Suchergebnisse

This paper reviews the linkages between urbanization and economic development. It articulates the relationship between urban density and potential increases in productivity, through specialization, complementarities in production, through the diffusion of knowledge and mimicry, and simply through size and scale. The factors limiting the efficient sizes of cities are analyzed. The paper reviews empirical knowledge, from underdeveloped countries as well as high-income industrial societies, about the importance and magnitudes of these productivity gains. The analysis documents the close link between gains in economic efficiency and the urbanization of populations in most parts of the world.

Semi-arid areas are, due to their climatic setting, characterized by small water resources. An increasing water demand as a consequence of population growth and economic development as well as a decreasing water availability in the course of possible climate change may aggravate water scarcity in future, which often exists already for present-day conditions in these areas. Understanding the mechanisms and feedbacks of complex natural and human systems, together with the quantitative assessment of future changes in volume, timing and quality of water resources are a prerequisite for the development of sustainable measures of water management to enhance the adaptive capacity of these regions. For this task, dynamic integrated models, containing a hydrological model as one component, are indispensable tools. The main objective of this study is to develop a hydrological model for the quantification of water availability in view of environmental change over a large geographic domain of semi-arid environments. The study area is the Federal State of Ceará (150 000 km2) in the semi-arid north-east of Brazil. Mean annual precipitation in this area is 850 mm, falling in a rainy season with duration of about five months. Being mainly characterized by crystalline bedrock and shallow soils, surface water provides the largest part of the water supply. The area has recurrently been affected by droughts which caused serious economic losses and social impacts like migration from the rural regions. The hydrological model Wasa (Model of Water Availability in Semi-Arid Environments) developed in this study is a deterministic, spatially distributed model being composed of conceptual, process-based approaches. Water availability (river discharge, storage volumes in reservoirs, soil moisture) is determined with daily resolution. Sub-basins, grid cells or administrative units (municipalities) can be chosen as spatial target units. The administrative units enable the coupling of Wasa in the framework of an integrated model which contains modules that do not work on the basis of natural spatial units. The target units mentioned above are disaggregated in Wasa into smaller modelling units within a new multi-scale, hierarchical approach. The landscape units defined in this scheme capture in particular the effect of structured variability of terrain, soil and vegetation characteristics along toposequences on soil moisture and runoff generation. Lateral hydrological processes at the hillslope scale, as reinfiltration of surface runoff, being of particular importance in semi-arid environments, can thus be represented also within the large-scale model in a simplified form. Depending on the resolution of available data, small-scale variability is not represented explicitly with geographic reference in Wasa, but by the distribution of sub-scale units and by statistical transition frequencies for lateral fluxes between these units. Further model components of Wasa which respect specific features of semi-arid hydrology are: (1) A two-layer model for evapotranspiration comprises energy transfer at the soil surface (including soil evaporation), which is of importance in view of the mainly sparse vegetation cover. Additionally, vegetation parameters are differentiated in space and time in dependence on the occurrence of the rainy season. (2) The infiltration module represents in particular infiltration-excess surface runoff as the dominant runoff component. (3) For the aggregate description of the water balance of reservoirs that cannot be represented explicitly in the model, a storage approach respecting different reservoirs size classes and their interaction via the river network is applied. (4) A model for the quantification of water withdrawal by water use in different sectors is coupled to Wasa. (5) A cascade model for the temporal disaggregation of precipitation time series, adapted to the specific characteristics of tropical convective rainfall, is applied for the generating rainfall time series of higher temporal resolution. All model parameters of Wasa can be derived from physiographic information of the study area. Thus, model calibration is primarily not required. Model applications of Wasa for historical time series generally results in a good model performance when comparing the simulation results of river discharge and reservoir storage volumes with observed data for river basins of various sizes. The mean water balance as well as the high interannual and intra-annual variability is reasonably represented by the model. Limitations of the modelling concept are most markedly seen for sub-basins with a runoff component from deep groundwater bodies of which the dynamics cannot be satisfactorily represented without calibration. Further results of model applications are: (1) Lateral processes of redistribution of runoff and soil moisture at the hillslope scale, in particular reinfiltration of surface runoff, lead to markedly smaller discharge volumes at the basin scale than the simple sum of runoff of the individual sub-areas. Thus, these processes are to be captured also in large-scale models. The different relevance of these processes for different conditions is demonstrated by a larger percentage decrease of discharge volumes in dry as compared to wet years. (2) Precipitation characteristics have a major impact on the hydrological response of semi-arid environments. In particular, underestimated rainfall intensities in the rainfall input due to the rough temporal resolution of the model and due to interpolation effects and, consequently, underestimated runoff volumes have to be compensated in the model. A scaling factor in the infiltration module or the use of disaggregated hourly rainfall data show good results in this respect. The simulation results of Wasa are characterized by large uncertainties. These are, on the one hand, due to uncertainties of the model structure to adequately represent the relevant hydrological processes. On the other hand, they are due to uncertainties of input data and parameters particularly in view of the low data availability. Of major importance is: (1) The uncertainty of rainfall data with regard to their spatial and temporal pattern has, due to the strong non-linear hydrological response, a large impact on the simulation results. (2) The uncertainty of soil parameters is in general of larger importance on model uncertainty than uncertainty of vegetation or topographic parameters. (3) The effect of uncertainty of individual model components or parameters is usually different for years with rainfall volumes being above or below the average, because individual hydrological processes are of different relevance in both cases. Thus, the uncertainty of individual model components or parameters is of different importance for the uncertainty of scenario simulations with increasing or decreasing precipitation trends. (4) The most important factor of uncertainty for scenarios of water availability in the study area is the uncertainty in the results of global climate models on which the regional climate scenarios are based. Both a marked increase or a decrease in precipitation can be assumed for the given data. Results of model simulations for climate scenarios until the year 2050 show that a possible future change in precipitation volumes causes a larger percentage change in runoff volumes by a factor of two to three. In the case of a decreasing precipitation trend, the efficiency of new reservoirs for securing water availability tends to decrease in the study area because of the interaction of the large number of reservoirs in retaining the overall decreasing runoff volumes. ; Semiaride Gebiete sind auf Grund der klimatischen Bedingungen durch geringe Wasserressourcen gekennzeichnet. Ein zukünftig steigender Wasserbedarf in Folge von Bevölkerungswachstum und ökonomischer Entwicklung sowie eine geringere Wasserverfügbarkeit durch mögliche Klimaänderungen können dort zu einer Verschärfung der vielfach schon heute auftretenden Wasserknappheit führen. Das Verständnis der Mechanismen und Wechselwirkungen des komplexen Systems von Mensch und Umwelt sowie die quantitative Bestimmung zukünftiger Veränderungen in der Menge, der zeitlichen Verteilung und der Qualität von Wasserressourcen sind eine grundlegende Voraussetzung für die Entwicklung von nachhaltigen Maßnahmen des Wassermanagements mit dem Ziel einer höheren Anpassungsfähigkeit dieser Regionen gegenüber künftigen Änderungen. Hierzu sind dynamische integrierte Modelle unerlässlich, die als eine Komponente ein hydrologisches Modell beinhalten. Vorrangiges Ziel dieser Arbeit ist daher die Erstellung eines hydrologischen Modells zur großräumigen Bestimmung der Wasserverfügbarkeit unter sich ändernden Umweltbedingungen in semiariden Gebieten. Als Untersuchungsraum dient der im semiariden tropischen Nordosten Brasiliens gelegene Bundestaat Ceará (150 000 km2). Die mittleren Jahresniederschläge in diesem Gebiet liegen bei 850 mm innerhalb einer etwa fünfmonatigen Regenzeit. Mit vorwiegend kristallinem Grundgebirge und geringmächtigen Böden stellt Oberflächenwasser den größten Teil der Wasserversorgung bereit. Die Region war wiederholt von Dürren betroffen, die zu schweren ökonomischen Schäden und sozialen Folgen wie Migration aus den ländlichen Gebieten geführt haben. Das hier entwickelte hydrologische Modell Wasa (Model of Water Availability in Semi-Arid Environments) ist ein deterministisches, flächendifferenziertes Modell, das aus konzeptionellen, prozess-basierten Ansätzen aufgebaut ist. Die Wasserverfügbarkeit (Abfluss im Gewässernetz, Speicherung in Stauseen, Bodenfeuchte) wird mit täglicher Auflösung bestimmt. Als räumliche Zieleinheiten können Teileinzugsgebiete, Rasterzellen oder administrative Einheiten (Gemeinden) gewählt werden. Letztere ermöglichen die Kopplung des Modells im Rahmen der integrierten Modellierung mit Modulen, die nicht auf der Basis natürlicher Raumeinheiten arbeiten. Im Rahmen eines neuen skalenübergreifenden, hierarchischen Ansatzes werden in Wasa die genannten Zieleinheiten in kleinere räumliche Modellierungseinheiten unterteilt. Die ausgewiesenen Landschaftseinheiten erfassen insbesondere die strukturierte Variabilität von Gelände-, Boden- und Vegetationseigenschaften entlang von Toposequenzen in ihrem Einfluss auf Bodenfeuchte und Abflussbildung. Laterale hydrologische Prozesse auf kleiner Skala, wie die für semiaride Bedingungen bedeutsame Wiederversickerung von Oberflächenabfluss, können somit auch in der erforderlichen großskaligen Modellanwendung vereinfacht wiedergegeben werden. In Abhängigkeit von der Auflösung der verfügbaren Daten wird in Wasa die kleinskalige Variabilität nicht räumlich explizit sondern über die Verteilung von Flächenanteilen subskaliger Einheiten und über statistische Übergangshäufigkeiten für laterale Flüsse zwischen den Einheiten berücksichtigt. Weitere Modellkomponenten von Wasa, die spezifische Bedingungen semiarider Gebiete berücksichtigen, sind: (1) Ein Zwei-Schichten-Modell zur Bestimmung der Evapotranspiration berücksichtigt auch den Energieumsatz an der Bodenoberfläche (inklusive Bodenverdunstung), der in Anbetracht der meist lichten Vegetationsbedeckung von Bedeutung ist. Die Vegetationsparameter werden zudem flächen- und zeitdifferenziert in Abhängigkeit vom Auftreten der Regenzeit modifiziert. (2) Das Infiltrationsmodul bildet insbesondere Oberflächenabfluss durch Infiltrationsüberschuss als dominierender Abflusskomponente ab. (3) Zur aggregierten Beschreibung der Wasserbilanz von im Modell nicht einzeln erfassbaren Stauseen wird ein Speichermodell unter Berücksichtigung verschiedener Größenklassen und ihrer Interaktion über das Gewässernetz eingesetzt. (4) Ein Modell zur Bestimmung der Entnahme durch Wassernutzung in verschiedenen Sektoren ist an Wasa gekoppelt. (5) Ein Kaskadenmodell zur zeitlichen Disaggregierung von Niederschlagszeitreihen, das in dieser Arbeit speziell für tropische konvektive Niederschlagseigenschaften angepasst wird, wird zur Erzeugung höher aufgelöster Niederschlagsdaten verwendet. Alle Modellparameter von Wasa können von physiographischen Gebietsinformationen abgeleitet werden, sodass eine Modellkalibrierung primär nicht erforderlich ist. Die Modellanwendung von Wasa für historische Zeitreihen ergibt im Allgemeinen eine gute Übereinstimmung der Simulationsergebnisse für Abfluss und Stauseespeichervolumen mit Beobachtungsdaten in unterschiedlich großen Einzugsgebieten. Die mittlere Wasserbilanz sowie die hohe monatliche und jährliche Variabilität wird vom Modell angemessen wiedergegeben. Die Grenzen der Anwendbarkeit des Modell-konzepts zeigen sich am deutlichsten in Teilgebieten mit Abflusskomponenten aus tieferen Grundwasserleitern, deren Dynamik ohne Kalibrierung nicht zufriedenstellend abgebildet werden kann. Die Modellanwendungen zeigen weiterhin: (1) Laterale Prozesse der Umverteilung von Bodenfeuchte und Abfluss auf der Hangskala, vor allem die Wiederversickerung von Oberflächenabfluss, führen auf der Skala von Einzugsgebieten zu deutlich kleineren Abflussvolumen als die einfache Summe der Abflüsse der Teilflächen. Diese Prozesse sollten daher auch in großskaligen Modellen abgebildet werden. Die unterschiedliche Ausprägung dieser Prozesse für unterschiedliche Bedingungen zeigt sich an Hand einer prozentual größeren Verringerung der Abflussvolumen in trockenen im Vergleich zu feuchten Jahren. (2) Die Niederschlagseigenschaften haben einen sehr großen Einfluss auf die hydrologische Reaktion in semiariden Gebieten. Insbesondere die durch die grobe zeitliche Auflösung des Modells und durch Interpolationseffekte unterschätzten Niederschlagsintensitäten in den Eingangsdaten und die daraus folgende Unterschätzung von Abflussvolumen müssen im Modell kompensiert werden. Ein Skalierungsfaktor in der Infiltrationsroutine oder die Verwendung disaggregierter stündlicher Niederschlagsdaten zeigen hier gute Ergebnisse. Die Simulationsergebnisse mit Wasa sind insgesamt durch große Unsicherheiten gekennzeichnet. Diese sind einerseits in Unsicherheiten der Modellstruktur zur adäquaten Beschreibung der relevanten hydrologischen Prozesse begründet, andererseits in Daten- und Parametersunsicherheiten in Anbetracht der geringen Datenverfügbarkeit. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist: (1) Die Unsicherheit der Niederschlagsdaten in ihrem räumlichen Muster und ihrer zeitlichen Struktur hat wegen der stark nicht-linearen hydrologischen Reaktion einen großen Einfluss auf die Simulationsergebnisse. (2) Die Unsicherheit von Bodenparametern hat im Vergleich zu Vegetationsparametern und topographischen Parametern im Allgemeinen einen größeren Einfluss auf die Modellunsicherheit. (3) Der Effekt der Unsicherheit einzelner Modellkomponenten und -parameter ist für Jahre mit unter- oder überdurchschnittlichen Niederschlagsvolumen zumeist unterschiedlich, da einzelne hydrologische Prozesse dann jeweils unterschiedlich relevant sind. Die Unsicherheit einzelner Modellkomponenten- und parameter hat somit eine unterschiedliche Bedeutung für die Unsicherheit von Szenarienrechnungen mit steigenden oder fallenden Niederschlagstrends. (4) Der bedeutendste Unsicherheitsfaktor für Szenarien der Wasserverfügbarkeit für die Untersuchungsregion ist die Unsicherheit der den regionalen Klimaszenarien zu Grunde liegenden Ergebnisse globaler Klimamodelle. Eine deutliche Zunahme oder Abnahme der Niederschläge bis 2050 kann gemäß den hier vorliegenden Daten für das Untersuchungsgebiet gleichermaßen angenommen werden. Modellsimulationen für Klimaszenarien bis zum Jahr 2050 ergeben, dass eine mögliche zukünftige Veränderung der Niederschlagsmengen zu einer prozentual zwei- bis dreifach größeren Veränderung der Abflussvolumen führt. Im Falle eines Trends von abnehmenden Niederschlagsmengen besteht in der Untersuchungsregion die Tendenz, dass auf Grund der gegenseitigen Beeinflussung der großen Zahl von Stauseen beim Rückhalt der tendenziell abnehmenden Abflussvolumen die Effizienz von neugebauten Stauseen zur Sicherung der Wasserverfügbarkeit zunehmend geringer wird.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Achala Microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and the physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 830 ha in Yadgir taluk & district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought-prone with an average annual rainfall of 866 mm, of which about 652 mm is received during south-west monsoon, 138 mm during north-east and the remaining 76 mm during the rest of the year. An area of 587 ha (80%) ha in the microwatershed is covered by soils, about 109 ha (15%) by rock outcrops and about 42 ha (6%) by others (Habitation and water body). The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below.  The soils belong to 7 soil series and 11 soil phases (management units) and 4 land management units.  The length of crop growing period is about 120-150 days starting from 1st week of June to 4th week of October.  From the master soil map, several interpretative and thematic maps like land capability, soil depth, surface soil texture, soil gravelliness, available water capacity, soil slope and soil erosion were generated.  Soil fertility status maps for macro and micronutrients were generated based on the surface soil samples collected at every 320 m grid interval.  Land suitability for growing 29 major agricultural and horticultural crops was assessed and maps showing the degree of suitability along with constraints were generated.  An area of about 80 per cent is suitable for agriculture in the microwatershed.  About 17 per cent area of the microwatershed has soils that are deep (100- 150 cm), whereas 40 per cent soils are moderately shallow (50-75 cm) and 23 per cent soils are very shallow and shallow (200 mm/m) in available water capacity and 63 per cent soils are low (51-100 mm/m) and very low (9.0) in soil reaction.  The Electrical Conductivity (EC) of the soils in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed is 0.75%), 63 percent is medium (0.50-0.75%) and 57 kg/ha) in available phosphorus.  An area of about 11 percent is high (>337kg/ha), 65 percent is medium (145- 337kg/ha) and about 3 percent is low (20ppm), 48 percent is medium (10-20ppm) and 7 percent area is low (4.5 ppm) in an area of 80 per cent and dificient (<4.5 ppm) in about <1 per cent in the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in all the soils of the microwatershed.  Available zinc content is deficient (<0.6 ppm) in the entire cultivated area of the microwatershed.  The land suitability for 29 major crops grown in the microwatershed were assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (S1) and moderately suitable (S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the Microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum - 413(56) Guava - - Maize - 413(56) Sapota - - Bajra - 413(56) Pomegranate - - Groundnut - 293(40) Musambi - - Sunflower - - Lime - - Redgram - 120(16) Amla - 293(40) Bengal gram - - Cashew - - Cotton - - Jackfruit - - Chilli - 293(40) Jamun - - Tomato - 293(40) Custard apple - 293(40) Brinjal - 293(40) Tamarind - - Onion - 293(40) Mulberry - - Bhendi - 293(40) Marigold - 293(40) Drumstick - - Chrysanthemum - 293(40) Mango - - -  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fiber and horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital to crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.  Soil and water conservation treatment plan has been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. This would help in not only supplementing the farm income but also provide fodder and fuel to generate lot of biomass which would help in maintaining an ecological balance and also contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 75 (47.47%) men and 83 (52.53%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' and semi medium farmers was 4.5, small farmers' was 5.1 and medium farmers' was 6.5.  The data indicated that, 44 (27.85 %) people were in 0-15 years of age, 55 (34.81 %) were in 16-35 years of age, 46 (29.11 %) were in 36-60 years of age and 13 (8.23 %) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Achala had 48.73 per cent illiterates, 25.95 per cent of them had primary school education, 0.63 per cent of them had middle school education, diploma and degree, 14.56 per cent of them had high school education and 1.90 per cent of them had PUC education.  The results indicate that, 38.24 per cent of household heads were practicing agriculture, 55.88 per cent of the household heads were agricultural labourer and 2.94 per cent were general labour. The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 31.65 per cent of the household members, 34.18 per cent were agricultural laborers, 1.27 per cent were general laborers, 24.05 per cent were in student, 1.27 per cent were housewives and 5.06 per cent were children.  The results show that, 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 100 per cent of the households possess Katcha house.  The results show that 88.24 per cent of the households possess TV, 23.53 per cent of them possess mixer/grinder, 11.76 per cent of the households possess motor cycle and 91.18 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs. 6,066, mixer/grinder was Rs. 2,625, motor cycle was Rs. 34,250 and mobile phone was Rs. 2,226.  About 5.88 per cent of the households possess Bullock cart, 8.82 per cent of them possess plough and 2.94 per cent of them possess seed/fertilizer drill, sprayer and weeder.  The result shows that, the average value of bullock cart was Rs. 27,500, plough and seed/ fertilizer drill was Rs. 3,000, sprayer was Rs. 21,800 and weeder was Rs. 50.  The results indicate that, 11.76 per cent of the households possess bullocks and local cow and 2.94 per cent of the households possess buffalo.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.43, average own labour (women) available was 1.40, average hired labour (men) available was 8.86 and average hired labour (women) available was 8.46. 2  The results indicate that, 79.41 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate and 2.94 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was inadequate.  The results show that, 2.53 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has migrated.  The results show that, average distance of migration was 1,160 kms and average duration of migration was 5 months.  The results show that, job/wage/work are the main purpose of migration for 100 per cent of the population in micro-watershed.  The results indicate that, households of the Achala micro-watershed possess 22.58 ha (73.78%) of dry land, 17.10 ha (17.10%) of irrigated land and 2.70 ha (9.12%) of permanent fallow land. Marginal farmers possess 8.40 ha (89.71%) of dry land, 0.48 of irrigated land and 0.49 ha (5.19%) of Permanent Fallow. Small farmers possess 5.20 ha (62.23 %) of dry land, 0.85 ha (10.17%) of irrigated land and 2.32 (27.60%) of permanent fallow land. Semi medium farmers possess 2.83 ha (68.63%) of dry land and 1.30 ha (31.37%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 6.14 ha (70.18%) of dry land and 2.61 ha (29.82%) of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 646,388.24, the average value of irrigated land was Rs. 534,880.13 and the average value of permanent fallow was Rs. 361,550.72. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 1,213,583.82 for dry land, Rs. 1,255,932.26 for irrigated land and Rs. 493,999.98 for permanent fallow. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 480,544.75 for dry land, Rs. 823,333.37 for irrigated land and Rs. 333,666.66 for permanent fallow land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 247,000 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 463,124.99 of irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 195,256.91 for dry land and the average land value was Rs. 344,651.16 of irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 2 de-functioning and 3 functioning bore well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 8.82 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 3.94 meters.  The results indicate that semi-medium and medium farmers had an irrigated area of 1.30 ha and 3.36 ha, respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown red gram (10.43 ha), cotton (7.79 ha), sorghum (2.43 ha), green gram (2.02 ha), groundnut (1.3 ha), paddy (0.81ha) and china aster (0.56 ha).  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Achala micro-watershed was found to be 111.95 per cent. 3  The results indicate that, 94.12 per cent of the households have bank account and 82.35 per cent of the households have savings. The results indicate that, 64.71 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 14.81 per cent of the households have borrowed from commercial bank and 3.70 per cent of the households have cooperative, grameena, moneylender and traders.  The results indicate that, the average credit amount borrowed by households in micro-watershed was Rs, 32,222.22.  The results indicate that, 80 per cent of the households borrowed from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicated that 50 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 16.67 per cent of the households partially paid their loan borrowed from institutional sources.  The results indicated that 100 per cent of the households did not repay their loan borrowed from private sources.  The results indicate that, around 16.67 per cent opined that the loan amount borrowed from helped to perform timely agricultural operations and loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 50 per cent opined that the loan amount was adequate to fulfill the requirement.The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for red gram was Rs. 58829.55. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 62039.92. The net income from red gram cultivation was Rs. 3210.37. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.05.  The total cost of cultivation for cotton was Rs. 50143.02. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 61132.19. The net income from cotton cultivation was Rs. 10989.18. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.22.  The total cost of cultivation for Paddy was Rs. 47507.73. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 97741.43. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 50233.70. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.06.  The total cost of cultivation for sorghum was Rs. 30936.52. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37297. The net income from sorghum cultivation was Rs. 6360.48. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.21.  The total cost of cultivation for green gram was Rs. 50332.24. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 40488.63. The net income from green gram cultivation was Rs. -9843.62. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.8.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 60537.46. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 54340. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. -6197.46. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.9. 4  The results indicate that, 17.65 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder and green fodder was adequate, 2.94 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate and 8.82 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was in adequate.  The results indicate that the annual gross income was Rs. 52,428.57 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 90,156.25, for small farmers it was Rs. 67,857.14, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 156,200 and medium farmers it was Rs. 259,750. The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 11,632. For landless households it was Rs. 4,714.29, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,910.71, for small farmers it was Rs. 15,059.52, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 33,000 and for medium farmers it was Rs. 64,250.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 1 lemon and 2 mango trees in their field and also1 mango tree in their backyard.  The results indicate that, households have planted 2 eucalyptus, 35 neem and 1 tamarind trees in their field also 1 neem and 2 tamarind trees in their backyard.  The results indicated that, households have an average investment capacity of Rs. 5,694.44 for land development.  The results indicated that own funds was the source of additional investment for 11.76 per cent for land development and 2.94 pe cent for improved crop production.  The results indicated that, cotton was sold to the extent of 88.51 per cent, green gram was sold to the extent of 88.54 per cent, groundnut was sold to the extent of 88.89 per cent, red gram was sold to the extent of 71.17 per cent and sorghum was sold to the extent of 66.67 per cent.  The results indicated that, 41.18 per cent of the farmers sold their produce to local/village merchants and 32.35 per cent of them sold in regulated markets.  The results indicated that, 73.53 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce.  The results indicated that, 29.41 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm.  The results indicated that, 61.76 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent have soil and water conservation practices and structure adopted.  The results indicated that, 70.59 per cent of the households used firewood and 38.25 per cent of the households used LPG as a source of fuel.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 97.06 per cent of the households in the micro watershed.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed. 5  The results indicated that, 58.82 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet facility.  The results indicated that, 2.94 per cent of the sampled households possessed APL card and 97.06 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 82.35 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses and oilseed were adequate for 79.41 per cent of the households, vegetables were adequate for 64.71 per cent, fruits was adequate for 50 per cent and milk were adequate for 11.76 per cent  The results indicated that, cereals, pulses and oilseed were inadequate for 20.59 per cent of the households, vegetables were inadequate for 35.29 per cent, fruits was inadequate for 50 per cent, milk were inadequate for 85.29 per cent and egg and meat were inadequate for 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil, was the constraint experienced by 75 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (55.88%). frequent incidence of pest and diseases and low price for the agricultural commodities (67.65%), inadequacy of irrigation water, high rate of interest on credit and Lack of transport for safe transport of the Agril produce to the market (70.59%), high cost of fertilizer and plant protection chemicals(73.53%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (52.94%), inadequate extension services (32.35%) and source of agri-technology information (2.94%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

This report on the German results of the Integration of the Second Generation in Europe (TIES) survey looks at the integration process for second generation inhabitants of Turkish and Yugoslavian backgrounds living in Berlin and Frankfurt. Examining the TIES results, Inken Sürig and Maren Wilmes discuss diverse topics such as educational outcomes, segregation and housing, ethnic and cultural orientations, and social relations.

This important new book brings together some of the best known international scholars working within a critical gerontology perspective. Together, they review and update our understanding of how the field has developed over the last twenty-five years and, through the lens of 'passionate scholarship', provide a challenging assessment of the complex practical and ethical issues facing older people, and those who conduct research on ageing, in the 21st century. The contributions extend the critical gerontological approach conceptually, methodologically and practically. They offer close and scholarly analysis of policies affecting the lives of older people and provide insights into why research is done in particular ways. Special attention is paid to feminist contributions and new approaches to working in partnership with older people; age discrimination and ageism; the impact of neo-liberal policies and the passage of various human rights instruments; the re-medicalisation of later life; the participation of older people in research; and justice between generations. The editors and contributors offer suggestions for promoting change, and an exciting set of visions and perspectives for the renewal and development of critical gerontology in the years ahead. "Critical Perspectives on Ageing Societies" will be a valuable resource for all students, academics and practitioners interested in ageing and the life course

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from the four estimated reduced-form effects. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than 40%.

This study documents the application of participatory governance for social housing in the Philippines through the local housing boards (LHBs). The interest to institutionalize LHBs in local government units (LGUs) has grown mostly in the country's highly urbanized cities. LHBs are seen to involve communities in the decision-making process to bring about inclusive welfare and enhance social housing outcomes. Thus, they have an important role in the adoption of effective social housing policies and programs for the poor. This study shows that LGUs vary in their implementation of LHBs. Many cities created their LHBs only in compliance with the law while some LGUs established their own mainly on paper. These LHBs either become inactive or fail to follow the appropriate representation of people's organizations and the communities. Other LGUs activate their LHBs only when there is a need to hasten the process of eviction and demolition in informal settlements. The LHBs in these LGUs have a limited role as an institution for participatory governance. On the other hand, social housing policies and projects that cater to the poor are evident among LGUs with functioning LHBs. There are representativeness, transparency, and openness in the local government for the housing needs of the vulnerable sector, resulting in the national government's provision of budget for the development of inclusive local housing policies and projects. This is why LHBs should be strengthened as a participatory governance institution, which can be done through a legislative act that will empower them in the planning and budgeting process of social housing projects at the local level. Moreover, the role of LHB should be expanded beyond concerns on informal settlements. They should be involved as well in the decision-making process for city-wide shelter projects and land use planning.

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from the four estimated reduced-form effects. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than 40%.

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from the four estimated reduced-form effects. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than 40%.

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from the four estimated reduced-form effects. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than 40%.

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from the four estimated reduced-form effects. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than 40%.

Smart city development is recognized as a potential solution to urbanization issues, but a disconnect comes along with the vagueness in smart city elements and pathways. The use of the term "smart city" by some local government units in the Philippines evokes a utopia – a local sphere with numerous positive developments that will greatly benefit the constituents. The lack of studies providing evidence on the readiness of Philippine cities to smart city development, however, prevents the establishment of the cities' capacities to address urban challenges with their initiatives. This study aims to examine whether Philippine cities are prepared for smart city development by answering three policy questions: (1) "What drives Philippine LGUs towards the implementation of smart city initiatives?"; (2) "What is the extent of smart city development among Philippine cities?"; and (3) "How can the Philippine government facilitate the development of smart cities?". A desk review of smart city initiatives in some Philippine and international cities was carried out, and interviews were conducted with stakeholders from selected cities in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Based on the findings, the Philippines has started to tread the path towards building smart cities, and some Philippine cities already exhibit preparedness for smart city development. Smart city enablers are already in place, but the degree in which they are applied is not very extensive. Both at the national and local levels, there are significant challenges which need to be addressed. These include issues related to data interoperability, national standards on data repositories and application programming interfaces, risk mitigation strategies, monitoring and assessment, accountability, and others. If such issues are unaddressed, there will be a risk of not fully realizing the potential of smart city initiatives being implemented in the Philippines.

Suárez Serrato and Zidar (2016) identify state corporate tax incidence in a spatial equilibrium model with imperfectly mobile firms. Their identification argument rests on comparative-statics omitting a channel implied by their model: the link between common determinants of a location's attractiveness and the average idiosyncratic productivity of firms choosing that location. This compositional margin causes the labor demand elasticity to be independent from the product demand elasticity, impeding the identification of incidence from reduced-form estimates. Assigning consensual values to the unidentified parameters, we find that the incidence share born by firm-owners is closer to 25% than the 40% initially reported. The null associated with the "conventional view" that the share on workers is 1 and that on firm owners is 0 is still rejected.

It is not always easy, under the hybrid political system that has characterized Myanmar since 2011, to distinguish how power and responsibilities are distributed among the military, the civil service, political parties represented in parliament and the government. In particular, the division of power between elected representatives and high level civil servants in the design and implementation of policies more often resembles a work in progress than the operation of the established hierarchy defined by the 2008 Constitution and of the political system that started its journey towards democratization only a few years ago. There are arguably few fields in which this is as true as in urban and regional planning. This paper understands such planning with reference to the idea that the development of any city or town cannot be based only on planning for that city or town alone, but must also include planning for their respective sub-regions. Taken in its broadest sense, urban and regional planning covers a wide range of issues that matter tremendously to the people of Myanmar. In urban areas, besides the obvious road repair work, electricity, running water, waste management and various sets of regulations, these issues include the creation and maintenance of public parks, and public spaces more generally. They further include progress toward greener cities, something that is essential to the development of a happier, healthier society, and to the development of public life, and even public debate — in other words, to the development of a more open society. Regional planning in a society as ethnically diverse as Myanmar's is also essential to relations between different communities. In many places across the country, the urban/rural divide reflects the gap between the Bamar majority and the ethnic nationalities, an issue that is well exemplified by tensions around land rights. Urban planning also reflects the divide between rich and poor. In industrial zones on the outskirts of Yangon such as Hlaing Tharyar or Shwepyithar, migrants from the countryside find work in garment factories and often live in slums. The development of these zones, and the frequent euphemistic characterization of them as "informal settlements", illustrates this point. Last but not least, decisions on the construction and maintenance of infrastructure are a fundamental aspect in the development of Myanmar. They highlight the need to clarify the division of power, not only between elected representatives and civil servants but also between authority at the Union level, the State and Region level and the municipal level.

With rapid urbanisation and concomitant rise in urban poverty, a better understanding of urban poverty and urban income dynamics has become an urgent priority. One in five poor households now live in urban Bangladesh and many more urban households are aspiring to be middle class yet vulnerable to falling back into poverty. Progress in reducing poverty has slowed in urban areas, particularly in larger cities. As a result, there are now more people living in extreme poverty in urban Bangladesh (3.7 million) than in 2010 (3 million). At current rates of urbanisation and poverty reduction, more than half of poor households will live in urban areas by 2030. This paper examines what can be learned about trends and drivers in urban poverty from recent nationally representative surveys. It also analyses additional data sources on the capital city, Dhaka, to shed light on spatial inequality within the city. The paper highlights the need for increased data collection and evidence on urban poverty to inform public policy to address this emerging challenge.