the Ministry of Defence, in the current activity. ; Предмет / тема: Представленная тема исследования особенно актуальна в условиях развития рыночных отношений в России, когда обозначились проблемы, решение которых обуславливает положительные результаты реформирования экономической системы, важное место в которой занимает оборонно-промышленный комплекс (ОПК). Среди них особую актуальность приобретают те, которые связаны с необходимостью формирования таких экономических отношений, которые бы обеспечивали и гарантировали эффективное, конкурентоспособное и устойчивое развитие оборонных предприятий. В новых экономических условиях возникла необходимость решения проблем финансового обеспечения организаций оборонно-промышленного комплекса, создание эффективной системы управления этим процессом в кризисный период и необходимости поиска путей стабилизации воспроизводственного процесса в России. Превращение потенциальных военно-экономических возможностей в реальную военную мощь происходит на основе функционирования военной экономики, обеспечивающей производство и распределение вооружений и военной техники. Военная экономика отвечает, с одной стороны, экономическим возможностям страны, с другой – характеру и требованиям современной войны. Она призвана обеспечить поддержание постоянной высокой боеготовности вооруженных сил и должна быть способна быстро наращивать свою мощь до уровня, необходимого для срыва военной агрессии. Проблемы реализации военно-экономического потенциала определяются степенью использования военно-экономических возможностей, а также эффективностью использования финансовых ресурсов.Цель / задачи: Целью статьи является анализ проблем по формированию и исполнению расходов на оборону. Задачи статьи: выявить особенности исполнения оборонной составляющей федерального бюджета в кризисном периоде экономического развития РФ. Методология: Методической основой данной статьи являются экономико-статистические методы анализа. Результаты: Учитывая, что управления ОПК будут преобразованы, необходимо использовать положительный международный экономический опыт для обеспечения устойчивости их финансового обеспечения. Вместе с тем, в интересах государства и общества создание системы эффективного финансирования предприятий ОПК требует особого подхода в силу следующих причин: наличие эффективной системы финансирования предприятий ОПК необходимо для обеспечения экономической безопасности страны; создание механизма перераспределения финансовых ресурсов посредством экономического преобразования усиливает контроль государства за целевым использования финансовых средств; необходимы, новые подходы к оценке и принятию решений по усовершенствованию финансовой устойчивости предприятий ОПК. От стабильного финансового положения предприятия ОПК зависит и развитие экономики в целом. Проведенное исследование дает основание утверждать, что в настоящее время в России замедлились темпы развития предприятий ОПК, сложилась несбалансированная отраслевая структура. В связи с этим исследование проблем, связанных с разработкой инструментария теоретической и практической оценки финансового обеспечения предприятий ОПК требует повышенного внимания. Осуществление рациональной финансово-экономической политики, совершенствование финансовой поддержки предприятий оборонно-промышленного комплекса со стороны государства, определение путей повышения финансовой устойчивости в период трансформации рыночной экономики является объективной необходимостью.Выводы / значимость: Практическая значимость работы заключается в ориентации положений, выводов и рекомендаций работы на широкое использование при совершенствовании механизма обеспечения оборонной безопасности, а предложения, изложенные в статье (по совершенствованию системы планирования и использования средств, выделяемых из бюджета страны на оборону) могут использоваться законодательными и исполнительными органами Российской Федерации, в том числе и Министерством обороны, в текущей деятельности.

2012/2013 ; Between 1991 and 1995, close to three hundred thousand people were killed in the former Yugoslavia. The international responses to this catastrophe was at best uncertain and at worst appalling. While both the United States and the European Union initially viewed the Balkan wars as a European problem, the Europeans chose not to take a strong stand, restricting themselves to dispatching U.N. "peacekeepers" to a country where there was no peace keep, and withholding from them the means and the authority to stop the fighting. In Bosnia the Europe sought to avoid military involvement, citing every excuse she could think of not to intervene to prevent the genocide of 250.000 Bosnian Muslims, who ultimately died at the hands of their Serbian tormentors. The British and French, too, who had primarily responsibility for dealing with this European problem, had persuaded the United Nations to impose an arms embargo on both sides in the Bosnian war. As often happens, the embargo did little damage to Serbia's military capacities, since their army had inherited the extensive military hardware Yugoslavia had amassed under its former Communist regime. But the embargo did deny the means of self-defense to the poorly equipped majority Muslim population in Bosnia. Unarmed, they could do little to repel the invaders or to protect their villages. Some European leaders were not eager to have a Muslim state in the heart of the Balkans, fearing it might become a base for exporting extremism, a result that their neglect made more, not less, likely. However, from the beginning of Yugoslavia's collapse, Americans divided into two groups, broadly defined: those who thought that Americans should intervene for either moral or strategic reasons, and those who feared that if they did, they would become entangled in a Vietnam-like quagmire. As awareness of ethnic cleansing and genocide spread, the proportion of those who wanted the United States to "do something" increased, but they probably never constituted a majority. Nevertheless, when the situation seemed most hopeless in July 1995 - the United States put its prestige on the line with a rapid and dramatic series of high-risk actions: an all-out diplomatic effort in August, heavy NATO bombing in September, a cease-fire in October, Dayton in November, and, in December, the deployment of twenty thousand American troops to Bosnia. Finally, in late 1995, in the face of growing atrocities and new Bosnian Serb threats, the United States decided to take part in Bosnia, the war was over and the America's role in post-Cold War Europe redefined. There is a lesson here to be learned by Europe that Bosnian Muslims are the best Christians in the world. The policy-makers cannot have a double heart, one for love and other for hate because some European leaders were not eager to have a Muslim state in the heart of Europe. They spoke of a painful but realistic restoration of Christian Europe. Of course Christianity, like any other religion has nothing to do with the barbarities and the greatest collective failure of Europe. The lesson that Western civilization thought it had drawn from the genocide of World War II – "Never again!"- must now be qualified to read: "except when politically inconvenient." ; La tragedia della ex-Jugoslavia e al suo interno quella della Bosnia Erzegovina riguardano pagine straordinariamente sconvolgenti della storia del mondo posto-Ottantanove, addirittura — si può dire — la conseguenza più grave, anche se non diretta, della dissoluzione dell'Unione Sovietica e conseguentemente di quel bipolarismo che aveva "ingessato" tutte le ipotesi o i tentativi di trasformazione degli esiti e delle conseguenze della seconda guerra mondiale. In un'impostazione sostanzialmente di storia politico-sociale, il candidato ricostruisce le vicende che vanno dal 1990 al 1995, ovvero da quella che il candidato chiama "la morte della Jugoslavia" fino all'intervento, decisivo in termini militari, della NATO nel conflitto, che aveva già visto negli anni precedenti emergere la guerra in Slovenia, in Croazia, prima di colpire anche la Bosnia Erzegovina, con la finale Conferenza che porta agli Accordi di Dayton. L'attore centrale di tutta questa vicenda è naturalmente la Serbia di Milosevic, ricordare il quale non fa che aiutarci a veder riapparire i fantasmi di vicende atroci di sterminio di civili, di stupro etnico, di "pulizia etnica", di genocidio. Il candidato fa opportunamente precedere la sua analisi da una cronologia, piuttosto lunga, che consente di scandire con precisione i diversi passaggi di una storia eccezionalmente drammatica. Segue il programma del suo lavoro, con l'indicazione del metodo di ricerca e degli strumenti di cui si è valso. Le cinque parti sostanziali in cui si suddivide il lavoro riguardano la dissoluzione della Jugoslavia, a partire dai falliti tentativi di Tito di salvaguardare l'integrità di quella Federazione, e analizzando attentamente i due "scivolamenti" della guerra in Slovenia dapprima e in Croazia poi. Il candidato analizza la società e la storia della Bosnia Erzegovina, condizione ovviamente preliminare per comprendere gli eventi successivi. Le tre categorie alle quali il candidato riconduce quella vicenda sono il multiculturalismo, la multietnicità e il multiconfessionalismo — tre dimensioni che potrebbero poter essere rispettate e addirittura apprezzate e che invece, in ogni parte del mondo, e più che altrove in Bosnia trovano ostacoli e resistenze violente e sanguinose. Risulta, come il candidato fa notare, adottare l'arma del nazionalismo e delle sue retoriche, impedendo così a ogni pur volenteroso tentativo di portare la democrazia nel proprio paese di trionfare. Il candidato chiarisce, in questo quadro, che la cosiddetta "balcanizzazione" che si fa discendere da quella parte del mondo, non deve essere intesa come un termine negativo ma come la pura e semplice conseguenza dei frequenti interventi esterni che là si sono realizzati. Il candidato dedica non poca attenzione al ruolo degli Stati Uniti nella vicenda, e alle diverse strategie — politiche e militari — adottate: con i devastanti risultati che tuttavia, purtroppo, conosciamo. L'Unione Europea non esce ovviamente meglio dell'alleato d'oltre Atlantico dalla ricostruzione del candidato, che poi giunge anche a ripercorrere le vicende di alcuni importanti uomini politici locali, sopra tutti Izebegovic e Karadzic, l'un contro l'altro schierati. Né sono passate sotto silenzio le vicende di alcune delle pagine più drammatiche: il massacro di Srebrenica, i bombardamenti su Sarajevo e in particolare il secondo bombardamento sul mercato. La risoluzione della crisi giunse, come per incanto, quando la NATO accolse l'invito ONU di intervenire: l'intervento fece tacere le armi, portò agli accordi di Dayton, ma non alla riconciliazione, che dal 1995 ha comunque incominciato il suo lento, ma — sperabilmente — solido cammino. ; XXV Ciclo ; 1982

Unanimously the international research recognizes the fundamental role of the media in the affirmation of the phenomenon of stalking in the U.S.A., beginning from its same labelling. Star-stalking cases, accomplice the notoriety of the victims, has represented a starting point of the media interest that next has allowed to discover the prevalence of these conducts among the general population. The progressive social visibility of the phenomenon, promoted through the media, has produced the recognition of the stalking as a criminal problem, pushing the common law countries legislators to the creation of specific anti-stalking legislation. The research intends to investigate the role of the Italian media in the process of social and juridical affirmation of stalking, ended with the approval of the DL 23 February 2009 n.11 and the consequent introduction of the article 612-bis c.p. "Atti persecutori". The relationship between stalking and media in Italy, the relevance and the importance of the progressive change of social visibility, considering the particular way of working of the media, has been investigated through the collection and the analysis of the articles published since 1992 to November 2009 on Corriere della Sera, main national diffusion daily paper, and on Quotidiano.net, that brings the news of different local journalistic headings (Resto del Carlino, La Nazione, Il Giorno). The 506 selected articles, 293 published on Corriere della Sera (57,9%) e 213 on Quotidiano.net (42,1%), have globally been submitted to a first level of analysis based on the context of the article, the typology of content, the ability of recognition and the language used to define the behaviors. The second level of analysis has involved only news articles, studied through valutative analysis grids about victims, stalkers, typology of relationship, star-stalking cases and presence of violent behaviors. The typology of article mostly diffused on newspapers results to be the chronicle, that represents the 84,6% of the total. Popular and/or scientific ones represent the 7,7% of the total as medium value of the period, but their diffusion results constant only starting from 2001. The political news are the 5,7% of the total and they are recognisable starting from 2006. The use of the term stalking appears constantly among the media from 2002 with a progressive increasement in the next years (44% in 2007; 52,1% in 2008; 94% in 2009), representing by now the defining term of the phenomenon. Among 449 victims, found from 1992 to 2009, 372 (82,9%) are women. Among 440 stalker, found from 1992 to 2009, 84,3% are men and only 15,7% women. More than half of the stalkers was an ex-partner of the victim (51,2%). The stalker results to be an acquaintance in 24,3% of the cases and a perfect stranger in 24,5%. On 428 chronicle articles selected since 1992 to 2009, more than the half (51,4%) describes stories of stalking connotated by violent behaviors: physical injuries, assaults (also sexual), tempted and consumed homicides. ; La ricerca internazionale concordemente riconosce il ruolo determinante dei media nel percorso di affermazione del fenomeno dello stalking in U.S.A., a partire dal suo stesso "etichettamento". I casi di star-stalking, complice la notorietà delle vittime, hanno rappresentato un iniziale polarizzatore mediatico che ha successivamente permesso la riconoscibilità delle condotte di molestie a danno della popolazione comune. La progressiva visibilità sociale del fenomeno, promossa per via mediale, ha poi determinato il riconoscimento dello stalking quale problematica di rilevanza penale, spingendo il legislatore anglosassone all'emanazione di apposite leggi anti-stalking. Alla luce di queste considerazioni, lo studio qui presentato intende indagare il ruolo dei media italiani nel processo di affermazione sociale e giuridica dello stalking, culminato con l'approvazione del DL 23 febbraio 2009 n.11 e la conseguente introduzione dell'art. 612-bis c.p. "Atti persecutori". Alla luce di queste considerazioni, lo studio qui presentato intende indagare il ruolo dei media italiani nel processo di affermazione sociale e giuridica dello stalking, culminato con l'approvazione del DL 23 febbraio 2009 n.11 e la conseguente introduzione dell'art. 612-bis c.p. "Atti persecutori". Il rapporto tra stalking e mass media in Italia, l'entità e l'importanza del progressivo mutamento della sua osservabilità sociale, anche, e soprattutto, alla luce del peculiare funzionamento dei media è stato indagato mediante la raccolta e l'analisi degli articoli pubblicati dal gennaio 1992 all'aprile 2009 sul Corriere della Sera, principale quotidiano a diffusione nazionale, e su Quotidiano.net, che riporta le notizie di diverse testate giornalistiche a diffusione locale (Resto del Carlino, La Nazione, Il Giorno). I 506 articoli selezionati, 293 pubblicati sul Corriere della Sera (pari al 57,9%) e 213 su Quotidiano.net (pari al 42,1%), sono stati globalmente sottoposti a un primo livello di analisi basato sul contesto dell'articolo, ovvero la tipologia di contenuto, la capacità di riconoscimento e il linguaggio utilizzato per la definizione delle condotte. Il secondo livello di analisi ha coinvolto i soli articoli di cronaca, sottoposti a griglie valutative riguardanti le vittime, gli stalker, la tipologia di relazione intercorrente tra gli stessi, i casi di star-stalking e la ricorrenza di condotte violente. La tipologia di articolo maggiormente diffusa sui quotidiani risulta essere la cronaca, che rappresenta l'84,6% del totale.Gli articoli di tipo divulgativo e/o scientifico rappresentano il 7,7% del totale quale media del periodo, ma la loro diffusione sui quotidiani risulta costante solo a partire dal 2001. Le notizie di tipo politico rappresentano il 5,7% del totale e sono rintracciabili solo a partire dal 2006. L'uso del termine stalking da parte dei media risulta costante a partire dal 2002 con un aumento progressivo negli anni successivi (44% nel 2007; 52,1% nel 2008; 94% nel 2009) tanto da rappresentare, ormai, il termine di riferimento del fenomeno. Su 449 vittime individuate dal 1992 al 2009, ben 372 (pari all'82,9%) sono donne. Su 440 stalker individuati tra il 1992 e il 2009 l'84,3% sono uomini e solo il 15,7% donne. Più della metà degli stalker era un ex-partner della vittima (51,2%). Lo stalker risulta essere un conoscente della vittima nel 24,3% dei casi e un perfetto sconosciuto nel 24,5%. Su 428 articoli di cronaca selezionati dal 1992 al 2009, più della metà (51,4%) riportano vicende di stalking marcatamente connotate da condotte violente: percosse, lesioni personali, aggressioni (anche sessuali), omicidi tentati e consumati.

Dottorato di ricerca in Memoria e materia delle opere d'arte attraverso i processi di produzione, storicizzazione, conservazione, musealizzazione ; Il lavoro di ricerca, condotto in un intreccio serrato tra teoria e prassi che si è voluto evidenziare fin dalla scelta del titolo, si rivolge al complesso ed ampio fenomeno della Public art nell'intento di precisarne i contorni all'interno del più ampio orizzonte dell'arte contemporanea degli ultimi due decenni, di cui costituisce uno dei fenomeni maggiormente vitali. Le contemporanee forme artistiche, con l'inclusione di interventi che vedono in essere pratiche che esulano dai tradizionali spazi deputati, si sono fatte contaminazione, abbandonando quel solipsismo che per troppo tempo l'arte si è tenuta addosso. I confini tra spazio pubblico, vita quotidiana e fare artistico sono divenuti sempre più labili, infranti dal superamento dell'idea di arte come 'separazione', con conseguenti cambiamenti in atto che hanno portato l'arte a legarsi sempre di più al concetto di riqualificazione urbana. Essa ha così cercato di riciclare quel "terzo paesaggio"1 fatto di vuoti urbani privi di identità, costituendo supporto e corollario per investitori pubblici e privati o per semplici cittadini, che si sono ritrovati ad operare in periferie e luoghi dismessi, di colpo divenuti occasione storica di trasformazione concreta2. In questa sede è stata quindi lasciata da parte l'arte pubblica nella sua accezione più glamour, di arte da collocare in spazi sviluppati e già profondamente connotati (arte pubblica come dispositivo di carattere estetico) considerandola nella sua valenza sociale, etica, di arte relazionale che viaggia nel sommerso, pratica i territori della residualità, gli interstizi, si muove lungo i limiti, allontanandola da quella dimensione estetica che la riporterebbe nell'ambito dell'urban forniture e del monumento. Partendo da una riflessione su come sia cambiata la città (indefinibile e impraticabile metafora del tempo presente), si constata che la diffusione dell'arte pubblica, con le sue pratiche site specific, sia andata di pari passo con la perdita di senso e di segno del territorio e del palinsesto città. In questo contesto l'arte non solo è processo, ma innesca processi in luoghi altri, irrituali, dai centri storici alla periferia fino agli spazi interstiziali (quelli abbandonati, dimenticati, desolati) e l'artista produce oper-azioni tra estetica ed etica, mentre il pubblico non solo è partecipe, ma perfino coautore di tali processi. Contemporaneamente, con uno sguardo storico, viene ripercorsa l'evoluzione del significato di Public Art dagli anni '70 ad oggi, restituendone tutta la complessità attraverso un'analisi del pensiero critico espresso da autori internazionali di tante e diverse discipline (dalla sociologia, alla geografia, all'urbanistica, all'architettura, alla legislazione) interconnesse a questo particolare fenomeno artistico. Dopo aver colto le dimensioni in cui l'arte pubblica si manifesta, l'indagine si concentra sulla dimensione etico-sociale di rigenerazione urbana della Public Art, sia attraverso una riflessione sul ruolo dell'arte in questo 1 G. Clement, Il manifesto del Terzo paesaggio, Quodlibet, Macerata 2005. 2 Cfr. V. Gregotti, Editoriale, "Rassegna", 42, 1990, numero monografico su "I territori abbandonati". contesto, sia attraverso un serrato confronto tra alcuni casi studio europei (in Italia, Germania, Olanda, Svezia, Francia, Inghilterra, Spagna, Danimarca), casi che restituiscono un panorama diversificato, ma per certi versi attraversato da linee comuni. Dopo aver dato conto di quella legislazione che regola la commissione di un'opera d'arte pubblica a livello italiano ed europeo, messa a confronto con disposizioni e regolamenti statunitensi, il lavoro si conclude con significative interviste ad artisti e ad addetti ai lavori. ; Public art. Theories and practice, between critical analysis and urban regeneration. European case studies. The research, that mingles both theory and practice, as the title itself underlines, deals with the wide and complex phenomenon of Public art in order to define its boundaries within the wider horizon of contemporary art (of which it is one of the most vital phenomena), during the last two decades. The contemporary forms of art, with actions that go beyond the traditional delegated spaces, have abandoned the solipsism that has characterized art for a long time. The boundaries between public space, daily life and art have become increasingly fragile, overtaking the concept of art as "separation", and creating new stronger connections between art and urban re-qualification. The idea of "third landscape"1, made of empty urban spaces with no identity, has been recycled and became the support for public and private investors to operate in suburbs and dismissed areas that offered a chance for a tangible transformation2. Thus the glamorous connotation of public art (art as an aesthetic device) has been put aside to enhance its social value, its ethic and its capability to move along the boarders and the interstices, far from the concepts of urban furniture and monument. Starting with considerations about the changes in the city (seen as a metaphor of the present), it is observed that the diffusion of public art, with its site-specific practices, has followed the loss of meaning of the territory and the city scene. In this context art is not just process itself, but it activates different processes in diverse and non-ritual places, from the inner city to the suburbs and desolated, abandoned and forgotten areas; the artist produces actions between aesthetics and ethics and the public is not only participating, but even the coauthor of such processes. At the same time, the evolution of Public art meaning is investigated through an historical overview from the Seventies until nowadays, through an analysis of the critical thought expressed by international authors involved in several disciplines (from sociology to geography, architecture, city planning, legislation) connected to this particular art phenomenon. After describing the dimensions in which public art reveals itself, the research focuses on the ethical-social aspects of urban regeneration of public art, both reflecting on the art's role in this context, and through a dense debate between different European case studies (in Italy, Germany, Holland, Sweden, France, England, Spain, Denmark). Analyses about the legislation that governs the commission of public artworks in Italy and Europe have been also carried out, comparing them with American regulations and dispositions; the project ends with significant interviews to artists and experts of the field. 1 G. Clement, Il manifesto del Terzo paesaggio, Quodlibet, Macerata 2005. 2 Cfr. V. Gregotti, Editoriale, "Rassegna", 42, 1990, numero monografico su "I territori abbandonati".

Le celebrazioni per i 150 anni dell'Unità d'Italia offrono anche l'occasione per interrogarsi sulla storia e lo sviluppo di questo Paese, in particolare in riferimento alla cultura del mare e al sistema dei trasporti via acqua. In un paese peninsulare come l'Italia, con i suoi 7.500 chilometri di fronte d'acqua, la presenza dei porti è sempre stata elemento determinante per la crescita economica e per la sua affermazione sui mercati internazionali. Ma, dalla seconda metà del Novecento, le città e i loro porti sono andati progressivamente separandosi, determinando situazioni di forti contrasti e di continue tensioni. Solo più recentemente – a seguito della legge n. 84 del 1994 – nuove forme di 'dialogo' hanno consentito, in talune occasioni, di riavviare politiche di concertazione sui piani di sviluppo delle aree portuali e sul miglioramento della situazione delle zone urbane prossime ai porti. Per tutti questi motivi, l'occasione del 150esimo anniversario dell'Unità d'Italia può rappresentare un momento significativo per riprendere la riflessione sul ruolo dei porti italiani nella storia del nostro paese, ed, eventualmente, sul potenziale rafforzamento che essi possono subire, alla luce dei dati positivi ed incoraggianti dell'intero cluster marittimo in questi ultimi anni, almeno fino alla crisi congiunturale del 2008.Al tempo stesso, si può analizzare la complessa relazione porto-città, in un'ottica di mutuo riconoscimento delle rispettive esigenze e della volontà di sviluppare le proprie attività in un quadro di concreto ed efficace spirito di collaborazione, che richiede sia una maggiore conoscenza reciproca, così come una più efficace definizione degli obiettivi per il raggiungimento di una qualità urbana sostenibile e duratura.La progressiva globalizzazione dell'economia e la liberalizzazione del mercato hanno determinato una generale crescita degli scambi commerciali a livello mondiale e in particolare il bacino del Mediterraneo è diventato un centro di flussi di traffico Est-Ovest e Nord-Sud. L'Italia, posta al centro del bacino del Mediterraneo, è tornata ad essere oggi il crocevia delle più importanti direttrici di collegamento mondiale di merci e passeggeri, vivendo una stagione di intensa crescita nei traffici marittimi. Ad eccezione per quei porti caratterizzati da una forte presenza del segmento crocieristico che ha registrato livelli di crescita interessanti, la crisi congiunturale e globale del 2008 ha avuto effetti molto pesanti anche in questo settore (traffico merci su mezzi pesanti e traffico container). Si pagano alcune lacune storiche della portualità del Mediterraneo, e di quella adriatica in particolare, quali la mancanza di collegamenti terrestri via ferrovia da e per i porti, anche se le Autorità Portuali stanno cercando di colmare il ritardo sia dal punto di vista infrastrutturale che di sostenibilità ambientale, attraverso politiche di condivisione e convivenza tra il porto e il territorio circostante e in una rinnovata e diffusa 'cultura del mare' e del ruolo attivo e 'creativo' dei porti. Solo attraverso un approccio culturale e una reciproca educazione potrà emergere una nuova percezione del porto in città e della città nel porto. In realtà, esistono già segnali incoraggianti di una recente appropriazione – o ri-appropriazione – del porto in chiave positiva e di un recupero della cultura del mare in alcune città portuali italiane. Attraverso un processo lento e complesso, articolato in eventi diversi, sta maturando un nuovo 'sentire' nei confronti dei porti, visti in chiave di risorsa e di parte integrante di una città, purché essi rispettino alcune regole necessarie per una vita urbana sostenibile. ; The celebrations for the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy also offer the opportunity to question the history and development of this country, particularly in reference to the maritime culture and the system of water transport. In a peninsular country like Italy, with its 7,500 km of waterfront, the presence of ports has always been crucial to economic growth and its success in international markets. But the second half of the twentieth century, cities and their ports have been gradually separated, resulting in situation of conflict and ongoing tensions. Only recently – following the Law 84, 1994 - new forms of 'dialogue' have allowed, on certain occasions, to restart political consultation on the development plans of the port areas and on improving the situation of urban areas close to ports. For all these reasons, the occasion of the 150th anniversary of the Unification of Italy can be a significant moment to resume the debate on the role of Italian ports in the history of our country, and possibly increase the potential that they may have, according to the positive and encouraging data of the entire maritime cluster in recent years, at least until the economic crisis of 2008. At the same time, the complex relationship port-city can be analyzed, with a view to mutual recognition of their needs and to the development of their activities in a framework of practical and effective, cooperative spirit, which requires both a greater mutual understanding as well as a more effective targeting to achieve a lasting and sustainable urban quality. The gradual economic globalization and market liberalization have led to a general increase in trade globally and in particular the Mediterranean has become a centre of traffic flows East-West and North-South. Italy, located in the middle of the Mediterranean basin, is now once again become the crossroads of the most important lines of goods and passengers connected world, experiencing a period of intense growth in maritime trade. Except for those ports with a strong presence of the cruise segment, which recorded growth rates of interest, the global economic crisis of 2008 has had very heavy in this sector (freight traffic to trucks and containers). This is also due to some historical gaps of the Mediterranean ports, such as the lack of rail connections to and from the ports, although Port Authorities are trying to bridge the gap both in terms of infrastructural interventions and environmental sustainability, through policies of sharing and coexistence between the port and the surrounding area and through a renewed and widespread 'culture of the sea'. Since only through a cultural approach and mutual education will emerge a new perception of the port in the city and the city in the port. In fact, there are already encouraging signs of a recent appropriation of the port in a positive light and of a recovery of marine culture in several Italian port cities. Through a slow and complex process, articulated through different events, is gaining a new 'feeling' in relation to ports, seen in the key of a resource and as an integral part of a city, provided they respect certain rules necessary for sustainable urban living.