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This article compares some components of the so‐called informal sector in countries of the North and of the South. We establish a parallel between the movements of the popular economy in the South and the social economy (third sector) in the North (Santiago de Chile and Belgium are the respective illustrative cases). Although the institutional contexts differ, we emphasize the similarities in evolution induced by the corresponding modes of regulation. Both the popular economy developing in the large cities of the Third World and the nonprofit organizations emerging in the North are a challenge to dominant modes of regulation, in particular to the 'state–market synergy'. Both have also given rise to an abundant literature which puts theoretical frameworks, particularly the economist's, into question. Modes of regulation still remain locked into the market/nonmarket dilemma, and this seems to indicate a certain 'blindness' to the plurality of modes of organization which are intermeshed in socio‐economic life. We would like to overcome this binary picture and show the fruitfulness of an approach to economics which takes into account a mixture of principles. Such combinations exclude neither the market nor the state, but do not reduce to them. This draws out the contours of a new mode of economic regulation, one which certainly challenges the philosophy of 'all to the market', but whose potential is nevertheless rooted in existing economic practices.

Intro -- Half Title -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface and Acknowledgements -- Editors -- Contributors -- Introduction: Documenting, Theorising, Mapping and Testing the Plurality of SE Models in Western Europe -- 0.1. Documenting SE Diversity (Phase 1 of the ICSEM Project) -- 0.1.1. Country-Based Contributions about the SE Landscape -- 0.1.2. Transversal and Comparative Analyses -- 0.2. Theorising and Mapping Major SE Models (Phase 2 of the ICSEM Project) -- 0.2.1. Three "Principles of Interest" as a Cornerstone -- 0.2.2. Market Reliance and the Resource Mix as Key Issues -- 0.2.3. Institutional Logics Generating SE Models -- 0.2.4. Social Missions across Models -- 0.3. Testing SE Models (Phase 3 of the ICSEM Project) -- Notes -- References -- Part I: National Overviews of Social Enterprise -- 1. Unity in Diversity: Exploring the Multiple Facets of the Belgian Social Enterprise Landscape -- Introduction -- 1.1. Historical Roots -- 1.1.1. The Associative Tradition -- 1.1.2. The Cooperative Tradition -- 1.1.3. The Tradition of Mutuals -- 1.1.4. The Inputs of Public Policies -- 1.1.5. Philanthropy and Social Investment -- 1.1.6. A More Business-Oriented Approach -- 1.2. Legal Evolution and Public Policies -- 1.3. Statistics and Characteristics of Social Enterprise in Belgium -- 1.3.1. Four Main SE Models -- 1.3.2. Number of Social Enterprises -- 1.3.3. Fields of Activity -- 1.3.4. Employment in Social Enterprises -- Conclusion -- Acknowledgements -- Note -- References -- 2. Social Enterprise in Denmark: Historical, Contextual and Conceptual Aspects -- Introduction -- 2.1. Institutional Trajectories of Social Enterprise in Denmark: Strong Roots in Social Movements and State Formation -- 2.1.1. First Period: Development of the Cooperative Sector -- 2.1.2. Second Period: Interrelated Crises.

In the last two decades, the quest for a widely accepted definition of social enterprise has been a central issue in a great number of publications. The main objective of the ICSEM Project (on which this book is based) was to show that the social enterprise field would benefit much more from linking conceptualisation efforts to the huge diversity of social enterprises than from an additional and ambitious attempt at providing an encompassing definition. Starting from a hypothesis that could be termed "the impossibility of a unified definition", the ICSEM research strategy relied on bottom-up approaches to capture the social enterprise phenomenon in its local and national contexts. This strategy made it possible to take into account and give legitimacy to locally embedded approaches, while simultaneously allowing for the identification of major social enterprise models to delineate the field on common grounds at the international level. Social Enterprise in Central and Eastern Europe – the last volume in a series of four ICSEM-based books on social enterprise worldwide — will serve as a key reference and resource for teachers, researchers, students, experts, policy makers, journalists and others who want to acquire a broad understanding of the social enterprise and social entrepreneurship phenomena as they emerge and develop in this region.

In the last two decades, the quest for a widely accepted definition of social enterprise has been a central issue in a great number of publications. The main objective of the ICSEM Project on which this book is based was to show that the social enterprise field would benefit much more from linking conceptualisation efforts to the huge diversity of social enterprises than from an additional and ambitious attempt at providing an encompassing definition. Starting from a hypothesis that could be termed "the impossibility of a unified definition", the ICSEM research strategy relied on bottom-up approaches to capture the social enterprise phenomenon in its local and national contexts. This strategy made it possible to take into account and give legitimacy to locally embedded approaches, while simultaneously allowing for the identification of major social enterprise models to delineate the field on common grounds at the international level. Social Enterprise in Western Europe –the third volume in a series of four ICSEM-based books on social enterprise worldwide – will serve as a key reference and resource for teachers, researchers, students, experts, policy makers, journalists and others who want to acquire a broad understanding of the social enterprise and social entrepreneurship phenomena as they emerge and develop in this region.

In the last two decades, the quest for a widely accepted definition of social enterprise has been a central issue in a great number of publications. The main objective of the ICSEM Project on which this book is based was to show that the social enterprise field would benefit much more from linking conceptualisation efforts to the huge diversity of social enterprises than from an additional and ambitious attempt at providing an encompassing definition. Starting from a hypothesis that could be termed "the impossibility of a unified definition", the ICSEM research strategy relied on bottom-up approaches to capture the social enterprise phenomenon in its local and national contexts. This strategy made it possible to take into account and give legitimacy to locally embedded approaches, while simultaneously allowing for the identification of major social enterprise models to delineate the field on common grounds at the international level. Social Enterprise in Western Europe –the third volume in a series of four ICSEM-based books on social enterprise worldwide – will serve as a key reference and resource for teachers, researchers, students, experts, policy makers, journalists and others who want to acquire a broad understanding of the social enterprise and social entrepreneurship phenomena as they emerge and develop in this region.

In the last two decades, the quest for a widely accepted definition of social enterprise has been a central issue in a great number of publications. The main objective of the ICSEM Project (on which this book is based) was to show that the social enterprise field would benefit much more from linking conceptualisation efforts to the huge diversity of social enterprises than from an additional and ambitious attempt at providing an encompassing definition. Starting from a hypothesis that could be termed "the impossibility of a unified definition", the ICSEM research strategy relied on bottom-up approaches to capture the social enterprise phenomenon in its local and national contexts. This strategy made it possible to take into account and give legitimacy to locally embedded approaches, while simultaneously allowing for the identification of major social enterprise models to delineate the field on common grounds at the international level. Social Enterprise in Central and Eastern Europe – the last volume in a series of four ICSEM-based books on social enterprise worldwide — will serve as a key reference and resource for teachers, researchers, students, experts, policy makers, journalists and others who want to acquire a broad understanding of the social enterprise and social entrepreneurship phenomena as they emerge and develop in this region.

La 4ème de couverture indique : "Économie sociale, économie solidaire, entreprise sociale : autant de concepts et d'approches qui permettent d'appréhender une partie de plus en plus importante et pourtant méconnue, de nos économies. Représentant jusqu'à 15% de l'emploi salarié et des millions de volontaires, ce "troisième secteur" se distingue tant du secteur privé de type capitaliste que du secteur public et apparaît comme une réponse, partielle mais pertinente, à de nombreux défis d'aujourd'hui. Par ses dynamiques entrepreneuriales, l'ESS défriche de nouvelles activités ancrées dans les territoires. Par ses valeurs, elle inspire confiance et prouve combien nos sociétés ont besoin d'une économie plurielle. Confiés aux meilleurs spécialistes du monde francophone, les chapitres de cet ouvrage se présentent tous comme des synthèses des connaissances actuelles. Combinant des éclairages théoriques multiples, ils forment un véritable traité qui s'adresse en premier lieu aux enseignants, aux étudiants et aux chercheurs, mais aussi aux professionnels qui ont besoin de se ressourcer ou d'affiner leurs grilles d'analyse

Le Projet de recherche ICSEM (« International Comparative Social Enterprise Model »), mené de 2013 à 2019, a eu pour objectif d'identifier et de comparer les modèles d'entreprises sociales à travers le monde. Sur la base d'un cadre analytique original, quatre modèles principaux d'entreprise sociale ont été identifiés puis ont été confortés par une base de données ICSEM constituée grâce à une enquête dans 43 pays. Il apparaît ainsi que l'existence de trois des quatre modèles, i.e. la coopérative sociale, « l'associatif entrepreneurial » et le « social business », est fortement soutenue par l'analyse empirique dans presque tous les pays étudiés. Par ailleurs, des spécificités significatives apparaissent en Europe de l'Ouest, Centrale et Orientale.

Face aux limites d'un modèle de développement axé quasi exclusivement sur une croissance économique reposant sur l'utilisation intensive de ressources non renouvelables, ainsi que sur une production de déchets qui excède les capacités de la planète à les absorber, on peut affirmer qu'un grand défi contemporain consiste à reconstruire, à refaçonner des modèles socio-économiques soutenables. L'introduction de ce livre a montré que de tels projets ne peuvent plus faire l'économie de questions fondamentales comme celle des finalités sous-jacentes à nos modèles de société, qui doivent désormais intégrer les défis écologiques, économiques et sociaux. Il s'agit donc de s'interroger sur les transformations politiques, sociales, économiques et culturelles qui peuvent concourir à faire émerger des modèles de développement plus soutenables.

Face aux limites d'un modèle de développement axé quasi exclusivement sur une croissance économique reposant sur l'utilisation intensive de ressources non renouvelables, ainsi que sur une production de déchets qui excède les capacités de la planète à les absorber, on peut affirmer qu'un grand défi contemporain consiste à reconstruire, à refaçonner des modèles socio-économiques soutenables. L'introduction de ce livre a montré que de tels projets ne peuvent plus faire l'économie de questions fondamentales comme celle des finalités sous-jacentes à nos modèles de société, qui doivent désormais intégrer les défis écologiques, économiques et sociaux. Il s'agit donc de s'interroger sur les transformations politiques, sociales, économiques et culturelles qui peuvent concourir à faire émerger des modèles de développement plus soutenables.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that it is feasible to theoretically and empirically build an international typology of social enterprise (SE) models. The authors first rely on their previous work (Defourny and Nyssens, 2017), suggesting that the concept of "interest principles" can serve as a cornerstone in such perspective. This concept, when combined with that of SEs' "resource mixes", allows to design an analytical tool that shows from which "matrices" and through which "trajectories" several distinct SE models can emerge, namely, the "non-profit entrepreneurial model", the "social cooperative model", the "social business model" and the "public sector model".
Design/methodology/approachThis paper combines deductive and inductive approaches. In a deductive perspective, the authors build upon the analytical framework proposed by Gui (1991) to identify capital interest, mutual interest and general interest as key driving forces and fundamental motives in the overall economy. To confront their theoretical construction and their tentative typology of SE models with field realities, the authors also adopt an inductive approach, relying on bottom-up research strategies developed in the seven "ICSEM country contributions" forming this special issue.
FindingsAt first view, mapping exercises of SE categories in the seven countries seem to highlight a high degree of heterogeneity. However, a closer analysis of these apparently diverging contributions clearly suggests that the four major SE models derived from the authors' theoretical framework find significant empirical support in most—if not all—countries.
Originality/valueAlthough major statistical work to test the authors' typology of SE models remains to be carried out, mainly through the exploitation of the international ICSEM database (which covers over 700 SEs from more than 40 countries), this paper represents a first—although limited—attempt to collect empirical evidence for testing this typology.