Suchergebnisse

The concept of anarchy is seen as the cardinal organizing category of the discipline of International Relations (IR), which differentiates it from cognate disciplines such as Political Science or Political Philosophy. This entry provides an analytical review of the scholarly literature on anarchy in IR, on two levels—conceptual and theoretical. First, it distinguishes three senses of the concept of anarchy: (1) lack of a common superior in an interaction domain; (2) chaos or disorder; and (3) horizontal relation between nominally equal entities, sovereign states. The first and the third senses of "anarchy"' are central to IR. Second, it considers three broad families of IR theory where anarchy figures as a focal assumption—(1) realism and neorealism; (2) English School theory (international society approach); and (3) Kant's republican peace. Despite normative and conceptual differences otherwise, all three bodies of theory are ultimately based on Hobbes's argument for a "state of nature." The discussion concludes with a summary of the key challenges to the discourse of international anarchy posed by the methodology of economics and economics-based theories which favor the alternative discourse of global hierarchy.

The article explores the main mechanisms of the maintenance of international order in a contemporary system of international relations. Within the system of international relations an order status is maintained by mechanisms of two types: organized and elemental. In this context, the mechanisms for maintaining order can be divided according to not only the degree of organization but also the content. From this perspective, the following mechanisms of international order were distinguished: institutional, regulatory-legal, economic, political-military, cultural, ideological and informational. International order is the sum of certain rules and principles established by all countries; those that they observe are built on the interaction of different factors. ; The article explores the main mechanisms of the maintenance of international order in a contemporary system of international relations. Within the system of international relations an order status is maintained by mechanisms of two types: organized and elemental. In this context, the mechanisms for maintaining order can be divided according to not only the degree of organization but also the content. From this perspective, the following mechanisms of international order were distinguished: institutional, regulatory-legal, economic, political-military, cultural, ideological and informational. International order is the sum of certain rules and principles established by all countries; those that they observe are built on the interaction of different factors.

The article explores the main mechanisms of the maintenance of international order in a contemporary system of international relations. Within the system of international relations an order status is maintained by mechanisms of two types: organized and elemental. In this context, the mechanisms for maintaining order can be divided according to not only the degree of organization but also the content. From this perspective, the following mechanisms of international order were distinguished: institutional, regulatory-legal, economic, political-military, cultural, ideological and informational. International order is the sum of certain rules and principles established by all countries; those that they observe are built on the interaction of different factors. ; The article explores the main mechanisms of the maintenance of international order in a contemporary system of international relations. Within the system of international relations an order status is maintained by mechanisms of two types: organized and elemental. In this context, the mechanisms for maintaining order can be divided according to not only the degree of organization but also the content. From this perspective, the following mechanisms of international order were distinguished: institutional, regulatory-legal, economic, political-military, cultural, ideological and informational. International order is the sum of certain rules and principles established by all countries; those that they observe are built on the interaction of different factors.

The thrust of this Paper is to analyse the transformation of international custom construction and creation from the model of state practice supported by opinio iuris to a new concept reflected in the judicial decision of the international criminal tribunals, with the main emphasis being on the case law of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. The following questions are examined in analysing the interpretation, application, and in some instances, also the creation of customary international norms: from which sources do the judges look for evidence of customary international law? Is the requisite of actual state practice diminishing? What is the significance of international treaties, reports of international committees, and international case-law as sources of custom? Does the case law of the tribunals show that the role of the judge is more prevalent than traditionally in the formation of customary international law, at least in the area of international criminal law? The first part of the paper offers an analysis of customary law in the International Military Tribunal of Nuremberg, which, along with many post-Second World War legal instruments, case law, and academic commentary, has contributed to and clarified the content of customary norms in international criminal law. The second part reviews the decisions of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia in relation to the concept, formation, and context of customary norms. In addition, the aim is to examine if the approach of the Tribunal on the construction of customary norms has changed during its period of functioning. The role of the judge in construction and in some instances, creation of customary international norms is discussed with references to the judicial decisions of the Yugoslavia Tribunal. I conclude that the dynamic approach adopted by judges in the construction of customary law in some cases of the Yugoslavia Tribunal is not unprecedented in the decisions of international courts. The third part discusses the problem of conflicting norms that may arise in the application and construction of customary criminal norms in international criminal tribunals. First, I conduct a limited conceptual and historical analysis of the principles of legality, the nullum crimen sine lege and the nulla poena sine lege principles, and I attempt to answer the substantive issues: how can the principles of legality be retained in the application of customary international norms by the international judge, and whether the progressive formation of custom (moving away from the requirement of 'constant and uniform state practice' supported by opinio iuris) destabilises legal certainty, which should be especially endorsed when an individual's (here meaning the accused) freedom is at issue? The final dilemma in relation to conflicting norms is that of deducing international criminal norms that give rise to individual criminal responsibility directly from treaties that were intended to be applied between the state parties. I conclude this paper by stating that the judges not only interpret, but also have an impact on the formation of customary international law because their decisions can be seen as evidence of (international) practice or as a reflection of opinio juris. Finally, this paper shows that there is a definite need for greater consistency in the formation of customary international norms in international criminal tribunals.

What are the conditions for a well-functioning currency union? Since the 1960s', there has been a long stream of literature dedicated to this question. Through studying the historical fixed exchange rate regime of the Gold Standard (chapter 2) and the modern day euro area (chapters 3 and 4), this thesis aims to add to the understanding of the economics of currency unions. Chapter 2 "When Do Fixed Exchange Rate Work? Evidence from the Gold Standard" examines external adjustments within a currency union. In particular, my co-author Felix Ward and I look at the historical circumstances of a fixed exchange rate regime that worked smoothly – the 1880-1913 Gold Standard. External adjustment under the Gold Standard was associated with few if any, output costs. How did countries on the Gold Standard equilibrate so smoothly despite inflexible exchange rates that were pegged to gold? To answer this question, we build and estimate an open economy model of the Gold Standard. This allows us to quantitatively assess the relative importance of three prominent channels of external adjustment: flexible prices, international migration, and monetary policy. Our first finding is that the output resilience of Gold Standard members was primarily a consequence of flexible prices. When hit by a shock, quickly adjusting prices induced import- and export responses that stabilized output. Neither restrictions on migration, nor the elimination of countercyclical monetary policy would have given rise to substantially higher output-volatility. Our second finding is that price flexibility was predicated on a historical contingency: namely large primary sectors, whose flexibly priced products dominated the export booms that stabilized output during major external adjustments. Chapter 3 "Sovereign Default Risk and the Role of International Transfers" asks what is the impact of interregional risk sharing arrangements when countries are afflicted with sovereign default risk. This is of particular interest in the setup of currency unions, where countries give up the exchange rate as a tool for business cycle stabilization. I introduce a sovereign default model in which regional sovereign default risk affects private sector financing costs and the linkage between public and private sector financing costs can exacerbate economic downturns. In this context, the benefit of international risk sharing comes in two dimensions. First, it helps to smooth consumption – the traditional channel of insurance. More importantly, by ameliorating large recessions, international risk sharing reduces the asymmetric impact of productivity shocks and raises average output level. Quantitative analysis shows that most of the welfare benefits that are obtainable from the optimal risk sharing arrangement can be reaped by a standby facility that is easy to implement. This finding is of policy relevance because whenever interregional risk sharing schemes are discussed between sovereign nation states, the willingness to part with fiscal autonomy is often severely limited. In Chapter 4 "Sovereign Risk Spillover and Monetary Policy in a Currency Union", I investigate the pass-through of sovereign default risk to the private sector financing condition from a different angle. In particular, I use a two-region currency union model to examine how the spillover affects shock propagation and optimal monetary policy. On the one hand, an increase in a region's sovereign risk premium raises the regional private sector credit spread, depresses inflation and tax revenue and further worsens the fiscal position. On the other hand, it also triggers changes in the policy interest rate. The net impact depends on the maturity of the government debt. When calibrated to the euro area and taken into account the average long maturity of government debt, the impact of the sovereign risk spillover on shock propagation is negligible. This is also reflected in optimal monetary policy. For the euro area, optimal monetary policy is well approximated by a simple target criterion that describes the optimal relation between output and inflation as derived from a basic New Keynesian model without sovereign risk and credit spreads. This continues to be the case even when there are cross-regional differences in their exposure to sovereign default risks. If government debts are short-term, however, the spillover considerably affects shock transmission and optimal monetary policy requires a stronger immediate shock-response.

Internationale Politieke Economie (IPE) is een nieuw vakgebied dat een zekere integratie voorstaat van Internationale Betrekkingen, Internationale Economische Betrekkingen, Politicologie en Bestuurskunde. Het is een terrein dat zich goed leent om de wisselwerking van verschijnselen op subnationaal, nationaal en internationaal niveau te analyseren. Dit artikel geeft een oeverzicht van de recente ontwikkelingen op dit vakgebied en signaleert de mogelijkheden en beperkingen van IPE.

The UN Charter and the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties require interpreting treaties and settling international disputes "in conformity with the principles of justice and international law." This contribution discusses procedural and substantive principles of justice which the international judge may take into account in interpreting international economic agreements. The "sovereign equality of states" underlying the "international law of coexistence" as well as the "international law of intergovernmental cooperation" must be interpreted in conformity with the universal recognition of human dignity as a source of inalienable human rights. The universal recognition of economic and social human rights further requires taking into account solidarity principles, as proposed also by the sociological approach to international law. The constitutional structures and citizen-oriented functions of the law of international economic organizations liberalizing and regulating mutually beneficial market transactions among citizens require judges to engage in a careful balancing of state-centered and citizen-oriented principles of international law, including respect for the emerging human right to democratic decision-making. This modern "international integration law" and the increasing number of "international constitutional rules" promote the reconciliation of the various state-centered approaches, human rights approaches, sociological approaches and policy-approaches to international law as a system not only of international rules and "legal pluralism" but also of constitutionally limited decision-making processes and struggles for human rights.

The underrepresentation of Asian states as parties to the Rome Statute has elicited concerns that the region is significantly falling behind in developing and enforcing international criminal justice. This view accords significance to ratification of the Rome Statute as the primary measure of a country's willingness to give effect to the norms protected by international criminal law. However, the development of international criminal justice mechanisms and substantive law has not entirely escaped Southeast Asia, which has seen the adoption of a spectrum of approaches to international criminal justice, including the establishment of international(ised) criminal institutions, Rome Statute ratifications, and the adoption of domestic legislation addressing international crimes – as well as other transitional justice procedures.This thesis identifies the laws and institutions for prosecuting international crimes in Southeast Asia and considers the arguments presented by different actors to influence states' approaches toward international criminal justice. It suggests that a linear account of these developments as deriving from externally driven norm diffusion is incomplete. Instead, drawing particularly on the experiences of Cambodia, the Philippines and Indonesia, this thesis argues that states, international organisations and non-state actors in Southeast Asia have engaged in a process of localisation leading to the adaptation of the international criminal justice norm. The development of mechanisms for prosecuting international crimes across Southeast Asia challenges assumptions about the temporal progression of norm diffusion, spatial designations between 'local' and 'international' ideas and actors, and the direction in which ideas and influences evolve across the world.This thesis makes significant and original contributions to knowledge by applying a 'localisation' framework to analyse debates about international criminal justice, including with reference to three case studies, and by extending and updating earlier surveys of international criminal laws in Southeast Asian states.

In this paper we examine the causal relations between international tourism demand and total exports and its subcomponents (intermediate goods and capital goods) and total imports (intermediate goods and capital goods) in Turkey by using Hacker and Hatemi-J Bootstrap Toda-Yamamoto and Time-Varying Causality tests. The results of the study indicate the causal relations between international tourism demand and exports and imports. The results also indicate that these causal relations between international tourism demand and international trade are not stable. In other words, they have a time-varying nature. Moreover, international tourism demand's contribution to imports is greater than that of exports. Finally, the international tourism demand is more often affected by components of exports and imports and the signs of those effects are generally positive. Thus, policy makers, sector representatives and market professionals related to both international trade and tourism should take into account of this time-varying nature of causal relations between these variables before implementing policies aiming to promote both. ; Bu çalışmada Türkiye'de uluslararası turizm talebi ve toplam ihracat ile alt bileşenleri (aramalları ve sermaye malları) ve toplam ithalat ile alt bileşenleri (aramalları ve sermaye malları) arasındaki nedensel ilişkilerinin araştırılması amaçlanmaktadır. Çalışmada değişkenler arasındaki nedensellik ilişkileri Hacker ve Hatemi- J Bootstrap Toda-Yamamoto ve Zamanla Değişen Nedensellik testleri kullanılarak araştırılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları, uluslararası turizm talebi ile ihracat ve ithalat arasında nedensellik ilişkilerin istikrarsız olduğunu göstermektedir. Başka bir ifadeyle zamanla değişen bir yapıya sahiptir. Ayrıca, uluslararası turizm talebinin ithalata katkısı, ihracata katkısından daha büyüktür. Son olarak, uluslararası turizm talebinin ihracat ve ithalat bileşenlerine etkisi genellikle pozitif yöndedir. Bu nedenle politika yapıcıları, sektör temsilcileri ve piyasa profesyonelleri hem uluslararası ticareti hem de uluslararası turizmi teşvik etmeyi amaçlayan politikaları geliştirmeden ve uygulamadan önce değişkenler arasında tespit edilen zamanla değişen nedensellik ilişkilerini göz önüne almalıdırlar.

First l will explain a brief definition of what is meant by international law, this is the set of judicial and legislative rules whose primary objective is contribute to re|ations between states are as orderly and consistent manner possible to work with the maintenance of solidarity and peace. ; Öncelikle uluslararası hukukun kısa bir açıklamasını yapacağım. Uluslararası hukuk ülkeler arasında dayanışma ve barışı temin edecek amacı düzenli ve tutarlı ilişkiler kurulmasına katkı sağlayacak kanunlar bütünüdür. uluslararası hukuk devletlerin diğer ülkeler ile ve kendi sınırları içinde yaşayan insanlarla ilişkilerindeki yasal sorumluluklarını tanımlar.

I. Državni savjet vrši međunarodno djelovanje na unutarnje pravo kako bi se uskladilo s međunarodnom normom i kako bi vodilo računa o stranim pravima. A. Državni savjet kontrolira sukladnost francuskog prava s međunarodnom normom u skladu s modalitetima koji se dalje razvijaju. 1. Državni savjet kontrolira suglasnost nacionalnog prava s međunarodnom normom u preventivnom i kurativnom smislu. 2. Modaliteti kontrole se dalje razvijaju. B. Državni savjet promiče uključivanje stranih prava u nacionalno pravo, što može proizlaziti iz imperativa u pogledu sukladnosti s međunarodnom normom, ali i nadilaziti ga. 1. Državni savjet uzima u obzir strana prava u nastavku kontrole konvencionalnosti koju provodi. 2. Državni savjet promiče otvorenost prema stranim pravima što nadilazi zahtjeve u pogledu konvencionalnosti. II. Državni savjet širi ambiciju međunarodnog utjecaja tako obnovljenog francuskog prava i promiče uvođenje značajnih akcijskih sredstava. A. Državni savjet treba osigurati vlastiti utjecaj, ali naročito, namjerava pridonijeti utjecaju Francuske na međunarodnoj pravnoj sceni. 1. Državni savjet treba osigurati vlastiti utjecaj na međunarodnoj pravnoj sceni. 2. Državni savjet namjerava pridonijeti utjecaju Francuske na međunarodnoj pravnoj sceni. B. Državni savjet promiče uvođenje akcijskih sredstava na međunarodnoj pravnoj sceni koji se odnose na kvalitete nacionalnog prava i njihovog promicanja u drugim pravnim sustavima. 1. Državni savjet djeluje u korist poboljšanja kvalitetâ nacionalnog prava. 2. Državni savjet podržava promicanje nacionalnog prava u drugim pravnim sustavima. Međunarodno djelovanje Državnog savjeta temelji se na jasnoj svijesti o njegovom ulogu: doprinos dijalogu između pravnih sustava, odnosno o učenju od drugih i o prepoznatljivosti. Ovi "Dani" su plod suradnje između političkih vlasti, upravnih sudova i sveučilišta, koja je potrebna našim dvjema zemljama i koja je, općenito, toliko potrebna svijetu. Ovih prvih deset godina postavilo je temelje bogatog i plodnog odnosa kojeg sada trebamo njegovati. ; The State Council acts internationally on domestic law in order to harmonise with international norms in order to take into account foreign laws. The State Council controls the harmonisation of French Law with international norms pursuant to the modalities which are still developing. 1. The State Council controls the consent of national law with international norms in the preventative and curative sense 2. Modalities of control are still developing. B. The State Council promotes including foreign law in national law which can emerge from the imperative regarding harmonisation with international norms and also surpass it. 1. The Sate Council takes into account foreign law in continuing to control the conventionalities it implements. 2. The State Council promotes openness towards foreign laws which surpasses demands regarding conventionality. II. The State Council spreads both the ambition of international influence of revised French Law and promotes the introduction of more significant action means. A. The State Council must ensure its own influence and especially intends to contribute to the influence of France on the international legal scene 1. The State Council needs to ensure its own influence on the international legal scene. 2. The State Council intends to contribute to the influence of France on the international legal scene. B. The State Council promotes the introduction of action means into the international legal scene which relate to the quality of national law and their promotion in other legal systems 1. The State Council acts to improve the quality of national law. 2. The State Council supports the promotion of national law in other legal systems. International activity of the State Council is founded on a clear consciousness of its contribution: contribution to dialogue between legal systems, that is, on learning from others and on recognisability. These "Days" are the fruit of cooperation between political powers, administrative courts and universities which are necessary for our two countries and which in general are necessary to the world. These first ten years have established the foundation for a rich and fruitful relationship which we today must nurture

The paper reviews international policy levers relevant to the work of CRISE. The large range of policy areas which potentially affect ethnic relations and the work of CRISE include factors that determine: political, economic and social resource access and inequalities across ethnic groups; perceptions of difference; and willingness to resolve differences peacefully. Policies relevant to these areas are primarily determined at the national level. However, these are greatly influenced by international norms emanating from the international community. Some international institutions also have a significant direct impact on policy via their own expenditures and conditionality. Most international influence over the economy and social sectors is wielded by the International Financial Institutions – with the World Bank especially important in relation to relevant distributional and sectoral policies. A range of United Nations organs contribute to the formation of norms, as well as acting in conflict-ridden situations, and influencing development policy. Bilateral donors and international NGOs have a significant direct impact in some countries. Large international corporations, responsible for massive investments, might become a powerful lever, as the movement for corporate social responsibility gains ground. Global media – the internet and television – are, of course, of increasing influence. Some academic centres and think tanks also affect the formation of global norms of policy-making.

Potential synergies between international trade and tourism are viewed optimistically by governments, yet research to assess their association is limited. To gain an understanding of trade and tourism relationships, this paper reports on a study which examines both product-related and tourism-related place image effects on consumer behavior simultaneously. Using the U.S. as the country of focus, key product and travel relationships are measured by structural equation modeling of consumer data from South Korea. Findings support the cross-over effect between one's beliefs about a country as a destination and as a producer, and one's willingness to travel to it and/or buy its products, and most strongly, that product beliefs affect views of travel destinations.

An examination of the ways the construction of the Internet, with cyberspace as the core, are changing the theory, policy, and practice of international relations. ; Cyberspace is widely acknowledged as a fundamental fact of daily life in today's world. Until recently, its political impact was thought to be a matter of low politics—background conditions and routine processes and decisions. Now, however, experts have begun to recognize its effect on high politics—national security, core institutions, and critical decision processes. In this book, Nazli Choucri investigates the implications of this new cyberpolitical reality for international relations theory, policy, and practice. The ubiquity, fluidity, and anonymity of cyberspace have already challenged such concepts as leverage and influence, national security and diplomacy, and borders and boundaries in the traditionally state-centric arena of international relations. Choucri grapples with fundamental questions of how we can take explicit account of cyberspace in the analysis of world politics and how we can integrate the traditional international system with its cyber venues. After establishing the theoretical and empirical terrain, Choucri examines modes of cyber conflict and cyber cooperation in international relations; the potential for the gradual convergence of cyberspace and sustainability, in both substantive and policy terms; and the emergent synergy of cyberspace and international efforts toward sustainable development. Choucri's discussion is theoretically driven and empirically grounded, drawing on recent data and analyzing the dynamics of cyberpolitics at individual, state, international, and global levels.

The relation between currency and trade, and the impact that the exchange rate can have on International Trade Law enables heated arguments. The Havana Charter calls for the non-use of the devaluation of the exchange rate as commercial weapon. GATT has, among its articles, those addressing issues regarding exchange rates. However, this topic raises controversies, especially concerning the applicability of the WTO agreements as a commercial remedy against currencies' anticompetitive devaluation. On the other hand, the IMF, an institution created under the Bretton Woods Agreement, is the competent body to deal with international financial issues and its article IV rules on its duty to monitor its Member States exchange rate policies, in order to avoid obtaining anti-competitive advantages among their means of trade. The two organizations working jointly in an orderly manner to accomplish their objectives of an overall world economic growth and it is from this perception that harmonization between WTO's legal guidance and IMF's directives must be implemented. And as such, the prime goal for global governance for the benefit of all shall become a reality. ; La relation entre la monnaie et le commerce, et l'impact que le taux de change peut avoir sur le droit du commerce international suscitent de vives discussions. la charte de la havane préconisait la non-utilisation de la dévaluation du taux de change comme une arme commerciale. le gatt contient des articles qui s'adressent aux questions de change. cependant, la thématique suscite des polémiques concernant notamment l'applicabilité des accords de l'omc comme un remède commercial contre la dévaluation anti-compétitive de la monnaie. d'un autre côté, le fmi, institution créée dans le cadre de l'accord de bretton woods, est l'organe compétent pour traiter les questions internationales d'ordre financier, et l'article iv de son statut concerne en particulier son devoir de surveillance des politiques de change de ses états-membres, afin d'éviter l'obtention d'avantages ...