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The main goal of this paper is to analyze #YoSoy132 construction of mediatic identities through videoactivism, and to question if YouTube was determinant or simply instrumental in the implosion of the movement. During the 2012 "Mexican Spring", students and citizens not only occupied the streets to quest for a "real democracy" or to express their dissent through very significant demonstrations, but they also occupied the internet to protest. First of all, identity features of the movement are analyzed in relation with the following variables: 1) nucleus of belonging, 2) main sociodemographic features, 3) forms of leadership, 4) interests, 5) collective identity, and 6) relationship with otherness. Second, through a qualitative methodology —content analysis—, this paper analyzes the most relevant pieces of videoactivism produced by young adults. This study focused on the role and function of the videos to know if social media was "instrumental" or "determinant". Third, mediatic identities represented in the videos are analyzed by exploring the following aspects: a) protagonists appearing in the videos: main role, gender and age range, b) locations where these characters appear and c) type of identity represented: hegemonic or counter-hegemonic, majority or minority. The main result of this research is that a resistence and contra-hegemonic identity is created through YouTube videos by young Mexicans. Moreover, being #YoSoy132 goes far beyond being young, student or belonging to a specific university. In this regard, the scenario is not occupied by a single subject or specific group of people, but it belongs to the "oppressed" and to persons at risk or discrimination. ; El objetivo principal de este artículo es analizar la construcción de la identidad mediática a través del video activismo del #yosoy132 y cuestionar si YouTube fue determinante o simplemente instrumental en la implosión del movimiento. Durante la "primavera mexicana" del 2012, los estudiantes y demás ciudadanos no solo ocuparon las calles para pedir una "democracia real" o para expresar su disenso a través de manifestaciones muy significativas, sino que también ocuparon la internet para protestar. En primer lugar, las características del movimiento son analizadas desde su relación con las siguientes variables: 1) núcleo de pertenencia, 2)características socio demográficas principales, 3) formas de liderazgo, 4) intereses, 5) identidad colectiva, y 6) relación con laotredad. En segundo lugar, a través de una metodología cualitativa —análisis de contenido—, este artículo analiza las piezas de video activismo más representativas producidas por jóvenes adultos. Este estudio se enfoca en el rol y la función de los videos para saber si las piezas mediáticas sociales fueron "instrumentales" o "determinantes". En tercer lugar, las identidades mediáticas presentadas en los videos son analizadas desde los siguientes aspectos: a) protagonistas en los videos: rol principal, género y rango etario, b) locaciones en las que estos personajes aparecen y c) tipo de la identidad representada: hegemónica o contra-hegemónica, mayoría o minoría. El resultado principal de esta investigación es que la resistencia y la identidad contra-hegemónica es creada a partir de videos de YouTube hechos por jóvenes mexicanos. Más aún, teniendo en cuenta que #YoSoy132 trasciende el hecho de ser joven, estudiante o de pertenecer a una universidad específica. A este respecto, el escenario no es ocupado por un sujeto específico o un grupo específico de personas, sino que perteneces a los "oprimidos" y a las persones en riesgo o discriminadas. ; O principal objetivo deste artigo é analisar o #YoSoy132 e a construção de identidades midiáticas por meio do videoativismo e questionar se o YouTube foi determinante ou simplesmente instrumental na implosão do movimento. Durante a "Primavera Mexicana" de 2012, estudantes e cidadãos não só ocuparam as ruas para pedir a "real democracia" ou para expressar sua discordância por meio de manifestações bastante significativas, mas eles também ocuparam a internet para protestar. Primeiramente, as características identitárias do movimento são analisadas com respeito às seguintes variáveis: 1) núcleo de pertencimento, 2) principais características sociodemográficas, 3) formas de liderança, 4) interesses, 5) identidade coletiva e 6) relação com a alteridade. Em segundo lugar, por meio de uma metodologia qualitativa — análise de conteúdo —, este artigo analisa os trabalhos de videoativismo mais relevantes produzidos por jovens adultos. O presente estudo se concentra no papel e na função de vídeos para saber se as mídias sociais foram "instrumentais" ou "determinantes". Em terceiro lugar, as identidades midiáticas representadas nos vídeos são analisadas ao explorar os seguintes aspectos: a) protagonistas que aparecem nos vídeos — papel principal, gênero e faixa etária, b) locais onde esses personagens aparecem e c) tipo de identidade representada — hegemônica ou contra hegemônica, maioria ou minoria. O principal resultado desta pesquisa é que uma identidade contra hegemônica e de resistência é criada por meio de vídeos do YouTube por jovens mexicanos. Sobretudo, ser #YoSoy132 vai muito além de ser jovem, estudante ou pertencer a uma universidade específica. Nesse sentido, o cenário não é ocupado por um único sujeito ou por um grupo específico de pessoas, mas pertence aos "oprimidos" e às pessoas em risco ou que sofrem discriminação.

The paper formulates an understanding of the penal nature of the punishment, based on the essential aspect of the subject of the penal law and its positive impact on it. It is proved that the defining property of its subject is the public danger, serving the sentence of the convicted person. The provisions and norms of the penitentiary law, by means of which the convict is influenced, are corrective in nature. The proposed content of the legal nature allowed us to reveal the criterion of the system, the branch of law under consideration, the organic interrelation of its provisions and norms with solving problems and achieving goals. Such a criterion is the degree of public danger of a person serving a sentence imposed by the court, executed by the relevant criminal enforcement agencies. On the one hand, it materially "connects" the branch of law under consideration with criminal law, on the other, it gives them independence. The study of the problem of the penitentiary function of punishment, taking into account the revealed nature of its penitentiary, has made it possible to state that punishment is valuable in the system of provisions and norms of criminal executive law. All of this is aimed not at punishment, but at ensuring its serving and execution, within the framework of criminal-executive legal relations. At the same time, it is not punishment, but its essence in the form of a good, specified by the court's verdict by type, volume, time, is served and executed. The content of this process, its focus form a criminal-executive function, based on a certain degree of social danger of the convict. The "job" of the function is to stop the public danger of the convict as much as possible, creating the conditions for achieving the goal of the criminal executive legislation to correct the criminal. ; El documento formula una comprensión de la naturaleza penal de la pena, basada en el aspecto esencial del tema de la ley penal y su impacto positivo en ella. Está comprobado que la propiedad definitoria de su sujeto es el peligro público, que cumple la sentencia de la persona condenada. Las disposiciones y normas de la ley penitenciaria, por medio de las cuales el condenado es influenciado, son de naturaleza correctiva. El contenido propuesto de la naturaleza legal nos permitió revelar el criterio del sistema, la rama de la ley en cuestión, la interrelación orgánica de sus disposiciones y normas con la resolución de problemas y el logro de objetivos. Tal criterio es el grado de peligro público de que una persona cumpla una sentencia impuesta por el tribunal, ejecutada por los organismos de ejecución de la ley pertinentes. Por un lado, materialmente "conecta" la rama de la ley bajo consideración con el derecho penal, por el otro, les da independencia. El estudio del problema de la función penitenciaria del castigo, teniendo en cuenta la naturaleza revelada de su penitenciaría, ha permitido afirmar que el castigo es valioso en el sistema de disposiciones y normas del derecho penal ejecutivo. Todo esto no apunta al castigo, sino a garantizar su servicio y ejecución, en el marco de las relaciones legales criminal-ejecutivas. Al mismo tiempo, no es un castigo, pero su esencia en forma de un bien, especificado por el veredicto de la corte por tipo, volumen, tiempo, se cumple y se ejecuta. El contenido de este proceso, su enfoque, forma una función criminalejecutiva, basada en un cierto grado de peligro social del convicto. El "trabajo" de la función es detener el peligro público del condenado tanto como sea posible, creando las condiciones para lograr el objetivo de la legislación penal ejecutiva para corregir al criminal. ; В работе сформулировано понимание уголовно-исполнительной природы наказания, основывающееся на сущностном аспекте предмета уголовно-исполнительного права и позитивном воздействии на него. Доказывается, что определяющим свойством ее предмета выступает общественная опасность, отбывающего наказание осужденного. Положения и нормы уголовноисполнительного права, посредством которых осуществляется воздействие на осужденного, по своему характеру являются исправительными. Предложенное содержание правовой природы позволило выявить критерий системности, рассматриваемой отрасли права, органическую взаимосвязь ее положений и норм с решением задач и достижения целей. Таким критерием выступает степень общественной опасности лица, отбывающего назначенное ему судом наказание, исполняемое соответствующими уголовноисполнительными структурами. Он, с одной стороны, материально «соединяет» рассматриваемую отрасль права с правом уголовным, с другой, придает им самостоятельность. Исследование проблемы уголовноисполнительного предназначения наказания, с учетом выявленной его уголовноисполнительной природы, позволило констатировать, что наказание ценно не само по себе, а в системе положений и норм уголовно-исполнительного права. Каждая из них и вся их совокупность направлены не на наказание как таковое, а на обеспечение его отбывание и исполнение, в рамках уголовноисполнительных правоотношений. При этом отбывается и исполняется не наказание вообще, а его сущность в виде блага, конкретизированного приговором суда по виду, объему, времени. Содержание этого процесса, его направленность образуют уголовно-исполнительную функцию, основывающуюся на определенной степени общественной опасности осужденного. «Работа» функции- максимально купировать общественную опасность осужденного. Создавая, таким образом, условия достижения цели уголовно-исполнительного законодательства по исправлению преступника.

THE CONCEPT OF THE LAND REFORM IN CUSTOMARY LAW OF THE JAVANESE COMMUNITY Widhiana H. Puri Phd Student at Law Fakulty of Gadjah Mada University and Lecture in National Land Academy, Indonesia. Email widhianapuri@yahoo.com Research Highlights Land reform is a state effort to overcome the imbalance of land tenure in the community (Wiradi, 2000 # 1). Customary law in the Javanese community recognizes the existence of a mechanism of welfare distribution through the ownership and joint use of land in community togetherness bonds based on territorial factors as well as the concept of land reform. The existence of customary land as pekulen land is land owned by the village whose use rights can be requested by the villagers with a rotating utilization mechanism among the villagers in need (Luthfi, 2010 # 2). The study found that indigenous peoples in Java had a welfare distribution mechanism that was the essence of land reform or agrarian reform through a mechanism of land communalization and distribution of its use carried out on a shared land / communal land of the village in rotation. Research Objectives This research was conducted in order to understand the phenomena of the implementation of law that developed in the community. The existence of community law or so-called non state law, informal law, or customary law in Indonesia is very numerous. The reality of this law is that the majority is still far from the attention and order of a positive and formal state legal arrangement. The community regulation model is an effort to meet the needs of its legal ideals in the midst of limited state positive law arrangements that tend to be more static and less responsive (Puri, 2017 # 16). The community regulation mechanism is a manifestation of unity in the village community where the distribution of land use is carried out among community members who have a concept in line with the national agrarian policy of the country called land reform. The regulatory model initiated from the local level becomes the learning material for how the land regulation mechanism is not always top down, but can be bottom up based on customary law that is proven effective and in accordance with the characteristics of the local community. Methodology This research was carried out through an empirical legal research model with research locations in villages in Pituruh Subdistrict, Purworejo Regency, Central Java Province. This research is a kind of analytical descriptive research that is directed to get an idea of ​​how the implementation of Javanese traditions in land management has a concept similar to land reform or agrarian reform. In order to analyze existing traditions, a socio-legal approach is carried out, namely a study of the law using the approach of law and social sciences in order to analyze it (Irianto, 2012 # 17). The legal approach referred to is not only to see aspects of norms that are built on the provisions of customary law alone but by looking at their relevance to the regulation of the positive law of the country as the territory of the enactment of the community regulation. This is to see the common thread and the interrelationship between the two and avoid the release of the phenomenon of legal pluralism that is within the scope of national law. So that the legal norms of the community can be assessed as the model of regulation that can be applied in other regions. Results Javanese people in Indonesia have a land regulation mechanism that has a concept similar to that of land reform or agrarian reform by the state. The customary law of the Javanese community has a common bond based on territorial factors or similarity in the area of ​​residence (Taneko, 2002 # 11). Customary law communities with their customary rights can own and control land both in the concept of individual property rights and communal / communal property rights. The concept of shared property / communal rights illustrates the existence of ownership rights by all members of the community embodied in village control (Susanto, 1983 # 18). One form of joint ownership is the right of possession which can be controlled by community members with the permission of the village government to be used for the benefit of themselves and their families with a rotating mechanism. At present, land is experiencing strengthening and individualization, but the character of togetherness and social function of land is maintained through the distribution of utilization rights of speculative land which has the status of individual property rights, in village settings. Findings Land reform or agrarian reform is a land policy that aims to overcome the imbalance of land tenure through the distribution of land to people in need. Land reform or agrarian reform can be extended not only to the concept of distribution of land ownership but also to the control and use of land. The limitations of the number of land parcels and the need for land can be overcome through a model of tenure and shared use of land based on the concept of joint property / communal rights over land.

THE CONCEPT OF THE LAND REFORM IN CUSTOMARY LAW OF THE JAVANESE COMMUNITY Widhiana H. Puri Phd Student at Law Fakulty of Gadjah Mada University and Lecture in National Land Academy, Indonesia. Email widhianapuri@yahoo.com Research Highlights Land reform is a state effort to overcome the imbalance of land tenure in the community (Wiradi, 2000 # 1). Customary law in the Javanese community recognizes the existence of a mechanism of welfare distribution through the ownership and joint use of land in community togetherness bonds based on territorial factors as well as the concept of land reform. The existence of customary land as pekulen land is land owned by the village whose use rights can be requested by the villagers with a rotating utilization mechanism among the villagers in need (Luthfi, 2010 # 2). The study found that indigenous peoples in Java had a welfare distribution mechanism that was the essence of land reform or agrarian reform through a mechanism of land communalization and distribution of its use carried out on a shared land / communal land of the village in rotation. Research Objectives This research was conducted in order to understand the phenomena of the implementation of law that developed in the community. The existence of community law or so-called non state law, informal law, or customary law in Indonesia is very numerous. The reality of this law is that the majority is still far from the attention and order of a positive and formal state legal arrangement. The community regulation model is an effort to meet the needs of its legal ideals in the midst of limited state positive law arrangements that tend to be more static and less responsive (Puri, 2017 # 16). The community regulation mechanism is a manifestation of unity in the village community where the distribution of land use is carried out among community members who have a concept in line with the national agrarian policy of the country called land reform. The regulatory model initiated from the local level becomes the learning material for how the land regulation mechanism is not always top down, but can be bottom up based on customary law that is proven effective and in accordance with the characteristics of the local community. Methodology This research was carried out through an empirical legal research model with research locations in villages in Pituruh Subdistrict, Purworejo Regency, Central Java Province. This research is a kind of analytical descriptive research that is directed to get an idea of ​​how the implementation of Javanese traditions in land management has a concept similar to land reform or agrarian reform. In order to analyze existing traditions, a socio-legal approach is carried out, namely a study of the law using the approach of law and social sciences in order to analyze it (Irianto, 2012 # 17). The legal approach referred to is not only to see aspects of norms that are built on the provisions of customary law alone but by looking at their relevance to the regulation of the positive law of the country as the territory of the enactment of the community regulation. This is to see the common thread and the interrelationship between the two and avoid the release of the phenomenon of legal pluralism that is within the scope of national law. So that the legal norms of the community can be assessed as the model of regulation that can be applied in other regions. Results Javanese people in Indonesia have a land regulation mechanism that has a concept similar to that of land reform or agrarian reform by the state. The customary law of the Javanese community has a common bond based on territorial factors or similarity in the area of ​​residence (Taneko, 2002 # 11). Customary law communities with their customary rights can own and control land both in the concept of individual property rights and communal / communal property rights. The concept of shared property / communal rights illustrates the existence of ownership rights by all members of the community embodied in village control (Susanto, 1983 # 18). One form of joint ownership is the right of possession which can be controlled by community members with the permission of the village government to be used for the benefit of themselves and their families with a rotating mechanism. At present, land is experiencing strengthening and individualization, but the character of togetherness and social function of land is maintained through the distribution of utilization rights of speculative land which has the status of individual property rights, in village settings. Findings Land reform or agrarian reform is a land policy that aims to overcome the imbalance of land tenure through the distribution of land to people in need. Land reform or agrarian reform can be extended not only to the concept of distribution of land ownership but also to the control and use of land. The limitations of the number of land parcels and the need for land can be overcome through a model of tenure and shared use of land based on the concept of joint property / communal rights over land.

The management of flood risk calls for a better understanding of vulnerability, as hazards only become disasters if they impact a system that is vulnerable to their effects. Although different frameworks have been proposed to assess vulnerability, they often focus on the physical vulnerability of structures, assuming a homogeneous social vulnerability and coping capacity for the entire population. Furthermore, the multiple relationships between input criteria are often neglected and the role of stakeholder participation in the modeling process has received little attention. To tackle these issues and increase the model transparency, this thesis addresses the design and deployment of a participatory approach for flood vulnerability assessment. More specifically, it focuses on how multi-criteria tools can be combined with participatory methods to overcome common issues in the development of indexes and to open up the "black-box" nature of vulnerability models. The main argument which is pursued throughout the thesis is that participation and collaboration are key aspects for bridging the gap between modelers and end users. The applicability of the proposed transdisciplinary framework is demonstrated in the municipalities of Lajeado and Estrela, Brazil. The model was co-constructed by 101 expert stakeholders from governmental organizations, universities, research institutes, NGOs, and private companies. Participatory methods such as the Delphi survey, focus groups, questionnaires and workshops were applied. A participatory problem structuration, in which the modelers work closely with stakeholders, was used to establish the structure of the vulnerability index. The preferences of each participant regarding the criteria importance were spatially modeled through the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and analytic network process (ANP) multi-criteria methods. Experts were also involved at the end of the modeling exercise for validation. The robustness of the model was investigated by employing a one-at-a-time sensitivity and uncertainty analysis. Both AHP and ANP proved to be effective for flood vulnerability assessment; however, ANP is preferred by participants as it leads to more robust results. The results of the spatially-explicit sensitivity analysis helped to identify highly vulnerable areas that are burdened by high uncertainty and to investigate which criteria contribute to this uncertainty. The validation questionnaire indicated that the participants found the results clear, trustworthy, and valuable, suggesting that participatory modeling exercises like the one proposed here are worthwhile. These findings highlight that the use of a transdisciplinary approach to acknowledge and integrate multiple viewpoints without forcing consensus improved the results acceptance. In summary, the combination of qualitative and quantitative methods for flood vulnerability assessment led to an increased, shared understanding of the problem by avoiding the limited perspective of a single expert. The approach proposed herein is particularly novel in the context of vulnerability assessment in the respect that stakeholders were actively involved in all steps of the vulnerability modeling process and that the relationship between criteria was considered. The use of participatory tools in combination with multi-criteria methods can support social learning processes and enhance the credibility and deployment of vulnerability indicators, as stakeholders' opinion, expert judgment, and local knowledge are taken into consideration throughout the entire modeling process. From a practical standpoint, the outcomes of this Ph.D. thesis can support local authorities to understand the vulnerability patterns in the region, its associated uncertainty, and the criteria contributing to this uncertainty. ; Das Management von Hochwasserrisiken erfordert ein besseres Verständnis der Vulnerabilität, da Gefahren nur dann zu Katastrophen werden, wenn sie sich auf ein System auswirken, das für ihre Auswirkungen anfällig ist. Obwohl bereits verschiedene Frameworks zur Bewertung der Vulnerabilität vorgeschlagen wurden, konzentrieren sich diese oft auf die physische Vulnerabilität von Strukturen unter der Annahme einer homogenen sozialen Vulnerabilität und Bewältigungskapazität für die gesamte Bevölkerung. Darüber hinaus werden oftmals die vielfältigen Beziehungen zwischen den Eingabekriterien vernachlässigt und auch die Rolle der Beteiligung von Stakeholdern am Modellierungsprozess findet wenig Beachtung. Um diese Probleme anzugehen und die Modelltransparenz zu erhöhen, befasst sich diese Arbeit mit der Gestaltung und dem Einsatz eines partizipativen Ansatzes für die Bewertung von Vulnerablität bei Hochwasserereignissen. Im Speziellen fokussiert sich die Arbeit darauf, inwiefern Multi-Kriterien-Tools mit partizipativen Methoden kombiniert werden können, um häufige Probleme bei der Entwicklung von Indizes zu überwinden, und die natürliche "black-box" von Vulnerabilitätsmodellen zu öffnen. Das Hauptargument, das in dieser Dissertation verfolgt wird ist, dass Partizipation und Kollaboration Schlüsselaspekte sind, um die Lücke zwischen ModelliererInnen und EndnutzerInnen zu schließen. Die Anwendbarkeit des vorgeschlagenen transdisziplinären Frameworks wird anhand der Gemeinden Lajedo und Estrela in Brasilien verdeutlicht. Das Modell wurde von 101 beteiligten ExpertInnen aus Regierungsorganisationen, Universitäten, Forschungsinstituten, Nichtregierungsorganisationen und privaten Firmen mitentwickelt. Dabei wurden partizipative Methoden, wie die Delphi-Umfragen, Fokusgruppen, Fragebögen und Workshops angewendet. Eine partizipative Problemstrukturierung, bei der ModelliererInnen eng mit Stakeholdern zusammenarbeiten, wurde verwendet, um die Struktur des Vulnerabilitätsindexes zu entwickeln. Die individuellen Präferenzen der verschiedenen Beteiligten bezüglich der Bedeutung der Kriterien wurden räumlich durch Analytische Hierarchieprozess (AHP) und Analytischen Netzwerkprozess (ANP) -Methoden modelliert. Zur Validierung am Ende des Modellierungsprozesses waren ebenfalls Experten beteiligt. Die Robustheit des Modells wurde durch eine Sensitivitäts- und eine Unsicherheitsanalyse untersucht. Sowohl AHP als auch ANP erwiesen sich als wirksam für die Bewertung von Hochwasservulnerabilitäten. Aufgrund der robusteren Ergebnisse wird der ANP jedoch bevorzugt. Die Ergebnisse der räumlich-expliziten Sensitivitätsanalyse haben dazu beigetragen, hochsensible Bereiche mit hoher Unsicherheit zu identifizieren und zu untersuchen, welche Kriterien zu dieser Unsicherheit beitragen. Der Validierungsfragebogen zeigte, dass die Teilnehmer die Ergebnisse als klar, vertrauenswürdig und wertvoll empfanden, was darauf hindeutet, dass partizipative Modellierung, wie die hier vorgeschlagene, lohnenswert sind. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Verwendung eines transdisziplinären Ansatzes zur Anerkennung und Integration verschiedener Sichtweisen ohne erzwungene Konsense die Akzeptanz der Ergebnisse verbesserte. Zusammenfassend führte die Kombination von qualitativen und quantitativen Methoden zur Bewertung von Hochwasservulnerabilität zu einem größeren, gemeinsamen Problemverständnis, da die eingeschränkte Perspektive eines einzelnen Experten vermieden wurde. Im Kontext der Vulnerabilitätsbewertung ist der in dieser Arbeit vorgeschlagene Ansatz besonders innovativ, durch die aktive Beteiligung der Stakeholder in allen Schritten des Vulnerabilitätsmodellierungsprozesses und die Berücksichtigung der Beziehungen zwischen den relevanten Kriterien. Die Verwendung partizipativer Instrumente in Kombination mit Multi-Kriterien-Tools kann soziale Lernprozesse unterstützen sowie die Glaubwürdigkeit und die Verwendung von Vulnerabilitätsindikatoren verbessern, da die Meinung von Stakeholdern und ExpertInnen als auch lokales Wissen während des gesamten Modellierungsprozesses berücksichtigt werden. Aus praktischer Perspektive können die Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation lokale Behörden dabei unterstützen, die Verwundbarkeitsmuster in der Region, die damit verbundene Unsicherheit und die Faktoren, die zu dieser Unsicherheit beitragen, zu verstehen.

This dissertation develops a set of analytical tools and conceptual frameworks to explore the socio-technical implications of transitioning to a low carbon energy future. The chapters here investigate the energy challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa and analyze power expansion pathways in Nigeria and Kenya, outline the development of a novel electricity modeling tool, and conceptualize an energy sovereignty framework to enable people-centered energy planning approaches. Chapter 2 presents an overview of Africa's energy systems and the role renewable energy can play in supporting sustainable development in Africa, with a main focus on the challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. I synthesize the most prominent papers in the past five years. I review the literature concerning the scale of generation expansion needed to achieve universal access in the region, the challenges of power sector finance, and the need for people-centered planning paradigms. Through an extensive literature review, I assess the capacity expansion needs of the region and highlight the policy lessons that enable private power sector investment such as transparent regulatory and procurement policies. I also present a critique of the socio-political implications of increased foreign investment in the region's power sector. Finally, I present several studies that explore the need for people-centered planning approaches in order to achieve more equitable energy systems for all. I argue that renewable energy presents opportunities to achieve power systems expansion in an economically, environmentally and socially sustainable manner. To do this, Sub-Saharan Africa must adapt its planning strategies to holistically address the technical, economic and socio-political challenges it faces. Chapter 3 takes a deep-dive from an overview of Sub-Saharan Africa to a focus on Nigeria. I develop a first-order capacity expansion model to analyze power expansion scenarios in Nigeria. Nigeria serves as a case of countries with significant electricity demand growth that is constrained by under-developed grid infrastructure. I illustrate how the dependence on natural gas for generation has stifled the nation's power supply, assess the role of renewable energy in meeting the nation's electricity demand growth, and compare the cost of its current power generation expansion pathways to cost-optimized pathways. Using the capacity expansion model, I find that Nigeria's current energy policy, known as Vision 30:30:30, perpetuates this heavy reliance on natural gas and significantly underestimates the role of solar energy in the future electricity mix. I also identify and assess lower cost alternative pathways which do not require any coal and nuclear generation expansion unlike the Vision 30:30:30 pathway. The results show that Nigeria will have to install at least an additional 38 GW by 2030 to keep up with grid-based demand growth alone - about eight times the current operational capacity. This chapter reveals Nigeria's need for an energy policy reform that reduces its dependency on natural gas, eschews coal and nuclear expansion, and harnesses its abundant solar potential using centralized and distributed renewable energy technologies.Chapter 4 outlines my development of a novel open-access electricity modeling tool known as PROGRESS (Programmable Resource Optimization for Growth in Renewable Energy and Sustainable Systems). PROGRESS enables generation expansion modeling for countries with low availability and access to power systems data. The design of sustainable electricity systems needed to fuel development in regions with low electrification rates (such as Sub-Saharan Africa) requires context-specific power system modeling. Modeling data requirements for these regions, however, can be challenging for researchers and other stakeholders to access. This chapter presents a proof-of-concept description to show how PROGRESS works and then presents preliminary results for generation capacity expansion using the case of Kenya.Chapter 5 presents what is, for me, the most critical aspect of this dissertation. I explore how transitioning to low carbon energy systems and achieving universal electricity access will require not only an extensive redesign of the existing energy infrastructure but also a rethinking of energy planning approaches. I argue that innovation in decentralized and distributed energy technology transforms people from mere consumers to prosumers by empowering them to plan for their energy autonomously. I aim to connect the rise of prosumers with long-standing social movements that call for just, fair and sustainable energy systems. I draw from a rich literature of socio-energy concepts that aim to incorporate social and human dimensions into energy planning. I focus on energy justice, energy democracy, and I introduce energy sovereignty. I synthesize how these concepts together emphasize critical considerations for energy planning: "energy for whom, for what, and at whose costs?" I also introduce an additional consideration: "energy by whom?" and I conceptualize its framework in relation to electricity provision. I propose that "energy by whom?" is an essential question for re-envisioning a new energy paradigm and designing a low-carbon energy future.Overall, this dissertation contributes analytical and conceptual tools for low carbon energy systems, which together provide novel socio-technical approaches for planning towards a low carbon energy future, and urge on the paradigm shift to just and sustainable energy for all.

Public space is a gathering place to exchange ideas, to share opportunities, and to participate in activities. This space is for all social segments; it is a symbol of equality, power, crowd, and movement. Public space also acts as a landmark. It is part of a city's history and a place of cultural expression, where different social classes share their behaviours. Everyone, including vulnerable people, women, children, older adults, and differently able people, enjoy the same right in this space and do not get marginalised. To optimise the role of public space, people should consider the concept of public equity. Equity is a universal concern and part of human rights, Millennium Development Goals, Sustainable Development Goals, and Urban Agenda aspects based on the UN-HABITAT concern. Based on Medellin Declaration (2014), equity is the foundation for creating sustainable urban development. To achieve this goal, public space must consider citizenship opportunity such as the right to use, to appropriate, to claim, to access and to control. Besides, it should consider inclusive public policies, universal public facilities, and socio-spatial arrangement. Indonesian public space has evolved from its traditional form and assumed a modern look over the years. This development is related to the different expressions of equity. This research compares the traditional and modern public space in Indonesia to gain an understanding of the urban equity phenomenon in both areas. This study wants to determine the characteristics of Indonesian public space. It also aims to find the degree of urban equity there. It explores the extent of understanding this phenomenon and tries to find out how such understanding could be adopted in public space theories and policies. This research examines Alun-alun Yogyakarta as typical of Indonesian traditional public space and Simpang Lima Semarang as representative of modern public space in that country. The research considers women, children, elderly people, and differently able people as its principal subjects. These people have been are selected because they are the primary users of public space. Although regulations and laws protect their rights in the public sphere, the design, accessibility management, and physical conditions do not sometimes support them to interact optimally, thereby denying them the rights to be enjoyed in the public space.This research uses qualitative and multiple case study research (CSR) as a methodological approach for exploring the site and socio-spatial arrangement conditions. The site analysis reveals that there is a particular condition relating to the meaning of urban equity in each public space. Users of traditional and modern public space in Indonesia have the same rights to use, to appropriate, to claim, to access, and to control. Traditional space has a long history and strong local wisdom in placing vulnerable groups here, while the modern space follows an equitable rule and design in placing them. The government acts as a determinant board in both traditional and modern public space. In traditional space, the palace plays an important role in managing public space. Even though there are no sufficient universal facilities and no differentiated access for vulnerable groups in both traditional and modern public space, users feel satisfied to carry on their activities there. This socio-spatial analysis mentions that Yogyakarta Palace nowadays is in an entirely different situation, as it has shifted from the traditional stationary atmosphere to intensive tourism activities. But the high Javanese cultural root because of the location, the Sultan Ground (King's land) land rent type, and the contextual tourism activities with the Palace influence the community perception of the urban equity meaning in public space. It contains Alun-alun Yogyakarta in a static and traditional form since its establishment. Local communities feel satisfied with the place, while the palace and the city government are more concerned about a traditional event, rather than the physical development, due to the ritual activities of Javanese people. The Simpang Lima Semarang is a mixed-use area where a new government centre has deliberately been built. There is no hierarchical stratification, and the cultural root goes back to the Coastal Javanese. The people are accustomed to being flexible and open-minded with other cultures. Besides, there is no cosmological arrangement and sacred activity there. The socio-spatial structure here is clear and more equalised. But even if this place is newly built, people have a strong sense of belonging to Simpang Lima. This high intensity of formal activities and informal activities in Simpang Lima Semarang creates a co-existing relationship in this public space. Simpang Lima area has a dynamic and modern atmosphere. The rights of users can be seen in this place and noticed in its arrangement. Consequently, the meaning of urban equity depends on the fulfilment of the rights and appropriate designs for everyone. The findings from this analysis show that urban equity is a collective engagement, which is supported by culture and power. Besides, urban equity requires an appropriate spatial design. Then, different groups have different requirements in public space. Finally, the meaning of urban equity and the perception of the public could face challenges in future. From the results of this research, the recommendation is to upgrade the quality of Indonesian public space by making proper management to ensure better equity and by establishing an equitable urban system.

The 1960s and 70s in Italy marked a moment of great discontinuity, change and generational conflict. In these years of student protests, original and alternative lifestyles came to light: young people wanted to personally engage in a concrete and real experience of peace, brotherhood and sharing property (and in some cases also personal affections), breaking out of the roles imposed by the bourgeois family. The pacifism of these first Italian «communes» eclectically mixed the American dream with Eastern spirituality; rebellion and drug use with Marxist ideologies stemming from various sources. The result was a substantially minority (but not fleeting) movement which had ties both with its nineteenth-century predecessors (of both religious and socialist origin) and with some subsequent interesting twentieth-century experiences, up to the present day.The communitarian ideal took shape in some experiences which became increasingly interconnected, and so went on to form an international movement. While, in terms of numbers, the people choosing to live in communitarian form (also in the recent eco-villages or cohousing) were few, their way of thinking started to be shared by increasingly broad swathes of the population, with evident effects on lifestyles (such as buying organic foods) and forms of education. In particular, think of their refusal to do military service, openness towards Eastern spirituality, vegetarianism, their ecological vision, fight against vivisection and for animal rights, and so-called critical consumption. In Italy, the latter aspect developed above all thanks to Francesco Gesualdi, a pupil of Don Milani who pursued the ideal of a peace that was never detached from justice: with his activity and writings he made consumers responsible, engaging them in a form of non-violent protest against the waste and violence of the economic world.Unfortunately, we must not forget that not all the promises of brotherhood and communitarian joy were fulfilled. Some communities, in the secrecy of their isolated world, practised forms of coercion and violence, even against children. These cases, some of which have been subject to criminal investigations by the judiciary, show how the danger is not to be found in the drugs or the feared sexual promiscuity of the outset, but in the very character itself of small communities, by definition different from the rest of the social body and purposefully, physically separate. Such that, paradoxically, in these communities' history, violence and peace interweave. ; Las décadas de 1960 y 70 marcaron en Italia un momento de gran discontinuidad, cambio y conflicto generacional. En estos años de protestas estudiantiles afloraron estilos de vida originales y alternativos: los jóvenes quisieron participar personalmente en una experiencia concreta y real de construir la paz, la fraternidad y compartir la propiedad (y en algunos casos también los afectos personales), saliendo de los roles impuestos por la familia burguesa. El pacifismo se mezclaba eclécticamente con sueño americano y estas primeras «comunas» italianas con la espiritualidad oriental; rebelión y consumo de drogas se intercalaban con ideologías marxistas procedentes de diversas fuentes. El resultado fue un minoritario, pero sustancial (no fugaz), movimiento que tenía lazos con sus predecesores del siglo XIX (tanto de origen religioso como socialista) y con algunas interesantes experiencias del siglo XX, que se han mantenido hasta hoy.El ideal comunitario se concretó en algunas experiencias que se interconectaron con solidez, y así se llegó a formar un movimiento internacional. Si bien en términos numéricos las personas que eligieron vivir de forma comunitaria (también en las eco-aldeas o coviviendas) eran pocas, su forma de pensar comenzó a ser compartida por cada vez más amplios sectores de la población, con efectos evidentes en los estilos de vida (tales como la compra de alimentos orgánicos) y las formas de educación. En concreto, mencionamos su negativa a hacer el servicio militar, la apertura a la espiritualidad oriental, el vegetarianismo, su visión ecológica, la lucha contra la vivisección y de derechos de los animales, y el llamado consumo crítico. En Italia, esta última faceta se desarrolló sobre todo gracias a Francesco Gesualdi, un alumno de Don Milani, que persiguió el ideal de una paz que nunca se separa de la justicia: con su actividad y los escritos que publicó, son muchos los consumidores responsables que se están comprometiendo en una forma de protesta no violenta contra el despilfarro y la violencia del mundo económico. Por desgracia, no hay que olvidar que no se cumplieron todas las promesas de hermandad y alegría comunitaria entonces proclamadas. Algunas comunidades, desde el secreto de su mundo aislado, practican formas de coerción y violencia, incluso contra los niños. Estos casos, algunos de los cuales han sido objeto de investigaciones criminales por el poder judicial, muestran cómo el peligro no se encuentra en las drogas o la promiscuidad sexual, temidos al principio, sino en el propio carácter mismo de las comunidades pequeñas, por definición diferente del resto del cuerpo social y con un objetivo físicamente separado. De tal manera que, paradójicamente, en estas comunidades, la historia, la violencia y la paz se entrelazan.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan (1) unsur intrinsik yang membangun satua I Tuung Kuning, (2) unsur intrinsik yang membangun satua Sampik Ingtai, dan (3) nilai feminisme yang terdapat pada satua I Tuung Kuning dan Sampik Ingtai. Subjek penelitian ini adalah satua I Tuung Kuning dan Sampik Ingtai. Metode pengumpulan data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode studi pustaka dan metode hermeneutika. Data dianalisis dengan menggunakan teknik kartu data. Simpulan penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa (1) satua I Tuung Kuning mengandung unsur yang koheren, seperti: insiden, alur, tokoh/penokohan, latar, tema, dan amanat, (2) satua Sampik Ingtai mengandung unsur intrinsik yang koheren, seperti: insiden, alur, tokoh/penokohan, latar, tema, dan amanat, (3) Nilai feminisme yang terkandung dalam satua I Tuung Kuning ada empat yang termasuk dalam bidang sosial, diantaranya: (a) ibu I Tuung Kuning berusaha menjaga rumah tangganya agar tetap rukun, (b) ibu I Tuung Kuning berusaha menyelamatkan anaknya, (c) I Tuung Kuning mampu membuat I Pudak sadar, dan (d) I Tuung Kuning bisa menghibur I Pudak yang sedang menyesal. Sedangkan, nilai feminisme yang terkandung dalam satua Sampik Ingtai ada empat, diantaranya: (a) bidang pendidikan ketika Ni Nyonyah memperoleh haknya untuk menempuh pendidikan, (b) bidang politik ketika Ni Nyonyah berpendapat dalam pergaulan, (c) bidang sosial ketika Ni Nyonyah bisa menghentikan perkelahian antara I Babah Sampik dan I Congliwat, dan (d) bidang sosial ketika Ni Nyonyah Ingtai berusaha bertemu dengan jodohnya. Saran pada penelitian ini adalah agar penelitian tentang satua lebih dikembangkan, bukan hanya tentang unsur intrinsik saja namun juga tentang hal-hal lain yang berkaitan. Tetilik puniki matetujon mangda prasida nelebin (1) tata wangun intrinsik sane ngwangun satua I Tuung Kuning, (2) tata wangun intrinsik sane ngwangun satua Sampik Ingtai, lan (3) guna sarat feminisme sane munggah sajeroning satua I Tuung Kuning miwah Sampik Ingtai. Jejering tetilik puniki inggih punika satua I Tuung Kuning miwah Sampik Ingtai. Kramaning mupulang data sane kanggen ring tetilik puniki inggih punika kramaning studi pustaka lan kramaning hermeneutika. Data katureksain antuk kramaning deskriptif kualitatif. Pikolih tetilik puniki (1) satua I Tuung Kuning madue tata wangun sane becik, minakadi: wiara, lelintihan, pragina, rerawatan, unteng, lan piteket, (2) satua Sampik Ingtai madue tata wangun sane becik, minakadi: wiara, lelintihan, pragina, rerawatan, unteng, lan piteket, lan (3) Guna sarat feminisme sajeroning satua I Tuung Kuning madaging patpat guna sarat feminisme sane rumasuk ring wewidangan sosial, minakadi: (a) men Tuung Kuning mautsaha nyaga pakurenanne mangda tetep ikun, (b) men Tuung Kuning mautsaha nylametang pianaknyane, (c) I Tuung Kuning prasida ngawe I Pudak eling ring raga, lan (d) I Tuung Kuning prasida nylimurang manah I Pudake. Ring satua Sampik Ingtai taler kapolihang patpat guna sarat feminisme, minakadi: (a) wewidangan paguron-guron rikala Ni Nyonyah Ingtai ngutsahayang hak maguron-guronnyane, (b) wewidangan politik rikala Ni Nyonyah mapanampen ring pagubugan, (c) wewidangan sosial rikala Ni Nyonyah dadaos jalaran kasukertan pantaraning I Sampik lan I Congliwat, miwah (d) wewidangan sosial rikala Ni Nyonyah Ingtai mautsaha ngmanggihin jatukarmannyane. Piteket ring tetilik puniki inggih punika mangda tetilik indik satua katincapang malih, nenten wantah sajeroning tata wangun intrinsik ipun nanging taler indik sapolah-palih sane mapaiketan ring satua. Kata Kunci : satua, unsur intrinsik, nilai feminisme The purpose of this research to describe (1) the intrinsic unsure which build the story of I Tuung Kuning, (2) the intrinsic unsure which build the story of Sampik Ingtai, (3) the feminism value in the story of I Tuung Kuning and Sampik Ingtai. The subjects of this research are the story of I Tuung Kuning and Sampik Ingtai. This research use two methods to get data, such as literature study method and hermeneutika method. The researcher use descriptive qualitative method to analysis data. The conclusion of this research indicate that (1) the story of I Tuung Kuning has the coherence unsure, such as: incident, plot, figure/characterization, setting, topic, and message, (2) the story of Sampik Ingtai has the coherence unsure, such as: incident, plot, figure/characterization, setting, topic, and message, (3) the feminism value in the story of I Tuung Kuning, such as: (a) Tuung Kuning's mother tries keep her household happy, (b) Tuung Kuning's mother tries safe her child, (c) I Tuung Kuning can makes I Pudak aware, and (d) I Tuung Kuning can makes I Pudak feels comfort. While, the feminism value in the story of Sampik Ingtai, such as: (a) in education sector when Ni Nyonyah Ingtai tries to get her education right, (b) in politic sector when Ni Nyonyah gives her regulation to I Babah Sampik, (c) in social sector when Ni Nyonyah Ingtai can separates the affray between I Babah Sampik and I Congliwat, and (d) in social sector when Ni Nyonyah Ingtai tries to meet her destination. The suggestion which is given by researcher that the research about story need to improve more and more, it's not just about the intrinsic unsure and feminism value but also the other aspect. keyword : story, intrinsic unsure, feminism value

Urban agriculture has enjoyed renewed popularity across North America over the past few years due to a vibrant food justice movement challenging disparities in access to healthy food, as well as to municipal policy and planning efforts focusing on urban sustainability and public health. Using qualitative and quantitative methods, this dissertation links critical political economic analysis and practical, action-oriented research grounded in community engagement to uncover the historical and geographic conditions necessary for the rise of a vibrant urban agriculture movement in Oakland California. In addition to being critical and reflective, this dissertation is also prescriptive in its examination of urban agriculture's potential to scale up in way that contributes significantly to food justice and urban sustainability. These two tasks mark the division of the dissertation into two equal parts comprised of three chapters each. Broadly, Part 1 (Origins) examines the historical and contemporary conditions, both necessary and contingent, that have given rise to the current urban agriculture movement in Oakland. In Chapter 1 I use the theoretical framework of metabolic rift (which I disaggregate into three interrelated forms: ecological, social, and individual) to explore the multiple origins of urban agriculture as a global phenomenon and demonstrate how it arises in response to the upheavals and alienation inherent to a capitalist political economy. In Chapter 2, I argue that understanding urban agriculture in Oakland today requires examining the city's uneven development. Through a historical overview of Oakland's economic geography from the early 20th century to the dawn of the Neoliberal era, I explain how the "demarcated devaluation" of industrial and commercial capital concentrated poverty in the city's flatlands and diminished food access for low-income people of color. In Chapter 3 I explain how the contemporary urban agriculture movement arose in response to this devaluation. Through a relational history linking seminal moments of flatlands activism (the Black Panther Party's Free Breakfast Program, the environmental justice movement, and a social justice-oriented urban greening movement) to the contemporary food justice movement, I reveal how a multi-racial, cross-class alliance was formed around urban agriculture which was able to contest the material implications of flatlands devaluation in new political arenas, marshalling financial support. These scalar politics have led to urban agriculture's increased institutionalization and ongoing policy efforts to scale it up. Part 2 (Obstacles and Opportunities) addresses the environmental and policy obstacles that must be addressed before such scaling up of urban agriculture can take place. Drawing on participatory methods, the three chapters in this part address specific technical questions defined in collaboration with community members. In Chapter 4 I present a GIS-based inventory of potential urban agriculture sites and calculate their potential contribution to vegetable consumption in Oakland. Overall, the inventory identified more than 800 acres of publicly owned land that could potentially be used for food production. Devoting 500 acres to urban agriculture could contribute 19 to 48% of current vegetable consumption in Oakland (or 6 to 15% of recommended consumption) depending on production methods. In Chapter 5 I evaluate the extent to which soil lead (Pb) contamination may be an obstacle to the expansion of urban agriculture in Oakland. I use a combination of GIS and spatial statistics to characterize the spatial distribution of Pb on vacant land at multiple scales across Oakland and to identify relationships between soil Pb levels and anthropogenic factors such as zoning, housing stock, roads, airport, and land use, as well as biophysical factors such as soil series, soil chemical characteristics, and vegetative cover. I also assess the extent to which total soil Pb is actually available for plant uptake. Using samples collected in the field and two greenhouse experiments, I evaluate two chemical extractants (DTPA and MgCl 2 ) in an effort to identify the best proxy for plant available Pb and to relate plant availability to a suite of soil chemical characteristics. While soil Pb levels were significantly higher in West Oakland and residential areas than other parts of the city, levels were generally lower than federal screening levels of 400 parts per million. Old housing stock (and lead paint) proved to be the primary anthropogenic factor affecting soil Pb levels, while soil phosphorus proved to be the most important chemical factor. In Chapter 6 I focus on the policy obstacles to the scaling up of urban agriculture through a case study on the efforts of the Oakland Food Policy Council (OFPC) to develop new zoning definitions and operating standards for urban agriculture. Ultimately, pressure on City Council members by the OFPC, as well as public pressure following two high profile events (the passage of an urban agriculture ordinance in San Francisco and the citation of a prominent urban farmer for zoning violations), were necessary to motivate planning officials to update urban agriculture zoning in Oakland. I conclude with the observation that while the technical obstacles to urban agriculture's expansion may easily be overcome, political obstacles remain. Furthermore, urban agriculture alone cannot feed a city such as Oakland or mitigate unequal access to healthy food, but rather must be part of a coordinated push for regional equity that addresses all aspects of the food system, from production to processing, distribution, and retailing.

PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS -- SECTION I – IN THE BEGINNING -- CHAPTER 1. WADING IN ̶ INTRODUCTION TO THE FISH-BIRD -- General Discussion of Penguins and Substance of the Book -- An Impressive Number of Penguin Species: Evolution of Their Unique Capabilities -- Penguin Species Radiation and the Ontogeny of Their Watery World -- Penguin Evolution: Body Size and Climate -- Penguin Evolution: Radiation into Vacant Niches -- Penguin Evolution: Body Size and Crossing the Sea-Land Boundary -- CHAPTER 2. LAND AHOY! A TIRESOME BUSINESS -- Crossing the Land-Ocean Interface is Affected by Body Size -- Why and How Often do Penguins Come Ashore? -- Tying Land-life to the At-sea Life of Fish-Birds: Foraging and Breeding -- Success Vary with Prey Availability -- Molt ̶Necessary, Brief Respite from the Sea -- SECTION II – PENGUIN MARINE HAUNTS AND FOOD HABITS -- CHAPTER 3.FISH-BIRDS AT HOME IN THEIR OCEAN HABITATS -- Oceanographic Fronts and Water Masses Important to Penguins: General Discussion -- Penguins Require High Productivity Water Masses -- Large Scale: Oceanographic Boundaries and At-sea Distributions of Penguins -- Southern Boundary of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current -- Emperor and King penguins -- Adélie and Chinstrap penguins -- Antarctic Polar Front and Subantarctic Front -- Gentoo and Yellow-eyed penguins -- Macaroni and Royal penguins -- Northern and Southern Rockhopper, Fiordland, Snares penguins -- Subtropical Front and Continental Boundary Currents -- Galápagos, Humboldt, Magellanic, African penguins -- Little penguins -- Meso- and Small-Scale Ocean Processes Facilitating Penguin Exploits -- Island wakes -- Headland wakes -- Shelves and banks -- Submarine canyons -- Shelfbreak fronts -- Marginal ice zones -- Thermo-/haloclines -- CHAPTER 4. SEA FOOD ̶ THE FISH-BIRD MENU -- General Considerations -- Diet Quality: Survival in Cold Water -- Energy density of prey -- Prey size may or may not differ by penguin size -- Prey availability -- Diet Comparison among Penguin Species -- Polar/subpolar, mesopelagic penguins -- Subpolar, demersal/benthic, continental-shelf penguins -- Temperate, upper water column, continental-insular shelf penguins -- Polar, upper water column, continental shelf/slope penguins -- Subpolar, upper water column, continental slope/pelagic penguins -- Polar, upper water column, continental slope/pelagic penguins -- CHAPTER 5. ECOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES OF DIET COMPOSITION -- Intraspecific Competition among Penguins -- Foraging Range is Key: General Discussion -- Penguin Species' Central-Place Foraging Range Patterns -- Sex Differences in Foraging -- Interspecific Competition Involving Penguins -- Penguins Eat A lot! -- Competition between Penguin Species -- Competition between penguins and other seabirds -- Competition between penguins and marine mammals -- Competition between penguins and industrial fisheries -- SECTION III – THE HARDWARE OF A FISH-BIRD -- CHAPTER 6. THE SLIPPERY SHAPE, HOT AIR AND THE POWERHOUSE – HOW FISH-BIRDS SWIM -- Water – Hard Taskmaster -- The Four Forces Relevant to Penguins -- Vertical Forces – Weight and Upthrust -- Buoyancy: How Much Air Do Penguins Hold? -- Buoyancy and Bergmann's Rule revisited -- Horizontal Forces: Drag -- The Interplay of Drag and Upthrust in Gliding Penguins -- The Drag Devil is in the Detail -- The Penguin Powerhouse -- How Penguins Swim -- The Effect of Upthrust and Body Angle on Penguin Thrust and Lift Forces -- Top Speeds; Power and Upthrust -- The Energy Costs of Swimming -- General considerations -- Specific considerations -- 'Sensible' Swim Strategies and Costs of Transport -- Cruising speed and integrating speed with the cost of transport, -- and beyond -- CHAPTER 7. HOT PENGUINS ̶ COLD WATER -- Resting and Floating Penguins -- The Metabolic Rate of Floating Penguins -- Patterns of Heat Loss to the Sea -- Overall Body Insulation/Conductance -- The Nature of Penguin Insulation -- Active Penguins -- Activity Produces Heat -- Greater Depths Impose a Higher Heat Tax -- Consuming Prey Imposes a Heat Tax -- Embracing The Fish in the Fish-bird -- CHAPTER 8. FISH-BIRDS – THE INSIDE STORY -- Diving Physiology -- Surface issues – Uptake of oxygen -- Oxygen Management Underwater -- Role of the Air Spaces -- Gas Exchange to Body Tissues -- The Aerobic Dive Limit and Beyond -- The Importance of Size in Dive Performance -- Duration -- Depth -- Penguins Under Pressure – Beating the Squeeze and the Bends -- Barotrauma -- Beating the Bends -- A Gut Reaction in Fish-Birds -- Gastric Emptying -- Rotting Food -- The Eyes Have It -- SECTION IV – THE SOFTWARE OF FISH-BIRDS -- CHAPTER 9. EMBRACING THE DEPTHS - THE PENGUIN DIVE -- Submergence -- The time underwater – basic dive descriptors -- Dive profiles -- Dive distance-depth profiles -- Dive aspect ratios -- Horizontal dive directionality/tortuosity -- The Multifunctionality of Dives -- Basic dive types -- T-dives for travelling -- V-dives (water column assessment) -- P-dives (parabolic – prospecting with no prey capture) -- Po-dives (parabolic dives with circular trajectory) -- U-dives (depth-directed prospecting) -- W-dives/Up-dives (U-dives with prey pursuit) -- Depth Duration Effects Over Multiple Dives -- CHAPTER 10. FISH-BIRD STRATEGIES ̶ THE SEARCH FOR FICKLE PREY -- Decisions, Decisions, Decisions – How Fish-Birds Search for Prey -- Heading in the Right Direction -- Dealing with Prey Patchiness -- In-depth Considerations: -- Time-based efficiency -- Energy-based efficiency -- Superficial Considerations: Surface Pauses and Inspired Tactics -- Being Picky about Food -- Fish-Birds and Smart Strategies -- CHAPTER 11. THE FINAL SECONDS – HOW FISH-BIRDS CAPTURE PREY -- Prey Acquisition, a Departure from the Dive 'Norm' -- Performance Metrics for Prey Capture -- Catching Solitary Prey -- Changing buoyancy with depth affects prey capture strategies -- Prey pursuit against interfaces -- Exploiting Aggregated Prey -- Crustaceans -- Fish -- Non-corralling feeding behavior -- Clarity on Limitations of Penguin Vision -- SECTION V – PENGUINS IN A FICKLE ENVIRONMENT -- CHAPTER 12. TURNING THE TABLES – FISH-BIRDS ON THE MENU -- Basic Law of the Sea: Big Fish Eat Little Fish -- Seals as Predators -- Seals' hunting behavior -- Penguins avoiding seals -- Fur Seals as Predators -- Sea Lions as Predators -- Killer Whales as Predators -- Sharks as Predators -- CHAPTER 13. PENGUINS ADJUSTING TO A CHANGING OCEAN -- Penguins Have Always Been Challenged by a Changing Ocean -- Prehistoric response to a changing ocean -- Possible prehistoric changes to penguins' food web -- The Anthropocene: How will Penguins Cope, Now Also Dealing with Humans? -- Response to long-term climate change -- Response to short-term ocean climate variation -- Response to marine pollution -- CHAPTER 14. NOT FORGETTING ̶ -- The Social Side - Behavior and Communication at Sea -- Penguin flock fusion/cohesion -- Penguin flock fission/fragmentation -- Navigation -- Long range -- Medium to short-range -- Understanding the Daily 'Wash' -- Air flux in diving penguins, an aspect of 'washing' -- Are Auks Really 'Northern Penguins'? -- Research Tags – the Flip Side for Evolutionarily-Honed Fish-Birds -- SECTION VI -- CHAPTER 15. PENGUINS ̶ WHY THE HYPE? -- Sources of Hype -- Us -- Many people -- Researchers -- The Transition -- The fascination of species -- Beyond the transition -- Role in Ecosystems -- Biomimicry -- Our Last Word.

Includes bibliographical references (p. 157-176). ; Number of sources in the bibliography:185 ; Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Cyprus, Faculty of Pure and Applied Sciences, Department of Computer Science, 2017. ; The University of Cyprus Library holds the printed form of the thesis. ; Ο κύριος άξονας της έρευνας που διεξήχθη στα πλαίσια αυτής της διδακτορικής διατριβής είναι η εξερεύνηση διαφόρων λύσεων σε θέματα που αφορούν τον σχεδιασμό, την κατασκευή και την λειτουργικότητα των Ασαφών Γνωστικών Χαρτών (ΑΓΧ). Η συνεισφορά αυτού του έργου μπορεί να αναλυθεί σε τρία επίπεδα. Το πρώτο επίπεδο αφορά στην πρόταση μιας μεθοδολογίας κατασκευής ΑΓΧ για προβλήματα τα οποία δεν περιγράφονται από σύνολα δεδομένων και η μόνη πηγή πληροφόρησης για την κατασκευή τους προέρχεται από μια ομάδα ειδικών στον τομέα του προβλήματος. Τέτοια προβλήματα βρίσκονται στον κοινωνικό, πολιτικό κι οικονομικό τομέα. Στα πλαίσια αυτής της δουλειάς, προτάθηκε επίσης μια συνάρτηση ενεργοποίησης με σκοπό την καλύτερη αναπαράσταση του τρόπου που διαχέεται η αιτιώδης πληροφορία δυναμικά στο σύστημα. Το δεύτερο επίπεδο αφορά στην κατασκευή ΑΓΧ όταν υπάρχουν σύνολα δεδομένων που περιγράφουν το σύστημα όσο αφορά τις παραμέτρους του και τις διασυνδέσεις μεταξύ τους. Σε αυτόν τον τομέα υπάρχει δύο κατηγορίες. Η πρώτη κατηγορία ασχολείται με προβλήματα για τα οποία υπάρχουν σύνολα δεδομένων σε αριθμητική μορφή τα οποία όμως δεν μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν για την κατασκευή ασαφών συστημάτων. Ως εκ τούτου, μια μεθοδολογία μεταμόρφωσης των αριθμητικών συνόλων δεδομένων σε ασαφή προτάθηκε και χρησιμοποιήθηκε σε συνδυασμό με τις Εξελικτικές Στρατηγικές για την δημιουργία ενός ΑΓΧ. Η συμμετοχή των ειδικών στην όλη διαδικασία είναι απαραίτητη καθώς δίνουν την δική τους οπτική για το πώς ερμηνεύουν διάφορες αριθμητικές τιμές των παραμέτρων. Η δεύτερη κατηγορία επικεντρώνεται στις περιπτώσεις για τις οποίες υπάρχει μεν διαθέσιμο σύνολο δεδομένων προς αξιοποίηση, δεν καθίσταται παρόλα αυτά δυνατή η εύρεση ή η επικοινωνία με ειδικούς που να γνωρίζουν το πρόβλημα. Παράλληλα, είναι διαθέσιμη μια πλούσια βιβλιογραφία μέσα στην οποία μπορεί κανείς να βρει πληροφορίες για διάφορα θέματα που αφορούν στην δομή και στην αναπαράσταση του προβλήματος. Ορμώμενοι από αυτή την παρατήρηση, προτείνουμε μια μεθοδολογία αναγνώρισης σημαντικών παραγόντων μέσα από την μελέτη σχετικής βιβλιογραφίας με το πρόβλημα προς μοντελοποίηση. Έπειτα, οι παράγοντες ορίζονται και αρχικοποιούνται βάσει πιθανοτικών μοντέλων που εξάγονται από την ανάλυση του διαθέσιμου συνόλου δεδομένων. Το τρίτο επίπεδο αυτής της δουλειάς εισάγει μια ιεραρχική αρχιτεκτονική των ΑΓΧ η οποία εκφράζεται μέσα από την χρήση δυναμικών βαρών. Διαφορετικοί συνδυασμοί αρχικών καταστάσεων κόμβων που θεωρούνται «πιο σημαντικής αξίας» οδηγούν σε διαφορετικές τιμές βαρών που έχει ως αποτέλεσμα την ενδυνάμωση ή την αποδυνάμωση μιας σχέσης. Αυτό το σχήμα προτάθηκε ως ένας μηχανισμός ελέγχου διαφόρων δυνατών συνεργιών που μπορεί να εμφανιστούν στο σύστημα κάτω από διαφορετικές συνθήκες. Οι προαναφερθείσες μεθοδολογίες και μηχανισμοί υλοποιήθηκαν και δοκιμάστηκαν σε πραγματικά προβλήματα. Το πρώτο πρόβλημα προέρχεται από την κυπριακή πραγματικότητα των τελευταίων ετών και σχετίζεται με την οικονομική κρίση στην Κύπρο κι Ελλάδα. Το δεύτερο πρόβλημα προέρχεται από τον ιατρικό χώρο και πιο συγκεκριμένα τον διαγνωστικό και αφορά στην διάγνωση της Τρισωμίας 21 που είναι πιο γνωστή ως σύνδρομο Down. Το πρώτο μέρος είναι εισαγωγικό στο θέμα της διατριβής. Ακολουθεί μια βιβλιογραφική ανασκόπηση. Το τρίτο μέρος αποτελείται από τρία κεφάλαια και περιγράφει τα προτεινόμενα σχήματα των ΑΓΧ. Παρουσιάζονται τα αποτελέσματα που επιτεύχθηκαν από την υλοποίηση τους. Στο τέλος, παρατίθενται τα συμπεράσματα της εργασίας αυτής και κάποιες μελλοντικές κατευθύνσεις εργασίας. ; The main goal of this research is to explore new methodologies regarding the design, building and functionality of Fuzzy Cognitive Maps (FCM). The contributions derived from this thesis can be analyzed into three main dimensions. The first is about presenting a specific methodology of building FCM models for problems for which datasets are absent and the only source of information for building a FCM model is a group of experts in the problem's domain. Such systems lie in the social, political and economic fields. In the context of this work, a new activation function is also proposed as a try to represent in a more realistic way the way causal dynamics are expressed in such problems. The second dimension of this work is about constructing FCMs when datasets do exist and useful information about the problem's factors and their interrelations can be extracted. The work done in this field can be further analyzed into two categories. The first deals with the cases a dataset describing several problems' factors exist in crisp form making it useless for developing a fuzzy system. To solve this problem, a methodology for transforming the crisp dataset into fuzzy is proposed and then actually used in combination with Evolutionary Strategies to build a FCM. Experts participate in this process giving their insight on how they interpret the crisp values of each parameter. The second category is more concerned about the cases were datasets do exist but experts in the problem's domain are absent or there is a lack of communication with them making it difficult to exploit their knowledge and experience to build a FCM. At the same time, a rich bibliography describing different problem's aspects is published and available. Hence, a methodology of identifying the concepts through published bibliography is proposed. Then, the concepts are defined and initialized by probabilistic models which are derived by proper analysis of the existing dataset. The third and last dimension of this work introduces a hierarchical architecture of FCMs which is essentially expressed in the use of dynamic weights of the network's relations. Different combinations of the "higher in significance" concept states can lead to different weight values by strengthening of weakening the relation. This schema was proposed as a mechanism of handling potential synergies that might appear in a system under different conditions. All of the proposed FCM methodologies and mechanisms were implemented and tested on real problems. The first chosen problem was drawn from Cypriot reality of the last years related to economic crisis and the second problem was a medical diagnostic one related to the diagnosis of Trisomy 21. The structure of the thesis is divided into four main parts. The first is an introductory to the thesis' subject. The second is a literature review in aspects related to the thesis main subjects. The third part presents in detail the proposed schemas about FCMs and the results derived from their implementation followed by the fourth part which includes the conclusions and future directions of this work.

Climate change is one of the biggest issues facing the world. In recent years, several attempts have been made to define international strategies to cope with this threat. As a result, the current climate regime consists in the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol. In the meantime, Parties under the UNFCCC are negotiating for the definition and the approval of a new Agreement to be implemented in 2020. While in the first phase of negotiations the main objective was to get also reluctant Annex I countries to ratify the Kyoto Protocol whereas developing countries' concerns remained marginal, last years have been characterized by an increasing role of developing countries both in climate negotiations and in emission levels. Accordingly, this has exacerbated the debate about the CBDR Principle, considering how crucial active involvement of the developing part of the world is in climate actions. In view of this, the research project aims to investigate how the role of developing countries in the fight against climate change has been changing over time. The research consists of three papers. The first one investigates the role of developing countries in the Kyoto Protocol first commitment period (2008-2012) and, in particular, it is focused on the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), the only instrument that directly involves them. Indeed, CDM projects are still far from being an effective development activity due to the uneven distribution of these projects in a few relatively well-off economies. One potential cause of this imbalance is analyzed in terms of the trade relationships between developed and developing countries. By applying a gravity model to a panel dataset, wellestablished export flows from developed economies towards developing countries are shown to explain why a large proportion of CDM projects are unevenly geographically distributed. This kind of lock-in effect regarding the CDM between developed and developing countries could be avoided by both enhancing the institutional framework in developing countries that host CDM projects and reinforcing compulsory rules for CDM destinations in the least-developed economies. The second paper analyzes the role of these countries in post 2012 negotiations, with particular emphasis on the role that their heterogeneity plays in the formation of coalitions and in the negotiating process. As it has become evident during the last COPs, developing countries have different expectations and concerns about climate change negotiations, reflecting huge differences with respect to their economic, political and human conditions. The emergence in climate negotiations of more differentiated positions compared with the traditional segmentation between developed and developing countries can contribute to explain the deadlock characterizing climate negotiations. By applying a cluster analysis, this paper aims to investigate the role played by heterogeneity in specific characteristics of developing countries in explaining divergent costs and benefits associated with alternative climate negotiation outcomes. By clustering developing countries according to their economic, geographic, environmental, energy and social characteristics, the paper presents some considerations on climate political economy strategies in these countries with respect to existing bargaining coalitions. In particular, cluster results suggest that developing countries are characterized by heterogeneous concerns and conflicting interests that can contribute to explaining the deadlock in climate negotiations. Indeed, in some circumstances, countries may advocate, at the same time, interests that are potentially contrasting, leading to the possibility that very fragile, variegate and unstable alliances will be formed, complicating the negotiation process and leading to a standstill. Given the heterogeneity of countries and their relative differences in costs and benefits related to climate actions, it is necessary to set out compensating schemes, such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF), for the most vulnerable countries in order to reach a successful agreement. Advancing from that point, the third paper addresses the debate about the GCF, especially regarding the resource allocation mechanisms that are still under discussion. A climate-economic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model is developed with the purpose of taking into account a monetary evaluation of climate change damage costs incurred by all countries as well as a mechanism describing the operationalization of the GCF. The purpose is twofold: i) to investigate costs and benefits of ongoing climate negotiations, with particular emphasis on developing countries, and ii) to examine the role of the GCF as a compensating measure in fostering the realization of a more efficient climate agreement. The model used to carry out the research is the GDynE, an energy-environmental version of GDyn developed by Markandya et al. (2015)1, resulting from merging GDyn with GTAP-E, according to Golub (2013)2. The main novelty of the model adopted here is represented by new and explicit equations that allow for the introduction of the climate damage as well as a more wellstructured description of the GCF allocation mechanisms. Results show that, despite the high costs associated to the implementation of a climate policy, developing countries would face even higher costs if they did not act. Thus, the first conclusion we can draw is that, if a costs-benefits criterion were the leading factor driving mitigation decisions, developing countries would gain from actively participating in mitigation policies. However, defining the stringency of the global mitigation target (450 ppm vs 550 ppm) as well as the best structure of compensating mechanisms (GCF) is more complicated. Indeed, climate change policies affect many aspects of a country's economy, such as welfare and GDP. Shifting from a policy evaluation criterion to another can lead to several and often contrasting conclusions. As for the role of GCF, two alternative resource allocation methods have been investigated. Simulation results give some elements to strengthen the discussion about the GCF rules on a quantitative basis. In fact, the preference for an allocation method over the other from the developing world depends on the effects that the different allocation between adaptation and mitigation produces on the whole economy. Given the several aspects affected by resources allocation, also in this case the preference of a country for an allocation method over the other strongly depends on the evaluation criteria. However, results confirm that, as stated in the second paper, the preference of a country for an allocation method is strongly influenced by its characteristics and needs. Therefore, a country-specific GCF should be designed in order to facilitate the negotiation process and to reach a more effective climate agreement.

"Why has the relationship between the state and the Islamic revivalist movement known commonly as 'Wahhabism' persisted under Saudi rule since 1744? In Securitising Identity Ben Rich traces the symbiosis between these two entities across three distinct periods of Saudi rule over the past four centuries, showcasing the consistent conditions, patterns of behaviour and political logics that surround their interplay. Collectively, these reveal a recurrent tendency in which the state paradoxically offers protections to the preservation of revivalism while generating threats against this same religious identity in order to ensure its hold on power. Such a pattern, he argues, not only transcends all discrete periods of Saudi rule, but also manifests regardless of the conservative or progressive nature of a particular administration. Understanding such a pattern not only helps to explain why Saudi Arabia today remains a source of regional sectarianism, but also how such an idiomatic ideology has endured..."--back cover