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International audience ; This article examines the relationship between music and the memory of the past, in particular the memory of the Burundi civil war as a historical experience. It deals with the way in which music has become both a medium of memory and a lieu de mémoire regardless of the intention of its composers. Since the assassination of President Ndadaye in October 1993 and during the following months, the National Radio and Television of Burundi frequently aired songs. Among them were two songs, "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("The Signs of Time") and "Shalom" ("Peace"). These gospels were sung by the Rwandan choir Hoziana Choir. This article explores the representations associated today with these two songs by those who used to hear them on the radio in time of war and exile. Based on the ethnography of Burundians living in Île-de-France, this paper shows how these songs activate different memories related to pain, loss, suffering but also to the ordinary actions of those who tried to stand in the way of massacres. Listening to them brings back a memory that transcends ethnic groups or social categories, promoting on the contrary a community of experience at a national scale. For the survivors of the civil war, the memory charge of these gospels takes precedence over their religious character, but for the new generation they are mere religious songs. The memory charge of these songs is therefore fragile and is likely to disappear. The article insists that these two songs are "unintentional musical monuments": they differ from built monuments as they are mobile and able to reach out to those who remember or commemorate. These two gospels also became warning signs of war, especially of the assassination of a president: they are therefore ominous songs which, in the imagination of those who witnessed the civil war, have the capacity to act and cause a regicide. Listening to or hearing these songs activates individual or shared memories of the past, but at the same time it induces reactions linked to the political present and projections into a possible future—this reminds us how much memory lies at the junction between past, present and future. ; L'article examine les relations entre la musique et la mémoire du passé, plus particulièrement la mémoire de l'expérience historique que fut la guerre civile au Burundi. Il traite de la façon dont la musique est devenue, indépendamment de l'intention de ses auteurs, un support de mémoire et un lieu de mémoire. Depuis l'assassinat du Président Ndadaye en octobre 1993 et pendant les mois qui ont suivi, des chants passèrent fréquemment sur les ondes de la Radio-Télévision nationale du Burundi. Parmi eux figuraient deux chansons, « Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe » (« Les signes des temps ») et « Shalom » (« La paix »). Il s'agit de gospels chantés par la chorale rwandaise Hoziana Choir. L'article explore les représentations aujourd'hui associées à ces deux chants par celles et ceux qui les entendaient jadis à la radio dans un contexte de guerre et d'exil.À partir d'une enquête ethnographique réalisée auprès de Burundais vivant en Île-de-France, l'article montre que ces chants activent différentes mémoires associées à la douleur, à la perte, à la souffrance, mais aussi aux actes ordinaires de ceux qui ont tenté de s'opposer aux massacres. Leur écoute fait resurgir une mémoire qui transcende les ethnies ou les catégories sociales pour fait valoir une même communauté d'expérience à l'échelle de la nation. Si, pour ces rescapés de la guerre civile, la dimension mémorielle prime sur la dimension religieuse, ces gospels ne sont plus de simples chansons religieuses pour les nouvelles générations. Leur charge mémorielle est donc fragile et risque de disparaître. L'article considère ces deux chants comme des « monuments musicaux non intentionnels » : ils se distinguent des monuments bâtis par leur spécificité d'être mobiles, allant ainsi à la rencontre de celle ou celui qui se souvient ou commémore. Ces deux gospels sont aussi devenus des signes avant-coureurs de la guerre, plus particulièrement de l'assassinat d'un président : ce sont donc des chants de mauvais augure qui, dans l'imaginaire des anciens témoins de la guerre civile, ont la capacité d'agir en provoquant un régicide. Écouter ou entendre ces chants active des souvenirs individuels ou partagés du passé, mais induit en même temps des réactions liées au présent politique et des projections dans un avenir possible, rappelant combien la mémoire se situe à la jonction entre passé, présent et futur. ; O artigo examina as relações entre a música e a memória do passado, particularmente a memória da experiência histórica da guerra civil no Burundi. Discute-se de que maneira a música se tornou, a despeito das intenções de seus autores, um suporte de memória e um lugar de memória. Após o assassinato do Presidente Ndadaye, em outubro de 1993, e ao longo dos meses que se seguiram, cânticos foram repetidamente transmitidos pelas ondas da Radio-Télévision Nationale du Burundi (RTNB). Dentre eles, duas canções se destacam: "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("Os sinais dos tempos") e "Shalom" ("Paz"). Trata-se de cantos gospel entoados pelo coral ruandês Hoziana Choir. O artigo investiga as representações atualmente associadas a esses dois cânticos por aquelas e aqueles que outrora os escutaram no rádio em um contexto de guerra e de exílio. A partir de um levantamento etnográfico realizado junto aos burundianos que vivem na Île-de-France, o artigo mostra que esses cânticos ativam diferentes memórias associadas à dor, à perda, ao sofrimento, mas, do mesmo modo, aos atos cotidianos daqueles que procuraram se opor aos massacres. Escutá-los ressuscita uma memória que transcende as etnias e as categorias sociais, na medida em que é exaltada uma mesma comunidade de experiência em escala nacional. Enquanto para esses sobreviventes da guerra civil a dimensão da memória tem precedência sobre a religiosa, para as novas gerações esses cantos gospel não são mais do que canções religiosas. A sua carga memorial é, desse modo, frágil, e corre o risco de desaparecer. O artigo considera esses dois cânticos como "monumentos musicais não intencionais": estes se distinguem dos monumentos construídos pela especificidade de serem móveis, indo ao encontro daquela ou daquele que se recorda ou comemora. Esses dois cantos gospel também se tornaram sinais de prenúncio da guerra, mais particularmente do assassinato de um presidente: são, portanto, cânticos de mau agouro que, no imaginário dos antigos testemunhos da guerra civil, tiveram a capacidade de agir ao provocar um regicídio. Escutar ou ouvir esses cânticos ativa as lembranças individuais e compartilhadas, mas, ao mesmo tempo, incita as reações ligadas ao presente político e às projeções de um porvir possível, recordando como a memória se situa na junção entre o passado, o presente e o futuro.

International audience ; This article examines the relationship between music and the memory of the past, in particular the memory of the Burundi civil war as a historical experience. It deals with the way in which music has become both a medium of memory and a lieu de mémoire regardless of the intention of its composers. Since the assassination of President Ndadaye in October 1993 and during the following months, the National Radio and Television of Burundi frequently aired songs. Among them were two songs, "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("The Signs of Time") and "Shalom" ("Peace"). These gospels were sung by the Rwandan choir Hoziana Choir. This article explores the representations associated today with these two songs by those who used to hear them on the radio in time of war and exile. Based on the ethnography of Burundians living in Île-de-France, this paper shows how these songs activate different memories related to pain, loss, suffering but also to the ordinary actions of those who tried to stand in the way of massacres. Listening to them brings back a memory that transcends ethnic groups or social categories, promoting on the contrary a community of experience at a national scale. For the survivors of the civil war, the memory charge of these gospels takes precedence over their religious character, but for the new generation they are mere religious songs. The memory charge of these songs is therefore fragile and is likely to disappear. The article insists that these two songs are "unintentional musical monuments": they differ from built monuments as they are mobile and able to reach out to those who remember or commemorate. These two gospels also became warning signs of war, especially of the assassination of a president: they are therefore ominous songs which, in the imagination of those who witnessed the civil war, have the capacity to act and cause a regicide. Listening to or hearing these songs activates individual or shared memories of the past, but at the same time it induces reactions linked to the political present and projections into a possible future—this reminds us how much memory lies at the junction between past, present and future. ; L'article examine les relations entre la musique et la mémoire du passé, plus particulièrement la mémoire de l'expérience historique que fut la guerre civile au Burundi. Il traite de la façon dont la musique est devenue, indépendamment de l'intention de ses auteurs, un support de mémoire et un lieu de mémoire. Depuis l'assassinat du Président Ndadaye en octobre 1993 et pendant les mois qui ont suivi, des chants passèrent fréquemment sur les ondes de la Radio-Télévision nationale du Burundi. Parmi eux figuraient deux chansons, « Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe » (« Les signes des temps ») et « Shalom » (« La paix »). Il s'agit de gospels chantés par la chorale rwandaise Hoziana Choir. L'article explore les représentations aujourd'hui associées à ces deux chants par celles et ceux qui les entendaient jadis à la radio dans un contexte de guerre et d'exil.À partir d'une enquête ethnographique réalisée auprès de Burundais vivant en Île-de-France, l'article montre que ces chants activent différentes mémoires associées à la douleur, à la perte, à la souffrance, mais aussi aux actes ordinaires de ceux qui ont tenté de s'opposer aux massacres. Leur écoute fait resurgir une mémoire qui transcende les ethnies ou les catégories sociales pour fait valoir une même communauté d'expérience à l'échelle de la nation. Si, pour ces rescapés de la guerre civile, la dimension mémorielle prime sur la dimension religieuse, ces gospels ne sont plus de simples chansons religieuses pour les nouvelles générations. Leur charge mémorielle est donc fragile et risque de disparaître. L'article considère ces deux chants comme des « monuments musicaux non intentionnels » : ils se distinguent des monuments bâtis par leur spécificité d'être mobiles, allant ainsi à la rencontre de celle ou celui qui se souvient ou commémore. Ces deux gospels sont aussi devenus des signes avant-coureurs de la guerre, plus particulièrement de l'assassinat d'un président : ce sont donc des chants de mauvais augure qui, dans l'imaginaire des anciens témoins de la guerre civile, ont la capacité d'agir en provoquant un régicide. Écouter ou entendre ces chants active des souvenirs individuels ou partagés du passé, mais induit en même temps des réactions liées au présent politique et des projections dans un avenir possible, rappelant combien la mémoire se situe à la jonction entre passé, présent et futur. ; O artigo examina as relações entre a música e a memória do passado, particularmente a memória da experiência histórica da guerra civil no Burundi. Discute-se de que maneira a música se tornou, a despeito das intenções de seus autores, um suporte de memória e um lugar de memória. Após o assassinato do Presidente Ndadaye, em outubro de 1993, e ao longo dos meses que se seguiram, cânticos foram repetidamente transmitidos pelas ondas da Radio-Télévision Nationale du Burundi (RTNB). Dentre eles, duas canções se destacam: "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("Os sinais dos tempos") e "Shalom" ("Paz"). Trata-se de cantos gospel entoados pelo coral ruandês Hoziana Choir. O artigo investiga as representações atualmente associadas a esses dois cânticos por aquelas e aqueles que outrora os escutaram no rádio em um contexto de guerra e de exílio. A partir de um levantamento etnográfico realizado junto aos burundianos que vivem na Île-de-France, o artigo mostra que esses cânticos ativam diferentes memórias associadas à dor, à perda, ao sofrimento, mas, do mesmo modo, aos atos cotidianos daqueles que procuraram se opor aos massacres. Escutá-los ressuscita uma memória que transcende as etnias e as categorias sociais, na medida em que é exaltada uma mesma comunidade de experiência em escala nacional. Enquanto para esses sobreviventes da guerra civil a dimensão da memória tem precedência sobre a religiosa, para as novas gerações esses cantos gospel não são mais do que canções religiosas. A sua carga memorial é, desse modo, frágil, e corre o risco de desaparecer. O artigo considera esses dois cânticos como "monumentos musicais não intencionais": estes se distinguem dos monumentos construídos pela especificidade de serem móveis, indo ao encontro daquela ou daquele que se recorda ou comemora. Esses dois cantos gospel também se tornaram sinais de prenúncio da guerra, mais particularmente do assassinato de um presidente: são, portanto, cânticos de mau agouro que, no imaginário dos antigos testemunhos da guerra civil, tiveram a capacidade de agir ao provocar um regicídio. Escutar ou ouvir esses cânticos ativa as lembranças individuais e compartilhadas, mas, ao mesmo tempo, incita as reações ligadas ao presente político e às projeções de um porvir possível, recordando como a memória se situa na junção entre o passado, o presente e o futuro.

International audience ; This article examines the relationship between music and the memory of the past, in particular the memory of the Burundi civil war as a historical experience. It deals with the way in which music has become both a medium of memory and a lieu de mémoire regardless of the intention of its composers. Since the assassination of President Ndadaye in October 1993 and during the following months, the National Radio and Television of Burundi frequently aired songs. Among them were two songs, "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("The Signs of Time") and "Shalom" ("Peace"). These gospels were sung by the Rwandan choir Hoziana Choir. This article explores the representations associated today with these two songs by those who used to hear them on the radio in time of war and exile. Based on the ethnography of Burundians living in Île-de-France, this paper shows how these songs activate different memories related to pain, loss, suffering but also to the ordinary actions of those who tried to stand in the way of massacres. Listening to them brings back a memory that transcends ethnic groups or social categories, promoting on the contrary a community of experience at a national scale. For the survivors of the civil war, the memory charge of these gospels takes precedence over their religious character, but for the new generation they are mere religious songs. The memory charge of these songs is therefore fragile and is likely to disappear. The article insists that these two songs are "unintentional musical monuments": they differ from built monuments as they are mobile and able to reach out to those who remember or commemorate. These two gospels also became warning signs of war, especially of the assassination of a president: they are therefore ominous songs which, in the imagination of those who witnessed the civil war, have the capacity to act and cause a regicide. Listening to or hearing these songs activates individual or shared memories of the past, but at the same time it induces reactions linked to the political present and projections into a possible future—this reminds us how much memory lies at the junction between past, present and future. ; L'article examine les relations entre la musique et la mémoire du passé, plus particulièrement la mémoire de l'expérience historique que fut la guerre civile au Burundi. Il traite de la façon dont la musique est devenue, indépendamment de l'intention de ses auteurs, un support de mémoire et un lieu de mémoire. Depuis l'assassinat du Président Ndadaye en octobre 1993 et pendant les mois qui ont suivi, des chants passèrent fréquemment sur les ondes de la Radio-Télévision nationale du Burundi. Parmi eux figuraient deux chansons, « Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe » (« Les signes des temps ») et « Shalom » (« La paix »). Il s'agit de gospels chantés par la chorale rwandaise Hoziana Choir. L'article explore les représentations aujourd'hui associées à ces deux chants par celles et ceux qui les entendaient jadis à la radio dans un contexte de guerre et d'exil.À partir d'une enquête ethnographique réalisée auprès de Burundais vivant en Île-de-France, l'article montre que ces chants activent différentes mémoires associées à la douleur, à la perte, à la souffrance, mais aussi aux actes ordinaires de ceux qui ont tenté de s'opposer aux massacres. Leur écoute fait resurgir une mémoire qui transcende les ethnies ou les catégories sociales pour fait valoir une même communauté d'expérience à l'échelle de la nation. Si, pour ces rescapés de la guerre civile, la dimension mémorielle prime sur la dimension religieuse, ces gospels ne sont plus de simples chansons religieuses pour les nouvelles générations. Leur charge mémorielle est donc fragile et risque de disparaître. L'article considère ces deux chants comme des « monuments musicaux non intentionnels » : ils se distinguent des monuments bâtis par leur spécificité d'être mobiles, allant ainsi à la rencontre de celle ou celui qui se souvient ou commémore. Ces deux gospels sont aussi devenus des signes avant-coureurs de la guerre, plus particulièrement de l'assassinat d'un président : ce sont donc des chants de mauvais augure qui, dans l'imaginaire des anciens témoins de la guerre civile, ont la capacité d'agir en provoquant un régicide. Écouter ou entendre ces chants active des souvenirs individuels ou partagés du passé, mais induit en même temps des réactions liées au présent politique et des projections dans un avenir possible, rappelant combien la mémoire se situe à la jonction entre passé, présent et futur. ; O artigo examina as relações entre a música e a memória do passado, particularmente a memória da experiência histórica da guerra civil no Burundi. Discute-se de que maneira a música se tornou, a despeito das intenções de seus autores, um suporte de memória e um lugar de memória. Após o assassinato do Presidente Ndadaye, em outubro de 1993, e ao longo dos meses que se seguiram, cânticos foram repetidamente transmitidos pelas ondas da Radio-Télévision Nationale du Burundi (RTNB). Dentre eles, duas canções se destacam: "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("Os sinais dos tempos") e "Shalom" ("Paz"). Trata-se de cantos gospel entoados pelo coral ruandês Hoziana Choir. O artigo investiga as representações atualmente associadas a esses dois cânticos por aquelas e aqueles que outrora os escutaram no rádio em um contexto de guerra e de exílio. A partir de um levantamento etnográfico realizado junto aos burundianos que vivem na Île-de-France, o artigo mostra que esses cânticos ativam diferentes memórias associadas à dor, à perda, ao sofrimento, mas, do mesmo modo, aos atos cotidianos daqueles que procuraram se opor aos massacres. Escutá-los ressuscita uma memória que transcende as etnias e as categorias sociais, na medida em que é exaltada uma mesma comunidade de experiência em escala nacional. Enquanto para esses sobreviventes da guerra civil a dimensão da memória tem precedência sobre a religiosa, para as novas gerações esses cantos gospel não são mais do que canções religiosas. A sua carga memorial é, desse modo, frágil, e corre o risco de desaparecer. O artigo considera esses dois cânticos como "monumentos musicais não intencionais": estes se distinguem dos monumentos construídos pela especificidade de serem móveis, indo ao encontro daquela ou daquele que se recorda ou comemora. Esses dois cantos gospel também se tornaram sinais de prenúncio da guerra, mais particularmente do assassinato de um presidente: são, portanto, cânticos de mau agouro que, no imaginário dos antigos testemunhos da guerra civil, tiveram a capacidade de agir ao provocar um regicídio. Escutar ou ouvir esses cânticos ativa as lembranças individuais e compartilhadas, mas, ao mesmo tempo, incita as reações ligadas ao presente político e às projeções de um porvir possível, recordando como a memória se situa na junção entre o passado, o presente e o futuro.

International audience ; This article examines the activities of the Mahdist administration in the Eastern Sudan and particularly the production of accounting documents by the Treasury (bayt al-māl) of Tūkar. It falls within a larger attempt at rebalancing the historiography of the Mahdist movement in the Nilotic Sudan (1881-1899) which has favoured sources emanating from the central government to the detriment of those produced by the provincial authorities. The documentary corpus presented in this article was seized in February 1891 following an expedition led by British and Egyptian troops. This is an exceptional collection because of its coherence. Indeed, this operation caught unawares the governor (ʿāmil) of the Eastern Sudan, ʿUthmān Diqna, who had neither the time to transfer those documents nor to destroy them, as it had partially been the case in Omdurman in September 1898. We thus have at our disposal a "snapshot" of the production of a Mahdist provincial administration between 1889 and 1891.In the first part, this article traces the steps of the foundation of the provincial administration in the Eastern Sudan. It sheds light on the relatively late formation of a structured administration and its relocation, in line with the strategic priorities of the Khalīfa ʿAbdullāhi, from Kassala to Tūkar at the end of 1888. The second part deals with the structure of the accounting system established by the Treasury administrators of Tūkar in order to to articulate the document presented, that is,, the daily monetary accounts for Dhū al-Qaʿda 1307 (June–July 1890), with the other fields of accounting. The scriptural technique highlights the strong influence of the Egyptian administrative practices, but also the hybrid aspect of this accounting, characterized by both an incomplete modernity and the claim of an Islamic tradition. This makes it possible, in a third part, to approach this document from a quantitative perspective and to reconstruct the dynamics that governed the revenues and expenses of the Treasury of Tūkar. These reflect more broadly the socio-economic conditions prevailing in the province in the early 1890s. The last part is devoted to an analysis of the administrative operation itself. It aims to show that the major efforts put into the recording of accounts can only be understood if we consider it as an act of power and the assertion of a legitimate authority. ; Cet article examine les activités de l'administration mahdiste au Soudan-Est et plus particulièrement la production de documents comptables par le Trésor (bayt al-māl) de Tūkar. Il s'inscrit dans une tentative de rééquilibrage d'une historiographie du mouvement mahdiste au Soudan nilotique (1881-1899) qui a privilégié les sources émanant du pouvoir central au détriment de celles des autorités provinciales. Le corpus documentaire présenté dans cet article fut saisi en février 1891 à l'issue d'une expédition égypto-britannique. Il s'agit d'un ensemble exceptionnel car cohérent. En effet, le gouverneur (ʿamil) du Soudan-Est, ʿUthmān Diqna, fut pris de court par cette opération et n'eut le temps ni de déplacer ces documents, ni de les détruire, comme cela put être en partie le cas à Omdurman en septembre 1898. Nous disposons ainsi d'un « instantané » de la production d'une administration provinciale mahdiste entre 1889 et 1891.Dans une première partie, cet article s'attache à retracer les étapes de la fondation de l'administration provinciale au Soudan-Est. Il met en lumière la formation relativement tardive d'une administration structurée et le déplacement de cette dernière, en lien avec les priorités stratégiques du Khalīfa ʿAbdullāhi, de Kassala à Tūkar à la fin de l'année 1888. La seconde partie revient sur la structure de la comptabilité mise en place par les administrateurs du Trésor de Tūkar afin d'articuler le document présenté, les comptes quotidiens en espèces du mois de dhū al-qaʿda 1307 (juin-juillet 1890), avec les autres champs comptables. La technique scripturale employée met en évidence l'influence forte des pratiques administratives égyptiennes, mais également le caractère hybride de cette comptabilité, marquée à la fois par une modernité inachevée et la revendication d'une tradition islamique. Ceci permet, dans une troisième partie, d'aborder ce document selon une perspective quantitative et de restituer les dynamiques qui régissaient les revenus et les dépenses du Trésor de Tūkar. Celles-ci reflètent plus largement les conditions socio-économiques qui prévalaient dans cette province au début des années 1890. La dernière partie est consacrée à l'analyse de l'opération administrative elle-même. Elle vise à montrer que l'effort important accordé à l'enregistrement comptable ne peut se comprendre que si l'on considère ce dernier comme un acte de pouvoir et l'affirmation d'une autorité légitime. ; Este artigo examina as atividades da administração madista no Sudão-Leste e mais particularmente a produção de documentos contáveis pelo Tesouro (bayt al-māl) de Tūkar. Ele se inscreve numa tentativa de reequilibrar uma historiografia do movimento madista no Sudão nilótico (1881-1899) que privilegiou as fontes provenientes do poder central em detrimento daquelas provenientes das autoridades provinciais.O corpus documental apresentado neste artigo foi apreendido em fevereiro de 1891, na sequência de uma expedição egípcio-britânica. Trata-se de um conjunto excepcional, pois coerente. Com efeito, o governador ('amil) do Sudão-Leste, 'Uthman Diqna, foi surpreendido por esta operação e não teve tempo suficiente nem para deslocar nem para destruir esses documentos, como pode ter sido, em parte, o caso em Ondurmã em setembro de 1898. Nós dispomos assim de uma "imagem instantânea" da produção de uma administração provincial madista entre 1889 e 1891.Na primeira parte, este artigo busca retraçar as etapas da fundação da administração provincial no Sudão-Leste. Ele destaca a formação relativamente tardia de uma administração estruturada e o deslocamento desta mesma administração, em conexão com as prioridades estratégicas do Khalīfa 'Abdullahi, de Kassala em Tūkar, no final do ano de 1888. A segunda parte retorna à estrutura contábil criada pelos administradores do Tesouro de Tūkar no intuito de articular o documento apresentado, nomeadamente as contas cotidianas do mês de dhū al-qa'da 1307 (junho-julho 1890), com os outros campos contáveis. A técnica escriturária empregada coloca em evidência a forte influência das práticas administrativas egípcias, mas igualmente o caráter híbrido desta contabilidade, marcada tanto por uma modernidade inacabada quanto pela revindicação de uma tradição islâmica. O que nos permite, em uma terceira parte, abordar este documento segundo uma perspetiva quantitativa e restituir as dinâmicas que regiam as rendas e os gastos do Tesouro de Tūkar. Estes últimos aspetos refletem mais largamente as condições socioeconômicas que prevaleciam nesta província no início dos anos 1890. A última parte é consagrada à análise da própria operação administrativa. Nela, visamos mostrar que o importante esforço dispensado à registração contábil só pode ser compreendido se nós o considerarmos como um ato de poder e de afirmação de uma autoridade legítima.

Геостратегическое положение России в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе определяется уровнем экономического, социального, политического развития на территории Дальнего Востока. Перспективы его улучшения с учетом современных реалий и тенденций невозможно представить без развития транспортно-экономических связей между субъектами, в том числе о. Сахалин с материком. Рынок трансконтинентальных перевозок в рамках международных транспортных коридоров – огромный позитивный потенциал для развития регионов Дальнего Востока, Сибири и всей России. Принятие решения о развитии транспортной инфраструктуры окраин на уровне Правительства Российской Федерации продемонстрирует отношение государства к своей дальневосточной территории и обозначит его позиции в Азиатско-Тихоокеанском регионе. Актуальность исследования обусловлена необходимостью проработки проектных решений по выбору возможных вариантов организации устойчивого круглогодичного транспортного сообщения между материком и Сахалином для освоения ресурсного потенциала прилегающих территорий. Окончательный выбор места и типа сооружения, которое обеспечит бесперебойные перевозки железнодорожным и автомобильным транспортом через Татарский пролив, может быть произведен только после тщательного анализа преимуществ какого-либо из них в зависимости от природных условий. Цель: проанализировать результаты геологических и геоморфологических исследований в проливе Невельского (самой узкой части Татарского пролива) для выбора места транспортного перехода. Материалы и методы исследования. Информационной основой для исследования послужили картографические материалы, данные дистанционного зондирования Земли, сейсмические профили, иные данные, полученные в результате инженерных изысканий и научно-исследовательских работ, в которых принимали участие авторы, а также сведения из литературных источников. Картографирование в геоинформационной среде позволило обновить геологические карты, нанести новые данные о разломах, уточнить границы стратиграфических толщ. В геоморфологических исследованиях использовался системно-морфологический подход, который дает возможность оценки геоморфологического риска. Доступная информация использовалась при моделировании процессов в проливе с применением ГИС-технологий. Авторы выполняли геологические работы при исследовании створа «Новый» в 2001 г. Большая часть полученных сведений публикуется впервые. В результате исследований геологического строения прибрежных территорий и дна пролива Невельского, проведенных во время изысканий для обоснования проекта мостового или тоннельного перехода с материка на о. Сахалин (в том числе и с участием авторов) выявлено, что рифтогенная структура пролива Невельского состоит из блоков земной коры, рассеченных глубинными разломами. Территория отнесена к зоне, где возможны сейсмические сотрясения в 7–8 баллов по шкале MSK-64. Отступление материкового берега сильно зависит от прочности пород. Интенсивность абразии мыса Невельского, установленная по данным космических съемок, не превышала 1 м за 100 лет, поэтому створы проектируемого сооружения на материковом берегу целесообразно начинать от береговых уступов (клифов), которые сложены лавами и пирокластическими отложениями базальтового и андезитового состава массивной текстуры (мысы Невельского, Екатерины, Муравьева и др.). На сахалинском берегу сооружение можно выводить на береговой уступ мыса Лах (он меньше всего подвержен размыву). Предварительные итоги изучения геологических условий показали, что строительство мостового перехода I класса сейсмостойкости через пролив возможно. Наиболее спокойным в сейсмическом отношении представляется створ «Новый» (м. Невельского – м. Лах). Полученные геоморфологические данные свидетельствуют о том, что в данном створе размыв береговых уступов минимальный и составляет первые сантиметры за год (в период наблюдений 1 см/год). Геолого-геоморфологические условия не окажут серьезных препятствий при сооружении объекта по линии между указанными мысами. ; The geostrategic position of Russia in the Asia-Pacific region is determined by the level of economic, social and political development on the territory of Far East. The prospects for its improvement in view of modern realities and trends cannot be imagined without the development of transport and economic connections between the subjects, including Sakhalin Island and the mainland. The transcontinental transport market within the international transport corridors is huge positive potential for development of the regions of the Far East, Siberia and the whole Russia. The decision to develop the transport infrastructure of the outskirts at the level of the Government of the Russian Federation will demonstrate the State attitude to its Far Eastern territory and outline its positions in the Asia-Pacific region. The relevance of the research is caused by the need to develop design solutions for selection of possible options for organization of sustainable year-round transport links between the mainland and Sakhalin for development of the resource potential of adjacent territories. The final choice of the location and type of construction, which will ensure uninterrupted transportation by rail and road through the Tatar Strait, can be made only after thorough analysis of the advantages of any of them, depending on natural conditions. The aim of the research is to analyze the results of geological and geomorphological studies in the Nevelskogo Strait (narrowest part of the Tatar Strait) to select the location of the transport crossing. Materials and methods of the research. The information basis for the study was cartographic materials, earth remote sensing data, seismic profiles, other data obtained as a result of engineering and scientific research, in which the authors participated, as well as information from literary sources. Mapping in the geographic information environment allowed updating geological maps, applying new data on faults, clarifying the boundaries of stratigraphic strata. In geomorphological studies, a system-morphological approach was used, which makes it possible to assess the geomorphological risk. The available information was used to model the processes in the Strait applying GIS technologies. The authors performed geological work for study of the leading line «Novy» in 2001. The most part of the information is published for the first time. As result of the studies of geological structure of the coastal territory and the bottom of the Nevelsky Strait, conducted during the research to justify the project of a bridge or tunnel transition from the mainland to Sakhalin (including those with the participation of the authors), it was revealed that the rift structure of the Nevelsky Strait consists of blocks of the earth's crust, dissected by deep faults. The territory is classified as an area where seismic shocks are possible at 7-8 points on the MSK-64 scale. The retreat of the mainland coast is highly dependent on the strength of the rocks. The intensity of abrasion of Nevelsky Cape, established according to the space surveys, did not exceed 1 m per 100 years, so leading line of the designed facilities on the construction shore is advisable to start from the coastal ledges (cliffs), which are composed of lava and pyroclastic deposits of basalt and andesite composition with massive texture (Nevelsky, Ekaterina, Muravyov capes etc.). On the Sakhalin coast, the construction can be brought to the coastal ledge of Lakh Cape (it is least susceptible to erosion). Preliminary results of the study of geological conditions have shown that the construction of a bridge of class I seismic resistance across the Strait is possible. The most calm in seismic respect is the leading line «Novy» (Nevelsky Cape - Lakh Cape). The obtained geomorphological data indicate that in this range the erosion of coastal ledges is minimal - first centimeters per year (during the observation period of 1 cm/year). Geological-geomorphological conditions will not have serious obstacles in the construction of the object along the line between these capes.

International audience ; This article examines the relationship between music and the memory of the past, in particular the memory of the Burundi civil war as a historical experience. It deals with the way in which music has become both a medium of memory and a lieu de mémoire regardless of the intention of its composers. Since the assassination of President Ndadaye in October 1993 and during the following months, the National Radio and Television of Burundi frequently aired songs. Among them were two songs, "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("The Signs of Time") and "Shalom" ("Peace"). These gospels were sung by the Rwandan choir Hoziana Choir. This article explores the representations associated today with these two songs by those who used to hear them on the radio in time of war and exile. Based on the ethnography of Burundians living in Île-de-France, this paper shows how these songs activate different memories related to pain, loss, suffering but also to the ordinary actions of those who tried to stand in the way of massacres. Listening to them brings back a memory that transcends ethnic groups or social categories, promoting on the contrary a community of experience at a national scale. For the survivors of the civil war, the memory charge of these gospels takes precedence over their religious character, but for the new generation they are mere religious songs. The memory charge of these songs is therefore fragile and is likely to disappear. The article insists that these two songs are "unintentional musical monuments": they differ from built monuments as they are mobile and able to reach out to those who remember or commemorate. These two gospels also became warning signs of war, especially of the assassination of a president: they are therefore ominous songs which, in the imagination of those who witnessed the civil war, have the capacity to act and cause a regicide. Listening to or hearing these songs activates individual or shared memories of the past, but at the same time it induces reactions linked to the political present and projections into a possible future—this reminds us how much memory lies at the junction between past, present and future. ; L'article examine les relations entre la musique et la mémoire du passé, plus particulièrement la mémoire de l'expérience historique que fut la guerre civile au Burundi. Il traite de la façon dont la musique est devenue, indépendamment de l'intention de ses auteurs, un support de mémoire et un lieu de mémoire. Depuis l'assassinat du Président Ndadaye en octobre 1993 et pendant les mois qui ont suivi, des chants passèrent fréquemment sur les ondes de la Radio-Télévision nationale du Burundi. Parmi eux figuraient deux chansons, « Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe » (« Les signes des temps ») et « Shalom » (« La paix »). Il s'agit de gospels chantés par la chorale rwandaise Hoziana Choir. L'article explore les représentations aujourd'hui associées à ces deux chants par celles et ceux qui les entendaient jadis à la radio dans un contexte de guerre et d'exil.À partir d'une enquête ethnographique réalisée auprès de Burundais vivant en Île-de-France, l'article montre que ces chants activent différentes mémoires associées à la douleur, à la perte, à la souffrance, mais aussi aux actes ordinaires de ceux qui ont tenté de s'opposer aux massacres. Leur écoute fait resurgir une mémoire qui transcende les ethnies ou les catégories sociales pour fait valoir une même communauté d'expérience à l'échelle de la nation. Si, pour ces rescapés de la guerre civile, la dimension mémorielle prime sur la dimension religieuse, ces gospels ne sont plus de simples chansons religieuses pour les nouvelles générations. Leur charge mémorielle est donc fragile et risque de disparaître. L'article considère ces deux chants comme des « monuments musicaux non intentionnels » : ils se distinguent des monuments bâtis par leur spécificité d'être mobiles, allant ainsi à la rencontre de celle ou celui qui se souvient ou commémore. Ces deux gospels sont aussi devenus des signes avant-coureurs de la guerre, plus particulièrement de l'assassinat d'un président : ce sont donc des chants de mauvais augure qui, dans l'imaginaire des anciens témoins de la guerre civile, ont la capacité d'agir en provoquant un régicide. Écouter ou entendre ces chants active des souvenirs individuels ou partagés du passé, mais induit en même temps des réactions liées au présent politique et des projections dans un avenir possible, rappelant combien la mémoire se situe à la jonction entre passé, présent et futur. ; O artigo examina as relações entre a música e a memória do passado, particularmente a memória da experiência histórica da guerra civil no Burundi. Discute-se de que maneira a música se tornou, a despeito das intenções de seus autores, um suporte de memória e um lugar de memória. Após o assassinato do Presidente Ndadaye, em outubro de 1993, e ao longo dos meses que se seguiram, cânticos foram repetidamente transmitidos pelas ondas da Radio-Télévision Nationale du Burundi (RTNB). Dentre eles, duas canções se destacam: "Ibimenyetso vy'ibihe" ("Os sinais dos tempos") e "Shalom" ("Paz"). Trata-se de cantos gospel entoados pelo coral ruandês Hoziana Choir. O artigo investiga as representações atualmente associadas a esses dois cânticos por aquelas e aqueles que outrora os escutaram no rádio em um contexto de guerra e de exílio. A partir de um levantamento etnográfico realizado junto aos burundianos que vivem na Île-de-France, o artigo mostra que esses cânticos ativam diferentes memórias associadas à dor, à perda, ao sofrimento, mas, do mesmo modo, aos atos cotidianos daqueles que procuraram se opor aos massacres. Escutá-los ressuscita uma memória que transcende as etnias e as categorias sociais, na medida em que é exaltada uma mesma comunidade de experiência em escala nacional. Enquanto para esses sobreviventes da guerra civil a dimensão da memória tem precedência sobre a religiosa, para as novas gerações esses cantos gospel não são mais do que canções religiosas. A sua carga memorial é, desse modo, frágil, e corre o risco de desaparecer. O artigo considera esses dois cânticos como "monumentos musicais não intencionais": estes se distinguem dos monumentos construídos pela especificidade de serem móveis, indo ao encontro daquela ou daquele que se recorda ou comemora. Esses dois cantos gospel também se tornaram sinais de prenúncio da guerra, mais particularmente do assassinato de um presidente: são, portanto, cânticos de mau agouro que, no imaginário dos antigos testemunhos da guerra civil, tiveram a capacidade de agir ao provocar um regicídio. Escutar ou ouvir esses cânticos ativa as lembranças individuais e compartilhadas, mas, ao mesmo tempo, incita as reações ligadas ao presente político e às projeções de um porvir possível, recordando como a memória se situa na junção entre o passado, o presente e o futuro.

The presented research topic is particularly relevant due to the high value and the need to strengthen fi nancial control for the development of the military-industrial complex (MIC), to ensure the country's economic security, preservation and development of scientifi c and technical potential. The urgency of acquiring those aspects of economic relations which are connected with the supply the export of high-tech military products in a limited budget funding State should have levers of infl uence on the functioning of the military-industrial complex, the ability to pursue an independent foreign military-technical policy. In the new economic conditions, it became necessary to address the problems of fi nancial security of the defense-industrial complex, in order to strengthen the independence and security of Russia, as well as the need to give priority nature of the measures of state control in the economy related to the implementation of the defense order, ie, in the sphere of military-industrial complex. At the present stage of economic development of Russia, the rate of growth of the national economy largely depends on what the situation is in the military-industrial complex (MIC). This is due to the fact that the defense industry is the most high-quality, high-tech economy. It concentrated the largest part of the Russian potential, the best staff of scientists and experts. Products and DIC technology widely used in other industries. The modern military-industrial complex produces a signifi cant part of civil production. DIC integration with civilian industries – it is also a technological basis for solving the basic problems currently facing the Russian economy, and, above all, the basis of the formation of a new technological basis for the development of high technology and competitive products, which determines the pace of scientifi c and technological progress and the growth of the national economy. Objectives. The aim of the paper is the development of guidelines, forms and ways to improve the effi ciency of the state fi nancial control in the sphere of military-industrial complex (MIC), as a means of providing fi nancial and defense interests of the State and the identifi cation of fi nancial resources to accelerate economic development of Russia. Methods. The methodological basis of this article are the economic and statistical analysis methods, regulatory documents in the fi eld of economic security and fi nancial controls, publications in the fi eld of economic and fi nancial security and the state fi nancial control, public analyzes in the fi eld of development of the defense-industrial complex. Results. Considering that the defense industry management will be converted, you must use the positive international economic experience to improve the eff ectiveness of state fi nancial control in the MIC. However, in the interests of the state and society to create a system of eff ective state fi nancial control of defense companies require a special approach and the following tasks: The need to determine the fi nancial content and objectives of state control in the sphere of militaryindustrial complex; The need to analyze the defense industry as a specifi c object of fi nancial control by the state in the market conditions for its implementation; Identify the features of the implementation of fi nancial control in the process of military-technical cooperation, as well as to reveal the main problems of state fi nancial control; determine the status of the organization of state fi nancial control DIC and reserves for its improvement. Implementation of eff ective state fi nancial control of the military-industrial complex, as well as the determination of the directions of its improvement in the transformation of the market economy is an objective necessity. Conclusions and Relevance. The practical signifi cance of the work lies in the orientation of the provisions of the conclusions and recommendations of the work in wide use to improve the effi ciency of state fi nancial control in the fi eld of defense and security, and the proposals contained in the article (on improvement of state fi nancial control in the MIC) may be used by the legislative and executive bodies of Russian Federation, including bodies of state fi nancial control and the Ministry of Defence, in the current activity. ; Представленная тема исследования особенно актуальна в связи с высоким значением и необходимостью укрепления финансового контроля, данная тематика имеет значение для развития оборонно-промышленного комплекса (ОПК) и обеспечения экономической безопасности страны, важна для сохранения и развития научно-технического потенциала страны. Актуальность приобретают именно те аспекты экономических отношений, которые связаны с поставками на экспорт высокотехнологичной продукции военного назначения. В условиях ограниченного бюджетного финансирования государство должно иметь рычаги воздействия на функционирование оборонно-промышленного комплекса, возможность проводить самостоятельную внешнюю военно-техническую политику. В новых экономических условиях возникла необходимость решения проблем финансового обеспечения организаций оборонно-промышленного комплекса, в целях укрепления независимости и безопасности России, а также подчеркивается приоритетный характер мер государственного контроля, связанных с выполнением оборонного заказа, т.е. в сфере оборонно-промышленного комплекса. На современном этапе экономическое развитие России, темпы роста национальной экономики во многом зависят от того, какая ситуация складывается в оборонно-промышленном комплексе (ОПК). Это обусловлено тем, что ОПК представляет собой наиболее качественный, высокотехнологичный сектор экономики. В нем сосредоточена наибольшая часть российского потенциала, лучшие кадры ученых и специалистов. Продукция и технологии ОПК широко используются в других отраслях. Современный оборонно-промышленный комплекс производит значительную часть гражданской продукции. Интеграция ОПК с гражданскими отраслями промышленности является технологической основой для решения основных задач, стоящих перед российской экономикой, и, прежде всего, основой формирования новой технологической базы для развития наукоемкой и конкурентоспособной продукции, определяющей темпы научно-технического прогресса и темпы роста национальной экономики.Цель / задачи. Целью статьи является разработка основных направлений, форм и путей повышения эффективности государственного финансового контроля в сфере оборонно-промышленного комплекса (ОПК), как средства обеспечения финансовых и оборонных интересов государства и выявления финансовых ресурсов ускорения экономического развития России.Методология. Методической основой данной статьи являются экономико-статистические методы анализа, нормативно-правовые документы в области обеспечения экономической безопасности и финансового контроля, публикации в области обеспечения экономической и финансовой безопасности и государственного финансового контроля, открытые аналитические материалы в области развития оборонно-промышленного комплекса.Результаты. Учитывая, что управления ОПК будут преобразованы, необходимо использовать положительный международный экономический опыт для повышения эффективности государственного финансового контроля в ОПК. Вместе с тем, в интересах государства и общества создание системы эффективного государственного финансового контроля предприятий ОПК требуется особый подход и решение следующих задач: необходимость определить финансовое содержание и цели государственного контроля в сфере оборонно-промышленного комплекса; необходимость проанализировать ОПК как специфический объект финансового контроля со стороны государства в рыночных условиях его осуществления; выявить особенности реализации финансового контроля в процессе военно-технического сотрудничества, а также раскрыть основные проблемы государственного финансового контроля; определить состояние организации государственного финансового контроля ОПК и резервы его совершенствования. Осуществление эффективного государственного финансового контроля оборонно-промышленного комплекса, а также определение направлений его совершенствования в период трансформации рыночной экономики является объективной необходимостью.Выводы / значимость. Практическая значимость работы заключается в ориентации положений, выводов и рекомендаций работы, ориентированных на широкое использование и повышение эффективности государственного финансового контроля в области обороны и безопасности, а предложения, изложенные в статье (по совершенствованию государственного финансового контроля в ОПК) могут использоваться законодательными и исполнительными органами Российской Федерации, в том числе и органами государственного финансового контроля и Министерством обороны, в текущей деятельности.

Knowledge and valuation of ecosystem services are important components for reaching the governmental goals for improving the natural environments. Recreational fishing has more than one million practitioners nationwide.Knowledge about the fishers and their catches increases the ability to assess whether the ecosystem services are retained. In addition, it gives means for evaluating the actions for the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of oceans, lakes and rivers. Knowledge of recreational fishing is also needed in order to follow up the details in its environmental objectives relating to outdoor recreation, tourism industry and the governmental goals in the open-air policy. The EU's common fisheries policy, the Swedish environmental policy and Swedish fisheries policy all emphasize that ecosystem-based management should be implemented. Thus, there are needs for knowledge of the ecosystems which are exploited by humans. Fish populations are important components of aquatic ecosystems, and are affected by the surrounding environment, while they themselves affect the structures of the aquatic food-webs. Fishes often have regulatory functions in the ecosystems, and thereby contribute to valuable ecosystem services in addition to the more obvious services as providing food and recreation for humans. Mostly issues regarding the impacts of fishing-related activities on fish populations have been focused on commercial fishing. A widespread and intensive commercial fishing may lead to the depletion of stocks or, at worst, a collapse of the fish populations; the fish population reaching such low levels that recovery may be difficult. In recent years the knowledge of the impact of recreational fishing on aquatic systems has increased, but still the effects of recreational fishing on ecosystem are relatively poorly studied, compared to commercial fisheries. For many, it may be difficult to accept that recreational fishing may affect fish populations; each fisher/angler favour just their own fisheries without bearing in mind that although the small influence from each individual fisherman may be small, it will be significant when many fishermen harvest from the same stock. Recreational fishing and its effects on the aquatic ecosystems are often neglected in fisheries science, mainly due to the lack of data to estimate recreational fishing harvest with a sufficient resolution to calculate the effort and landings of recreational fisheries. In this report, we try to give an overall picture of the fish species needing increased knowledge in order to get an estimate of harvest in recreational fisheries and thereby the effect on fish populations. Furthermore, we also try to give a picture of international studies and finally to give examples of methods concerning how and to what extent one may conduct studies in Sweden. Our proposal is largely based on combining different surveys in specific areas that we believe can be used to scale-up the results. We suggest data collation of recreational fishing is concentrated to areas with public waters, because in other water bodies the land owner has sovereignty under the law. The focus areas we point out are those already having some data collection, both in terms of recreational fishing and environmental monitoring / stock assessment and where there are non-fishing protective areas nearby. Collection of data should not be made in all areas at every year; three areas are suggested to become intensive areas (data collection every year) and the remaining areas data collection will take place every three years - on a rolling schedule. The sampling methods we recommend are national survey (i.e. mail and telephone surveys), recording of catches in fishing tourism, voluntary catch registration of individual anglers, collection of data from fishing competitions, on-site inventory of fishing effort (e.g. count fetter and trailers), inventory of catch per effort (e.g. by creel-surveys) and fish tagging studies. For the west coast we propose one focus area, Älgöfjorden. At the coasts of Bohuslän County and the northern part of Halland County the fishing pressure is high for lobster and crab and therefore a focus area should be established in this area. We suggest that data are collected by on-site visits for inventorying fishing effort (counting numbers of pots / buoys / fishing people), combined with catch registration can return an estimates on catch per effort, and this can then be applied to a larger area. Another potential focus area is the area around Torhamn (Blekinge) which, for example, is popular area recreational fishing for pike. Torhamn is one of three national reference areas for coastal fish monitoring on the East Coast and has been monitored since 2002. It is also desirable to study aspects of fishing mortality in recreational fisheries. To our knowledge, there are no national studies that have explored the effects of catch-and-release in natural environments over long periods of time. The Bråviken Bay is a relatively limited and well-defined area having considered high recreational fishing pressure, but large time series from fish monitoring programmes are lacking. This site will give good opportunities for studying pike, pikeperch and to some extent also sea trout, data collection is suggested to take place every third year. An adjacent area is Kvädöfjärden having fish monitoring time series from 1989. Closely situated to Kvädöfjärden is Licknevarpefjärden where fishing has been prohibited since 1970. Additional areas that are of interest to follow up with some regularity are Asköfjärden, Gålö and / or Lagnö in the Stockholm archipelago. In the future it might be fruitful to shift data collection intensity between Torhamn in Blekinge and an area in Stockholm archipelago. Such decision should be based on factors like where the most practical solutions / contact network can be found. In the Gulf of Bothnia angling with nets, traps and similar gears are relatively widespread. We suggest that Långvind Bay in Gävleborg County, is an area for the study of recreational fishing in a relatively sparsely populated county and is most likely typical for large parts of the Gulf of Bothnia. Data collection is suggested to take place every year. As for the Gulf of Bothnia the recreational fishery in the Bothnian Bay are mainly targeting the whitefish, sea trout and, to some extent also perch. By monitoring the recreational fisheries in Kinnbäcksfjärden near Piteå, we hope to be able to describe the local recreational fishing patterns and then apply these values for catch per effort for most of the coastal strip of the Bothnian Bays. Recreational fishing is widespread in all of the five largest lakes in Sweden, and there is a need for data collection in all five. In Lake Vänern, Lake Vättern and Lake Mälaren there are fish monitoring data of good quality and regularity. However, in the two smallest lakes, Lake Hjälmaren and Lake Storsjön in Jämtland County, few test fishing areas and few studies regarding recreational fishing have been made. For Lake Vättern we suggest that data collection is done every year; especially the archipelago in the northern part of the lake will be an excellent area for the study of recreational fishing for pike. In the other four lakes we propose that data collection is made every third year. By studying recreational fishing - its practitioners, scope, gear-use, and harvest, it will be possible to achieve a more detailed view of how recreational fishing is done and how it varies along the Swedish coast and in the five largest lakes. Such knowledge is important for the managers of common fisheries resources and the monitoring of environmental status and evaluating the recreational goals established by the Swedish governments.

Intensive use of pesticides in agriculture has environmental and sanitary impacts that led to the need for less harmful techniques. Policy makers are claiming for an "ecological transition" of the sector but they are facing technological lock-ins : pesticides-based solutions remain dominant because of institutional and cognitive factors that prevent the development of other alternatives (Cowan, Gunby, 1996; Vanloqueren, Baret, 2008…). In this context, the idea of enlarging the participation of new actors in technological decisions has gained success as it is supposed to enlarge the range of available evidence and lead to better and fairer technological choices (Barber, 1984; Callon et al., 2001; Elgert, 2010)This PhD research aims at questioning the idea of participation as a way to unlock technological lock-ins , using the case of Conservation Agriculture (CA) in France and Brazil, an innovation presented as based on participatory dynamics of R&D and a way to achieve sustainable agriculture, in spite of the dependence of some practices on an intensive use of herbicides. Data was collected from academic literature, documentary analysis, and semi directive or collective interviews with 51 actors both in France and Brazil. Results show the deep changes the regime of knowledge in agriculture has undergone in the last decades under the liberalization of the sector- and why referring to the idea of participation is unefficient to counterbalance these structural changes, or can even have perverse effects.Academic literature described the evolution of agricultural policies, at the international, European and French levels, analyzing the "environmental" turn of the 1980s and the "liberal" turn of the 1990s-2000s (Fouilleux, 2003; Muller, 2000; Trouvé, 2007). But few studies focused on the impacts these changes had on how decision makers and farmers have access to scientific and technical evidence to innovate and cope with new situations. This PhD research shows how the regime of knowledge in France evolved from the modernization period (1960s) - when access to reliable evidence was an issue of public concern and funding in the State administrations and extension services; to a turning point in the 2000s when the State progressively disengaged from the debate on the technological trajectory of the sector and private firms became more and more implicated. In the case of CA, the results of a policy networks analysis show the concentration of material resources to produce robust evidence (R&D, extension services, databases ) in the hands of private firms wishing to develop technological packages based on the use of pesticides. On the other hand, local farmers trying to reduce their consumption of pesticides lack resources to systematically evaluate the innovations they produce.In this context, the idea of participation refers to organizing big national consultations (as the Grenelle de l'Environnement) that rather aim at producing consensus than shedding light on existing controversies and alternatives. It is also used to discharge the responsibility for producing pesticide-less alternatives to different kinds of partnerships at a local level (sometimes associating private firms with commercial interests in selling pesticides).This research therefore shows that, besides other institutional and cognitive factors, the issue of accessing adequate evidence is of crucial importance to understand changes in policy making and the State and at the heart of great economic and socio-political conflicts. It also highlights the importance of taking into account structural determinants and evidence-related power games in order to evaluate the impacts of "participation" on improving technological choices. ; Les modèles techniques agricoles fondés sur l'utilisation de produits phytopharmaceutiques (pesticides) ont des impacts environnementaux et sanitaires face auxquels les pouvoirs publics affichent la volonté d'une « transition écologique ». Dans ce contexte, on s'interroge de plus en plus sur la notion de verrouillage technologique pour comprendre la persistance de ces modèles et les obstacles au développement d'alternatives techniques moins consommatrices de ces produits (Cowan, Gunby, 1996 ; Vanloqueren, Baret, 2008). Les analyses mettent en avant l'importance des dimensions cognitives pour expliquer les situations de verrouillage (influence des cadres cognitifs et normes pour l'action, dispositifs matériels d'accès aux connaissances techniques – Stassart, Jamar, 2009 ; Labarthe, 2010). Parallèlement, la « participation » est souvent invoquée comme un moyen d'améliorer la mobilisation des connaissances dans les situations de choix technologiques (Barber, 1984 ; Callon et al., 2001…).L'objectif de cette thèse est de mettre à l'épreuve cette conviction sur la participation, à partir de l'étude du cas de l'agriculture de conservation (AC) en France et au Brésil. L'AC est un modèle technologique innovant qui émerge comme « candidat » à l'agriculture durable dans le débat public, en dépit de la dépendance de certaines techniques à l'utilisation d'herbicides.Pour comprendre les effets de la participation sur la capacité des acteurs à accéder aux connaissances et à faire des choix technologiques, la thèse analyse la façon dont l'idée de participation se décline concrètement dans le régime d'accès aux connaissances en agriculture. L'évolution de la politique agricole en France et le passage d'un référentiel « modernisateur » à un « référentiel de marché » (Muller, 2000) a fait l'objet de nombreuses études, mais peu souvent menées depuis le point de vue des connaissances. Or, de profonds changements sont en cours, suite au tournant libéral des années 1990 et à la transformation du rôle de l'Etat vers la mise en œuvre d'une régulation par l'information (Majone, 1996). L'analyse de ces transformations en France révèle que l'Etat ne s'est pas doté des dispositifs institutionnels et matériels adéquats pour assurer cette fonction de régulation dans le domaine de l'agriculture et de l'utilisation des pesticides. Dans ce contexte, la participation est invoquée pour organiser de grandes consultations nationales (Grenelle de l'Environnement) visant à produire du consensus sur des sujets controversés, tandis que les moyens matériels d'accès à des connaissances adéquates pour évaluer et débattre des options technologiques font défaut dans les services de l'Etat et auprès d'autres acteurs du débat public. adéquats La participation est aussi utilisée pour renvoyer l'innovation à des dispositifs locaux « en partenariat » ou « en réseaux » associant public et privé (et notamment les firmes d'amont fournisseuses de produits phytopharmaceutiques, porteuses de conflits d'intérêt), où les moyens mutualisés pour l'accès aux connaissances manquent. L'analyse des réseaux d'action publique impliqués dans le développement de l'AC confirme cette fragmentation croissante des conditions d'accès aux connaissances, entre accumulation des ressources cognitives par les firmes, et inégalités d'accès aux connaissances entre agriculteurs développant des alternatives. Dans ce contexte, la référence à « la participation » ne permet pas de compenser ces changements structurels à l'œuvre, et masque au contraire le retrait de l'Etat d'une politique volontariste en faveur de la réduction de pesticides et la perte d'un certain nombre de ses prérogatives liées aux connaissances. La dimension comparative avec le Brésil permet de confirmer l'existence de tels effets « pervers » en termes de dépolitisation des débats sur les évolutions du régime d'accès aux connaissances.

Intensive use of pesticides in agriculture has environmental and sanitary impacts that led to the need for less harmful techniques. Policy makers are claiming for an "ecological transition" of the sector but they are facing technological lock-ins : pesticides-based solutions remain dominant because of institutional and cognitive factors that prevent the development of other alternatives (Cowan, Gunby, 1996; Vanloqueren, Baret, 2008…). In this context, the idea of enlarging the participation of new actors in technological decisions has gained success as it is supposed to enlarge the range of available evidence and lead to better and fairer technological choices (Barber, 1984; Callon et al., 2001; Elgert, 2010)This PhD research aims at questioning the idea of participation as a way to unlock technological lock-ins , using the case of Conservation Agriculture (CA) in France and Brazil, an innovation presented as based on participatory dynamics of R&D and a way to achieve sustainable agriculture, in spite of the dependence of some practices on an intensive use of herbicides. Data was collected from academic literature, documentary analysis, and semi directive or collective interviews with 51 actors both in France and Brazil. Results show the deep changes the regime of knowledge in agriculture has undergone in the last decades under the liberalization of the sector- and why referring to the idea of participation is unefficient to counterbalance these structural changes, or can even have perverse effects.Academic literature described the evolution of agricultural policies, at the international, European and French levels, analyzing the "environmental" turn of the 1980s and the "liberal" turn of the 1990s-2000s (Fouilleux, 2003; Muller, 2000; Trouvé, 2007). But few studies focused on the impacts these changes had on how decision makers and farmers have access to scientific and technical evidence to innovate and cope with new situations. This PhD research shows how the regime of knowledge in France evolved from the modernization period (1960s) - when access to reliable evidence was an issue of public concern and funding in the State administrations and extension services; to a turning point in the 2000s when the State progressively disengaged from the debate on the technological trajectory of the sector and private firms became more and more implicated. In the case of CA, the results of a policy networks analysis show the concentration of material resources to produce robust evidence (R&D, extension services, databases ) in the hands of private firms wishing to develop technological packages based on the use of pesticides. On the other hand, local farmers trying to reduce their consumption of pesticides lack resources to systematically evaluate the innovations they produce.In this context, the idea of participation refers to organizing big national consultations (as the Grenelle de l'Environnement) that rather aim at producing consensus than shedding light on existing controversies and alternatives. It is also used to discharge the responsibility for producing pesticide-less alternatives to different kinds of partnerships at a local level (sometimes associating private firms with commercial interests in selling pesticides).This research therefore shows that, besides other institutional and cognitive factors, the issue of accessing adequate evidence is of crucial importance to understand changes in policy making and the State and at the heart of great economic and socio-political conflicts. It also highlights the importance of taking into account structural determinants and evidence-related power games in order to evaluate the impacts of "participation" on improving technological choices. ; Les modèles techniques agricoles fondés sur l'utilisation de produits phytopharmaceutiques (pesticides) ont des impacts environnementaux et sanitaires face auxquels les pouvoirs publics affichent la volonté d'une « transition écologique ». Dans ce contexte, on s'interroge de plus en plus sur la notion de verrouillage technologique pour comprendre la persistance de ces modèles et les obstacles au développement d'alternatives techniques moins consommatrices de ces produits (Cowan, Gunby, 1996 ; Vanloqueren, Baret, 2008). Les analyses mettent en avant l'importance des dimensions cognitives pour expliquer les situations de verrouillage (influence des cadres cognitifs et normes pour l'action, dispositifs matériels d'accès aux connaissances techniques – Stassart, Jamar, 2009 ; Labarthe, 2010). Parallèlement, la « participation » est souvent invoquée comme un moyen d'améliorer la mobilisation des connaissances dans les situations de choix technologiques (Barber, 1984 ; Callon et al., 2001…).L'objectif de cette thèse est de mettre à l'épreuve cette conviction sur la participation, à partir de l'étude du cas de l'agriculture de conservation (AC) en France et au Brésil. L'AC est un modèle technologique innovant qui émerge comme « candidat » à l'agriculture durable dans le débat public, en dépit de la dépendance de certaines techniques à l'utilisation d'herbicides.Pour comprendre les effets de la participation sur la capacité des acteurs à accéder aux connaissances et à faire des choix technologiques, la thèse analyse la façon dont l'idée de participation se décline concrètement dans le régime d'accès aux connaissances en agriculture. L'évolution de la politique agricole en France et le passage d'un référentiel « modernisateur » à un « référentiel de marché » (Muller, 2000) a fait l'objet de nombreuses études, mais peu souvent menées depuis le point de vue des connaissances. Or, de profonds changements sont en cours, suite au tournant libéral des années 1990 et à la transformation du rôle de l'Etat vers la mise en œuvre d'une régulation par l'information (Majone, 1996). L'analyse de ces transformations en France révèle que l'Etat ne s'est pas doté des dispositifs institutionnels et matériels adéquats pour assurer cette fonction de régulation dans le domaine de l'agriculture et de l'utilisation des pesticides. Dans ce contexte, la participation est invoquée pour organiser de grandes consultations nationales (Grenelle de l'Environnement) visant à produire du consensus sur des sujets controversés, tandis que les moyens matériels d'accès à des connaissances adéquates pour évaluer et débattre des options technologiques font défaut dans les services de l'Etat et auprès d'autres acteurs du débat public. adéquats La participation est aussi utilisée pour renvoyer l'innovation à des dispositifs locaux « en partenariat » ou « en réseaux » associant public et privé (et notamment les firmes d'amont fournisseuses de produits phytopharmaceutiques, porteuses de conflits d'intérêt), où les moyens mutualisés pour l'accès aux connaissances manquent. L'analyse des réseaux d'action publique impliqués dans le développement de l'AC confirme cette fragmentation croissante des conditions d'accès aux connaissances, entre accumulation des ressources cognitives par les firmes, et inégalités d'accès aux connaissances entre agriculteurs développant des alternatives. Dans ce contexte, la référence à « la participation » ne permet pas de compenser ces changements structurels à l'œuvre, et masque au contraire le retrait de l'Etat d'une politique volontariste en faveur de la réduction de pesticides et la perte d'un certain nombre de ses prérogatives liées aux connaissances. La dimension comparative avec le Brésil permet de confirmer l'existence de tels effets « pervers » en termes de dépolitisation des débats sur les évolutions du régime d'accès aux connaissances.

International audience ; Self-medication: how the local context influences the practitioner's perceptions and practices The French public authorities encourage the population to resort to self-medication to control health expenditure. Since risk may occur from this practice, general practitioners and pharmacists have been appointed to be the "guarantors" of a safe use for self-medication. Self-care behaviours, implying the consumption of medication without consultation, put the practitioner in an antagonistic situation between the patients' will to be self-reliant in care use on the one hand, and the frame imposed by the public authorities on the other. This demands of the professionals that they adopt for themselves a position on such self-care practices in which they are excluded by the patient. This study aims at understanding the influence of the geographical environment on the professionals' position and behaviour in relation to self-medication examined through the method of contextual speech. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with 30 practitioners and 19 pharmacists from the Nantes and Saint-Nazaire areas based on questions defined by sociologists, doctors and geographers. The results of this study suggest that spatial data are salient to analyzing health professionals' behaviour in relation to this concern of patient's self-medication. The interviews aimed at determining the professionals' perceptions with respect tothe self-medication of their patients in terms of whether they have encouraged or on the contrary, attempted to prevent these behaviours through arguments in favour of the public policies promoting self-medication. The questions deal with the professionals' career, the socio-economic characteristics of the patients and the motivations for their choice of place of work so as to link practices and behaviours with places.The simultaneousstudy of two different urban areas enables the analysis to distinguish the effects of context from geographical invariants. The main case study was Saint Nazaire with the case of Nantes used as a mirror to enable the identification of similarities or differences. Both case studies rely on a spatial analysis of data issued of the same program: the ANR Auto-med. The choice of Saint Nazaire as the main case study is based on two observations. First, the patients' rate of self-medication declared in a survey conducted within the ANR Auto-med program appears to be lower in Saint Nazaire than that of the regional area. Secondly, an investigation of a panel of medical consultations on the frequency of self-medication mentioned by the doctor or the patient again indicates that the area of Saint Nazaire is below the average (tab.1). Local socio-economic conditions, culture and history influence the practices of the health professionals. The socio-economic status of the patients influences the attitude to them of the doctors, for example, in terms of their medical costs. The professionals located in the most deprived districts underline the inequalities in health generated by the de-listing of drugs known as "of comfort" from those whose costs will be reimbursed to the patient. In this context, the pharmacists seem to offer advice according to their customers' supposed purchasing power. The health professionals located in a district concentrating a large number of poor workers express a certain concern with respect to the inequality of access to care. In this case, self-medication is an essential part of health-care behaviour because even if people provide a prescription, they are not necessarily reimbursed for certain kinds of drugs. The medical and social history of the Saint-Nazaire area has shaped the relations between patients and doctors such that a distinct community of professional practice has appeared in this area. This community is defined by a global approach towards the patient's health, a broader concern with self-medication, and a significant emphasis given to listening and discussion during the consultations. Thus, the advice on drugs is simply part of the global relations between the patient and the GP or the pharmacist whereas in the mirror area of Nantes, this advice is delivered more as a recommendation of good practice from the "expert" to the non-expert. Interviews with pharmacists in Nantes suggest that self-medication offers a therapeutic alternative in response to a lack of listening that is prevalent among the doctors of the area. The doctors are influenced in their practices by perceived local beliefs about health. If the doctors are also native to their place of work and have always been embedded in such sets of beliefs, they are more tolerant than their fellow-doctors towards these beliefs and indeed will sometimes accept being guided by their patients when writing the prescription (although sometimes they may just add a placebo to seem to concur with the patient). The patients' resort to self-medication is neither perceived nor accompanied in a homogeneous way from one city to another or from one district to another. In the area of Saint Nazaire, medical and social interventions have been anchored for a long time in a political and social tradition of solidarity, networking and proximity with a population weakened by the roughness and the liability of working conditions. Consequently, this situation strengthens even further the relationship between doctor and patient having thus a strong influence on self-medication. These results suggest the importance of taking into account the territorial context in the analysis of the health professionals' behaviours opening new opportunities for studying self-medication. Tab 1. Self-medication mentioned during consultations in various areas of the region Pays de la Loire (France) Area% of answers mentioned by the patientp% of questions by the Professionalp% of appearance in the prescriptionpSaint-Nazaire-Estuaire53,4066,5<0,00170,6<0,001Nantes47,10,254,80,2260,00,1Nord 4443,80,344,60,1947,20,29Nantes Agglomération39,70,245,70,1349,90,46Les Mauges41,90,543,00,2154,80,25Littoral36,00,155,70,0736,3<0,001La Roche sur Yon42,50,439,70,0346,00,22Sud Vendée38,20,340,90,1145,50,26 ; Les pouvoirs publics français, dans un souci de maîtrise des dépenses de santé, encouragent le recours à l'automédication de la population. Les comportements d'auto-soin, qui consistent à consommer de sa propre initiative un médicament sans consulter un médecin, placent ce dernier au coeur d'un antagonisme, la volonté d'autonomie des usagers confronté à celle d'encadrement des pouvoirs publics et l'obligent à se positionner face à des pratiques dont par essence il est exclu par le patient. Cette étude cherche à comprendre, par la méthode de contextualisation des discours, l'influence du milieu géographique dans les positionnements et comportements des praticiens vis à vis de l'automédication. Elle.a été réalisée à partir d'entretiens semi-directifs, selon des grilles élaborées conjointement avec des sociologues, des médecins et des géographes, auprès de 30 médecins généralistes et 19 pharmaciens des agglomérations nazairienne et nantaise. Les résultats de ce travail suggèrent l'importance de la prise en compte des données territoriales entourant soignant et soigné dans l'analyse des comportements des professionnels de santé et dans de nouvelles perspectives d'approche du recours à l'automédication.

International audience ; Self-medication: how the local context influences the practitioner's perceptions and practices The French public authorities encourage the population to resort to self-medication to control health expenditure. Since risk may occur from this practice, general practitioners and pharmacists have been appointed to be the "guarantors" of a safe use for self-medication. Self-care behaviours, implying the consumption of medication without consultation, put the practitioner in an antagonistic situation between the patients' will to be self-reliant in care use on the one hand, and the frame imposed by the public authorities on the other. This demands of the professionals that they adopt for themselves a position on such self-care practices in which they are excluded by the patient. This study aims at understanding the influence of the geographical environment on the professionals' position and behaviour in relation to self-medication examined through the method of contextual speech. Semi-structured interviews have been conducted with 30 practitioners and 19 pharmacists from the Nantes and Saint-Nazaire areas based on questions defined by sociologists, doctors and geographers. The results of this study suggest that spatial data are salient to analyzing health professionals' behaviour in relation to this concern of patient's self-medication. The interviews aimed at determining the professionals' perceptions with respect tothe self-medication of their patients in terms of whether they have encouraged or on the contrary, attempted to prevent these behaviours through arguments in favour of the public policies promoting self-medication. The questions deal with the professionals' career, the socio-economic characteristics of the patients and the motivations for their choice of place of work so as to link practices and behaviours with places.The simultaneousstudy of two different urban areas enables the analysis to distinguish the effects of context from geographical invariants. The main case study was Saint Nazaire with the case of Nantes used as a mirror to enable the identification of similarities or differences. Both case studies rely on a spatial analysis of data issued of the same program: the ANR Auto-med. The choice of Saint Nazaire as the main case study is based on two observations. First, the patients' rate of self-medication declared in a survey conducted within the ANR Auto-med program appears to be lower in Saint Nazaire than that of the regional area. Secondly, an investigation of a panel of medical consultations on the frequency of self-medication mentioned by the doctor or the patient again indicates that the area of Saint Nazaire is below the average (tab.1). Local socio-economic conditions, culture and history influence the practices of the health professionals. The socio-economic status of the patients influences the attitude to them of the doctors, for example, in terms of their medical costs. The professionals located in the most deprived districts underline the inequalities in health generated by the de-listing of drugs known as "of comfort" from those whose costs will be reimbursed to the patient. In this context, the pharmacists seem to offer advice according to their customers' supposed purchasing power. The health professionals located in a district concentrating a large number of poor workers express a certain concern with respect to the inequality of access to care. In this case, self-medication is an essential part of health-care behaviour because even if people provide a prescription, they are not necessarily reimbursed for certain kinds of drugs. The medical and social history of the Saint-Nazaire area has shaped the relations between patients and doctors such that a distinct community of professional practice has appeared in this area. This community is defined by a global approach towards the patient's health, a broader concern with self-medication, and a significant emphasis given to listening and discussion during the consultations. Thus, the advice on drugs is simply part of the global relations between the patient and the GP or the pharmacist whereas in the mirror area of Nantes, this advice is delivered more as a recommendation of good practice from the "expert" to the non-expert. Interviews with pharmacists in Nantes suggest that self-medication offers a therapeutic alternative in response to a lack of listening that is prevalent among the doctors of the area. The doctors are influenced in their practices by perceived local beliefs about health. If the doctors are also native to their place of work and have always been embedded in such sets of beliefs, they are more tolerant than their fellow-doctors towards these beliefs and indeed will sometimes accept being guided by their patients when writing the prescription (although sometimes they may just add a placebo to seem to concur with the patient). The patients' resort to self-medication is neither perceived nor accompanied in a homogeneous way from one city to another or from one district to another. In the area of Saint Nazaire, medical and social interventions have been anchored for a long time in a political and social tradition of solidarity, networking and proximity with a population weakened by the roughness and the liability of working conditions. Consequently, this situation strengthens even further the relationship between doctor and patient having thus a strong influence on self-medication. These results suggest the importance of taking into account the territorial context in the analysis of the health professionals' behaviours opening new opportunities for studying self-medication. Tab 1. Self-medication mentioned during consultations in various areas of the region Pays de la Loire (France) Area% of answers mentioned by the patientp% of questions by the Professionalp% of appearance in the prescriptionpSaint-Nazaire-Estuaire53,4066,5<0,00170,6<0,001Nantes47,10,254,80,2260,00,1Nord 4443,80,344,60,1947,20,29Nantes Agglomération39,70,245,70,1349,90,46Les Mauges41,90,543,00,2154,80,25Littoral36,00,155,70,0736,3<0,001La Roche sur Yon42,50,439,70,0346,00,22Sud Vendée38,20,340,90,1145,50,26 ; Les pouvoirs publics français, dans un souci de maîtrise des dépenses de santé, encouragent le recours à l'automédication de la population. Les comportements d'auto-soin, qui consistent à consommer de sa propre initiative un médicament sans consulter un médecin, placent ce dernier au coeur d'un antagonisme, la volonté d'autonomie des usagers confronté à celle d'encadrement des pouvoirs publics et l'obligent à se positionner face à des pratiques dont par essence il est exclu par le patient. Cette étude cherche à comprendre, par la méthode de contextualisation des discours, l'influence du milieu géographique dans les positionnements et comportements des praticiens vis à vis de l'automédication. Elle.a été réalisée à partir d'entretiens semi-directifs, selon des grilles élaborées conjointement avec des sociologues, des médecins et des géographes, auprès de 30 médecins généralistes et 19 pharmaciens des agglomérations nazairienne et nantaise. Les résultats de ce travail suggèrent l'importance de la prise en compte des données territoriales entourant soignant et soigné dans l'analyse des comportements des professionnels de santé et dans de nouvelles perspectives d'approche du recours à l'automédication.

1901 wurde der Musikverlag "Universal-Edition" als Aktiengesellschaft in Wien gegründet; 1909 hatte der neue Verlag bereits 660.684 Auflagen gedruckt. Schon der Verlagsname drückte die neue musik-politische Intention des Verlagsprogramms aus: umfassende Sachausrichtung und Internationalität. Schon dadurch unterschied sich der Verlag deutlich von seinen Vorgängern aus dem 19. Jhdt. Durch seine neue Verlagspolitik wurde die UE zu einem besonders lohnenden Gegenstand wissenschaftlicher Forschung: der erfolgreiche Aufbruch von Schönberg, Bartok oder Milhaud sowie beinahe der gesamten damaligen Avantgarde waren ein Verdienst Emil Hertzkas, des im Jahre 1907 neuernannten Direktors. Daher war nach bisheriger Betrachtung die "Universal-Edition" vor allem ein Verlag für neue Musik, doch der Autor räumt mit dieser falschen Vorstellung auf: ein auf Zeitgenössisches konzentriertes Unternehmen hätte kaum überleben können. Den entscheidenden ökonomischen Erfolg der UE ermöglichten Bearbeitungen, Arrangements, und Einrichtungen klassischer Stücke für Hausgebrauch und Unterricht. Keine Geringeren wie Bartok, Bülow, Krenek, Mahler, Malipiero, Prokofiew, Reger, Schenker, Schönberg, Strawinski stellten diese Bearbeitungen in höchster musikalischer Qualität her. Der vorliegende Katalog der UE weist von der Verlagsgründung (1901) bis Hertzkas Tod (1932) rund 10.000 Editionen detailliert und vollständig nach und dokumentiert damit somit auch ein Stück Zeitge-schichte. Auch Fragen des Urheberrechts, der Vertragsformulierung und der ästhetisch-religiösen Interessen Hertzkas werden vom Autor behandelt. Herztka gab erstmals nicht nur Sammlungen sondern Einzelhefte heraus; er kaufte kleinere Verlagshäuser an (Erwerb der Rechte an Werken u.a. von Bruckner und R. Strauss); er bot Arrangements sofort nach Ablauf der Schutzfrist eines Komponisten an (z.B. 1913 für Wagner). Bei allen Arrangements identifizierte der Autor die zugrunde liegenden Originalwerke und versah sie mit den ursprünglichen Nummern der jeweiligen Werkverzeichnisse. Den vielleicht größten finanziellen Erfolg hatte die UE durch die umfassende Herstellung von Leihmaterial für Orchesterwerke anstelle des Verkaufs von Stimmen und Partituren: Papiergeschäft vs. Bühnengeschäft, eine neue intensivierte Nutzung der Verlagsrechte. In Hertzkas Verträgen zeigt sich durch die Unterscheidung von Arrangement, Revision und Herausgabe die zunehmende Historisierung der Musik, mit der allerdings jenes Geld zu verdienen war, mit dem die weniger ertragreiche neue Musik finanziert werden konnte. ; In 1901 the music publishing house Universal Edition (UE) was founded in Vienna as an incorporated company – and by 1909 it already had 660,684 printed editions. Even the name of the publishing house expressed the new intention of its editing programme: a strong orientation towards wide-ranging content and internationality, which immediately distinguished the new publishing house clearly from its 19th century predecessors. This new publishing policy made the UE a most rewarding task for academic research: the credit for the successful rise of Schoenberg, Bartók, Milhaud and almost the whole avant-garde of that time must go to Emil Hertzka, who was appointed as the new director in 1907. According to the traditional view, the UE was first and foremost a publisher for modern music. The present author shows this to be a fallacy: a company concentrating on contemporary music could have never survived. The crucial factor in the UE's economic success was its arrangements of classical pieces for domestic and educational use. Authors no less prominent than Bartók, von Bülow, Krenek, Mahler, Malipiero, Prokofiev, Reger, Schreker, Schoenberg and Stravinsky took care to make arrangements of this kind in the highest possible quality. The thesis's presents a catalogue of UE publications – covering the years from its foundation (1901) until Hertzka's death (1932) – listing ca. 10,000 editions completely and in detail, and by doing so also documents historical aspects of the period under consideration. The author also deals with issues ranging from Hertzka's aesthetic and religious interests through to copyright and legal aspects of contracts. Hertzka, for example, was the first publisher to offer single editions as opposed to volumes of collected works; he bought up smaller publishing houses (e.g. acquiring the rights for Bruckner and R. Strauss); and immediately after the termination of a composer's copyright he brought out arrangements (e.g. 1913 with Wagner). All arrangements were identified in accordance with the original title and were given the original opus number from the respective composer's own catalogue-raisonné. However the greatest financial success was probably achieved through the preparation of rental material for orchestras rather than through selling parts and scores (UE possibly being one of the first publishers of which this was the case). This led to a new intensified use of the rights owned by the publisher and the generation of substantial income from selling rights for performances as opposed to selling printed material. In the contracts issued by Hertzka, furthermore, we discover a new distinction between arrangement, revision and edition that reflects a new historiographical approach; this, it may be noted, also made the money to finance the less profitable modern music. The present thesis makes a notable contribution to the research into the editorial politics of the larger publishing houses and presents detailed data and knowledge of the kind necessary for a comprehensive history of the reception of music. ; En 1901, la maison d'Edition musicale « Universal-Edition » (UE) fut une société créée dont le capital avait été formé à partir d'un portefeuille d'action ; et dès 1909 le succès fut tel que cette maison avait déjà imprimé 660.684 exemplaires. Le nom de cette maison d'édition affirmait déjà sa nouvelle politique éditoriale avec un programme dont ses intentions étaient de se consacrer à une édition musicale collective dans un cadre international. UE se différenciait déjà clairement de celles de ces prédécesseurs du siècle dernier : la nouvelle politique éditoriale d'UE s'attachait à se munir de l'autorité scientifique reconnue des plus grands musiciens, compositeurs et professeurs. D'Emil Hertzka, cet homme qui devint en 1907 le nouveau directeur d'UE, on retiendra le mérite d'avoir misé sur le succès de jeunes compositeurs tels que Schönberg, Bartók ou de Milhaud comme de l'ensemble de l'avant-garde contemporaine ; et ce fut grâce à lui que l'on considérait jusqu'à présent qu'UE avait été avant tout une maison qui s'était principalement consacrée à l'édition de la musique moderne. L'auteur, cependant, fait table rase de cette idée reçue, car si Hertzka avait concentré uniquement cette entreprise sur la publication de la musique contemporaine, UE n'aurait jamais pu subsister jusqu'à ce jour. Les arrangements ou révisions des œuvres classiques pour l'usage domestique et l'enseignement garantirent le succès financier d'UE. Et ceux qui firent ces arrangements avec la plus haute qualité musicale se nommaient Bartók, Bülow, Krenek, Mahler, Malipiero, Prokofiev, Reger, Schreker, Schönberg ou Stravinsky. Le catalogue raisonné d'UE présenté ici, et qui va de la création d'UE (1901) jusqu'à la mort d'Hertzka (1932), s'attache à faire la description la plus détaillée possible des 10.000 premiers numéros d'éditions, chacune d'entre-elle représentant un moment de l'histoire musicale. La question des droits d'auteurs, de la formulation de leurs contrats comme des aspects esthétiques ou religieux des compositeurs, tous chers à Hertzka, seront aussi traités par l'auteur. Hertzka ne fit pas uniquement l'édition de tomes mais aussi de fascicules ; il racheta des petites maisons d'édition (pour acquérir les droits des œuvres de Bruckner ou de Strauss par exemple), proposa après l'expiration du délai de protection des droits d'un compositeur d'en faire des arrangements (par ex. Wagner en 1913). Tous ces arrangements se trouveront dans la rubrique consacrée à son compositeur d'origine. Mais le plus grand succès financier d'UE fut de s'attacher à la vaste production de la location de matériels d'orchestre au lieu de vendre les parties d'orchestre et les partitions : c'était faire la transition du Papiergeschäft (vente sur papier) à celle de Bühnengeschäft (location du matériel musical) lui permettant d'exploiter aussi ses droits éditoriaux. De ces contrats que fit signer Hertzka, nous découvrons une nouvelle distinction entre les notions d'arrangement, de révision et d'édition dite critique qui reflète une nouvelle approche de l'histoire musicale et force est d'admettre que l'argent qu'il en tira lui permit de financer la musique moderne. Cette présente thèse se veut être un outil de recherche pour les musicologues qui pourront déceler les rouages de la politique éditoriale de ces grandes maisons d'édition musicales et dont les détails qui s'y trouvent les aideront peut-être à mieux percevoir l'histoire de la réception musicale.

In Cameroon, the sequence of reforms in the health sector has reinforced an ideological wavering between two opposing currents: a socio-universal that promotes equity, and a neoliberal, which militates for greater economic efficiency of existing systems. Articulating two concerns which are, the worsening of health inequalities as consequence of policy choices made on the efficacy of services without taking into account factors that support the demand, and the form of organization of the health system arising from an imperfect translation of major international principles, this thesis aims to contributing to a critical reflection on the process, the implementation and the results produced by these health policies. To determine Cameroonian specificity, we inscribe them in a triple theoretical field. The neo-institutionalist approach, mobilize to grasp the importance of the economic history and its influence on the evolution of the health system, which allows understanding the conditions for policy change. The "referentials" approach to policy analysis in order to apprehend the foundations of the new public policy, including the understanding of how interests and ideas are formatted by institutions. An effort to illuminate the policy game is undertaken to appraise the mediation of political entrepreneurs, thereby testing empirically the "top-down hypothesis". Finally, the theories of justice help to argue for the existence of an imbalance between health supply and demand which undermines health outcomes, and reinforces the conflict efficacy versus equity. Indeed, our work aims to provide some answers to three main questions: (i) Why (triggers) and how (dynamic) health public policies are influenced in their construction and implementation by economic policies? (ii) What are the outcomes of induced changes by the global referential (macroeconomic framework) on sectoral referential that requires a more equitable distribution and access to health services? (iii) What lessons can we learn from the knowledge of the interrelationships between the dynamics of poverty reduction and the persistence of inaccessibility to health care in order to improve the evaluation of public policies? From a number of quantitative and qualitative indicators, the robustness of the new policy is questioned following prospects regarding health distribution and accessibility. Therefore, we emphasize the difficulty of the public policy to achieve satisfactory results both in terms of efficacy or equity due to the institutional and organizational system in which it is designed and implemented. Three epistemic communities acting on a nonstructural basis are identified and analyzed through a robust qualitative material that enables us to grasp the existence of a paradigmatic conflict emerged from how different groups are positioning themselves and interpret reality in order to put in coherence the sectorial referential and the global market-based one which appears to be rather spontaneous and mandatory. Statistical and econometric works to measure more precisely the inequalities and determinants of access and use of health services by the population supports the idea of a widening of inequalities by the health policies maintained by strong regressive mechanisms. The analysis of the determinants of occurrence of catastrophic health expenditures also confirms this. We mobilize thereafter an additional material to assess the allocative efficiency and efficacy of public spending on health as well as their impact on the use of services and benefits revealed from their use. ; Au Cameroun, l'enchaînement des reformes en matière de santé a renforcé le flottement idéologique entre deux courants opposés : un socio-universel qui promeut l'équité, et l'autre néolibéral, qui milite pour une plus grande efficacité économique des systèmes en place. Articulant deux préoccupations que sont l'aggravation des inégalités de santé comme conséquence des choix politiques portés sur l'efficacité des services sans prise en compte des facteurs qui soutiennent la demande, et les formes d'organisation de la santé qui découlent d'une traduction imparfaite des grands principes internationaux, cette thèse a pour objectif de contribuer à une réflexion critique sur le processus de fabrication, la mise en œuvre et les résultats produits par ces politiques de santé. Pour cerner la spécificité camerounaise, nous les inscrivons dans un triple champ théorique. Le courant économique néo-institutionnaliste pour saisir l'importance de l'histoire économique du pays et son influence sur l'évolution du système de santé, ce qui permet de comprendre les conditions de changement politique. Le modèle de référentiel de politique publique pour appréhender les fondements de la nouvelle politique publique, notamment la façon dont les idées et les intérêts sont formatés par les institutions. Un essai de décodage du jeu d'acteurs est entrepris en s'appuyant sur la médiation, mettant à l'épreuve les hypothèses de « l'ajustement par le haut ». Enfin, les théories de la justice sont sollicitées pour argumenter en faveur de l'existence d'un déséquilibre entre l'offre et la demande qui agit sur les résultats sanitaires et qui renforce le conflit efficacité versus équité. En effet, notre travail ambitionne d'apporter des éléments de réponses à trois questions principales : (i) Pourquoi (déclencheurs) et comment (dynamique) les politiques publiques de santé sont-elles transformées dans leur construction et leur mise en œuvre par les politiques économiques ? (ii) Quels sont les effets du changement induit par le référentiel global sur le référentiel sectoriel qui exige une distribution de l'accès aux services de santé plus équitable ? (iii) Quels enseignements peut-on tirer de la connaissance des interrelations entre la dynamique de réduction de la pauvreté et l'inaccessibilité persistante dans l'accès aux soins de santé pour une amélioration de l'évaluation des politiques publiques ? A partir d'un nombre d'indicateurs quantitatifs et qualitatifs, la robustesse de la nouvelle politique est questionnée suivant les perspectives de distribution et d'accessibilité. Dès lors, nous soulignons la difficulté à atteindre des résultats satisfaisants que ce soit en termes d'efficacité ou d'équité à cause du système institutionnel et organisationnel dans lequel elle se conçoit et se met en œuvre. Trois communautés épistémiques plus ou moins forts qui agissent de façon peu structurée sont repérées et analysées à travers un matériau qualitatif riche qui permet d'appréhender l'existence d'un conflit paradigmatique né de la façon dont les groupes se positionnent et arrivent à mettre en cohérence le référentiel sectoriel de la santé avec le référentiel global de marché qui revêt plutôt un caractère spontané et impératif. Un travail statistique et économétrique permettant de mesurer plus finement les inégalités et les déterminants d'accès et de recours aux soins par les populations soutient l'idée d'un creusement des inégalités de santé par ces politiques soutenues par des mécanismes de financement fortement régressifs. L'analyse des déterminants de survenue des dépenses catastrophiques vient également confirmer ce positionnement. Nous apprécions par la suite l'efficacité allocative et l'efficience des dépenses publiques de santé ainsi que leur impact sur l'utilisation des services et les bénéfices révélés de leur utilisation.

The aim of this dissertation is to know whether the decentralized approach, officially put forward in the management of sovereign debt crises since their origin, is not only feasible but also efficient in terms of equity of the debt burden sharing. We define indeed an efficient restructuring process as a procedure of short duration (less than one year) and that meets the needs of both parties. If, in the side of creditors, the discount should not be abusive, towards the debtor, the debt must become sustainable, in both economic and social terms. Field analysis process of renegotiating debt focuses exclusively on Latin American economies, insofar as they represent debtors who historically recorded the highest number of defaults. Through a multidisciplinary approach, we finally defend the thesis that the failure of the various restructuring process is directly subordinate to the iniquity of sharing the debt burden, which is due to an imbalance of bargaining power, as an inherent part of decentralized management. Our macroeconomic and inductive approaches built the framework for socio-economic analysis, which uses history, political economy, but also a study based on social psychology. This dissertation is structured in two parts, themselves divided into two chapters. The first part focuses on understanding the origins of crises, their prevention and crisis management, and then their failures. It combines empirical observation and theoretical underpinnings of the decentralization. Specifically, the first chapter outlines, given the dual responsibility in the onset and sinking into the crisis, the failure of the decentralized approach in the long term. It concludes that not only decentralization is inapplicable, since a third party is always forced to intervene, but nor it does allow an fair sharing of the crisis costs. The second chapter consecutively seeks to understand why such a restructuring process is still maintained. The political economy of decentralization then shows that the choice between regulation and "laissez-faire" is not so much linked to economic efficiency criteria, but rather to ideological and political considerations. The second part of this work symmetrically proposes lines of thought to overcome the main obstacles identified in most cases of defaults and restructurings. Thus, if the third chapter addresses the second, fourth echoes the first. Indeed, the third chapter shows that decentralization can't be efficient, not only because of its technical pitfalls, but also because of the nature of the both contractual parties. Sovereign immunity having been put into perspective in the first two chapters, the point here is to analyze the functioning of financial markets in an alternative way, compared with the efficiency hypothesis. That is why we go into the Keynes psychosocial analysis (1936) in depth with the behavioral finance. Such a study reveals the inability of creditors to organize themselves in good faith, while it is the sine qua non condition of the decentralized approach implementation and efficiency. Therefore, the final chapter concludes on the need for a shift towards a more centralized approach, which includes a neutral, competent and institutionalized third party. Here, if multilateralism must prevail as a model of collaborative thinking, in regard to the management of the current debt crisis in Europe, such a possibility remains unlikely in the short term. This is why debtor countries may have to take some unilateral decisions, including potentially legitimate and transparent debt repudiation in case of sinking into the crisis, in order to compel the international community to make that needed shift. Keywords: Sovereign debt, Restructuration, Decentralized approach, Dependency theories, Political Economy, Behavioral Finance. ; Cette thèse cherche à savoir si la méthode décentralisée, officiellement mise en avant dans la gestion des crises de la dette souveraine depuis leur origine, est non seulement réalisable, mais également efficace en termes de répartition équitable du fardeau de la dette. Nous définissons en effet un processus de restructuration efficace comme une procédure de courte durée (inférieure à un an) et qui respecte les besoins des deux parties prenantes au contrat. Si du côté des créanciers, la décote ne doit pas être abusive, du côté du débiteur, la dette doit redevenir soutenable, au sens à la fois économique et social du terme. Le terrain d'analyse des processus de renégociation de la dette se concentre exclusivement sur les économies d'Amérique Latine, dans la mesure où elles représentent les débiteurs ayant enregistré le plus grand nombre de défauts au cours de l'histoire. À travers une méthode pluridisciplinaire, nous défendons finalement la thèse selon laquelle l'échec des différents processus de restructuration est directement subordonné à l'iniquité du partage du fardeau de la dette, laquelle fait suite à un déséquilibre des pouvoirs de négociation inhérente au cadre de gestion décentralisée. Notre posture macroéconomique et notre démarche inductive induisent un cadre d'analyse socio-économique, lequel fait appel à un approfondissement historique, en termes d'économie politique, mais également à une étude basée sur la psychologie sociale. La thèse est structurée autour de deux parties, elles-mêmes subdivisées en deux chapitres. La première partie s'attache à comprendre les origines et les modalités de prévention et de gestion des crises, ainsi que leurs échecs. Elle conjugue de fait l'observation empirique et les soubassements théoriques de la décentralisation. De fait, le premier chapitre fait état, au vu de la double responsabilité à l'œuvre dans le déclenchement et l'enlisement dans la crise, de l'échec de la méthode décentralisée sur le long terme. En effet, non seulement la décentralisation apparaît inapplicable, puisqu'une tierce partie est systématiquement contrainte d'intervenir, mais elle ne permet pas non de plus de répartir équitablement les coûts de la crise. Le second chapitre cherche consécutivement à comprendre pourquoi ce processus de restructuration est néanmoins maintenu. L'économie politique de la décentralisation montre alors que le choix entre la régulation et le « laissez-faire » ne tient pas tant à des critères d'efficacité économique qu'à des considérations idéologiques et politiques. La deuxième partie de cette thèse propose symétriquement des pistes de réflexion afin de pallier les principaux écueils relevés lors des différents épisodes de défaut et de restructuration. Ainsi, si le troisième chapitre répond au second, le quatrième fait écho au premier. En effet, le troisième chapitre montre que la décentralisation ne peut aboutir en raison non seulement de ses écueils techniques, mais surtout de la nature des deux parties au contrat. L'immunité souveraine ayant été relativisée dans les deux premiers chapitres, il s'agit ici d'analyser le fonctionnement des marchés selon une méthode alternative au concept d'efficience. C'est la raison pour laquelle nous faisons appel aux préceptes de Keynes (1936) et de son analyse en termes psychosociaux, que nous approfondissons au travers du courant de la finance comportementale. Une telle étude révèle ainsi l'incapacité des créanciers à s'organiser de bonne foi, laquelle représente pourtant la condition sine qua non de la réalisation et de l'efficacité de la méthode décentralisée. Par conséquent, le dernier chapitre de ce travail conclue sur la nécessité d'un revirement en faveur d'une approche plus centralisée, laquelle inclut une tierce partie neutre, compétente et institutionnalisée.