Welche Variablen sollten berücksichtigt werden, um die Wirtschaft der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaften zu erfassen? Die Mittel der Archäologie erlauben verschiedene Analyseniveaus. Das Gros des Fundmaterials, insbesondere, wenn dieses aus Präventivgrabungen resultiert, dokumentiert die alltäglichen Aktivitäten. Siedlungen, Speicherstrukturen, Abfallgruben. dokumentieren die Grundlagen der Subsistenzwirtschaft. Auf den ersten Blick vollzieht sich die Entwicklung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht nur sehr langsam; den schnellen Veränderungen, die andere technische Systeme wie zum Beispiel die Metallurgie betreffen, ist sie nur wenig ausgesetzt. Umreißt diese scheinbare Starrheit eine neolithische Wirtschaft, deren Strukturen sich mit Neuerungen schwer tun? Die Beobachtungen auf der Ebene einer archäologischen Fundstätte oder kleiner Territorien lassen eine komplexere Situation erkennen. Die landwirtschaftlichen Einrichtungen weisen, je nach Region und Stufe der Bronzezeit, eine recht große Variabilität auf und zeugen von einer Mikroökonomie, deren Infrastrukturen sich den Veränderungen der Größenordnungen bezüglich der Produktivität anpassen zu scheinen. Die landwirtschaftliche Orientierung mancher um Speichergruben oder oberirdische Speicherbauten gruppierter Gehöfte kontrastiert mit vergänglicheren Siedlungsstrukturen, die einer anderen territorialen Bindung entsprechen. Während die Besiedlung und Bodenbewirtschaftung der großen Ebenen und der Plateaus unbeständig ist, bewirken andere Territorien – zum Beispiel die Bergregionen – entgegengesetzte symmetrische Dynamiken. Die Beweidung der Mittelgebirge, zum Beispiel des Pyrenäenmassivs, während der Mittelbronzezeit, steht ganz offensichtlich in Zusammenhang mit spezialisierten Orientierungen der Produktionswirtschaft. Die Veränderungen im Bereich von Ackerbau und Viehzucht begleiten die bedeutenden Veränderungen, die sich in der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft vollziehen. Dieser Prozess führt zu Beginn des ersten Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung zur Herausbildung von Territorien, in denen bestimmte Siedlungsformen eine polarisierende Rolle spielen. Durch die wirtschaftlichen Umstände bedingt, geben manche befestigte oder durch ihre geografische Lage natürlich geschützte Siedlungen am Ende der Spätbronzezeit den Ackerbau und die Viehzucht auf; sie zeugen von einer "handwerklichen Kleinproduktion" (Karl Marx). Die in den Abfallgruben dieser Siedlungen nachgewiesenen Reste, die man bei Ackerbau oder Viehzucht betreibenden Gemeinschaften nicht vermutet, zeugen von der Schlüsselposition dieser Siedlungen im Transfer der Rohstoffe und bestimmter handwerklicher Erzeugnisse. Die in den Höhensiedlungen durchgeführten Grabungen zeigen deutlich, dass diese Orte am Übergang von der Bronze- zur Eisenzeit sowohl in sozialer als auch in wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht eine bedeutende Rolle spielen. Stellt dieser Prozess deshalb den Höhepunkt eines Mechanismus' dar, der zu Beginn des zweiten Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit in Gang gekommen war? Die Produktion von Rohstoffen – und insbesondere der Abbau von Metallen, wie Kupfer, Zinn und Blei – erfährt damals auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Frankreich bezüglich der Techniken und der Austauschnetze Veränderungen, die nur erfasst werden können, wenn man eine andere Ebene als die des besagten Gebietes betrachtet. In Südfrankreich entwickelt sich die am Ende des 4. Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit einsetzende Kupfermetallurgie nach einem multipolaren Modell, welches die Vielfalt der Ressourcen valorisiert, die am Südhang des Zentralmassivs belegt sind. Dieses Produktionsschema, bei dem sich der Absatz auf einen begrenzten Raum beschränkt, ruht während der ganzen Bronzezeit, während die Vorkommen in den Alpen, auf den britischen Inseln und der iberischen Halbinsel intensiv abgebaut werden. Einige regionale Gruppen werden aufhören die Kupferlager auszubeuten, über die sie verfügen, um den Erwerb der Rohstoffe durch Tausch zu privilegieren. Das in Form von Barren, Stangen, Rohlingen (.) transportierte Metall ist Teil einer Warenwirtschaft, die die Unterhaltung von regionalen und überregionalen Handelsnetzen erfordert. Gleichwohl ist der Metallkonsum räumlich und zeitlich nicht gleichmäßig verteilt. So ist er in einigen Kulturräumen, wie zum Beispiel an der Atlantikküste, auffallend hoch. Südfrankreich steht dagegen am Rande dieses Prozesses. In noch höherem Masse werden durch die über eine lange Periode bestehenden Handelsnetze territoriale Organisationen fassbar, die insbesondere an der Verbreitung seltener Waren, so genannter "Prestigegüter" mit hohem technologischem Wert erkennbar sind. Der Vertrieb dieser Waren, die nur von wenigen Individuen der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft konsumiert werden, beschreibt eine in die makrohistorischen Netze des Typus économie-monde gehörende Wirtschaft. Durch diese Darstellung zeichnen sich einige bedeutende Tendenzen ab und insbesondere die Frage nach den Zeitlichkeiten: In welchem Rhythmus und zu welchem Zeitpunkt vollzieht sich der Wandel in jeder dieser Sphären, auf die wir hingewiesen haben? Der Handel mit Prestigegütern wird oft angeführt, um den wirtschaftlichen Rhythmus und die Schaffung eines in fortwährender Expansion befindlichen Systems, sowohl in geographischer als auch in quantitativer Hinsicht, zu beschreiben, er wird mehr oder weniger objektiv als ein evolutives Prinzip, Produkt eines Wachstums angesehen. Dieser Argumentation zufolge, ließen sich die Etappen des Wandels von den technologischen Neuerungen und der geschichtlichen Abfolge ihres Auftauchens in benachbarten kulturellen Kulturräumen herleiten. Der Mechanismus des Austauschs und der Verbreitung der Neuerungen sei als deren treibende Kraft anzusehen. Er würde auf Dauer und unvermeidlich zu einer Regulation der Wirtschaft führen, bei der die Politik eine herausragende Rolle spielt. Diesem Modell zufolge, würde dem Beitrag der langwierigen Konstruktion der wirtschaftlichen Struktur sowie den im Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft auftretenden Änderungen nur eine Nebenrolle zukommen. Wir können diesem Modell zahlreiche Argumente entgegenhalten und die Zeitlichkeiten umkehren, indem wir annehmen, dass die Änderungen, selbst die unscheinbarsten, die Struktur der Wirtschaft dokumentieren. Die Definition und Quantifizierung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht liefert eine wichtige Dokumentation, die vor allem eine Auf- und Ab-Bewegung mit ihrem vor Augen führt, bei der sich Phasen intensiver Produktion mit solchen der Rezession abwechseln. Die Rohstoffproduktion, insbesondere die der Metalle, spiegelt die unterschiedlichen Ebenen der Konsequenzen wieder, die sie zur Folge hat, je nachdem, ob man Metall produziert oder nicht. Die Betreuung eines – die Pflege sozialer Beziehungen erfordernden – "Marktes" muss als eine freie Entscheidung und nicht als ein deterministischer Zwang angesehen werden. So entstehen Verbindungen zwischen dem Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft und dem der Rohstoffwirtschaft. Wenn man diesem Schema folgt, dann können die kulturellen Einheiten als kohärente Räume angesehen werden, innerhalb derer die Waren und die Ideen zirkulieren und so Teil des Tauschgeschäfts sind. Die Grenzen und die Zeitlichkeiten dieser Einheiten lassen die Rhythmen ihres Wandels erkennen, indem sie Krisen, Beschleunigungen beschreiben . Dieses in der Spätbronzezeit klar erkennbare Modell weist der Diffusion der Neuerungen eine zentrale Rolle zu; der Prozess, der sich vollzieht, kann nicht nur dadurch erklärt werden, dass ausschließlich die "Eliten" daran teilhaben. Schließlich stellt sich die Schwierigkeit, diese unterschiedlichen Analyseergebnisse miteinander in Einklang zu bringen, um einen kohärenten Diskurs vorzuschlagen. Wir können einige Hauptideen herausarbeiten: - Die kulturellen Einheiten – Gruppen und technische Komplexe - bilden kohärente, die Organisation der Wirtschaft strukturierende Entitäten; - Der arrhythmische, asynchrone und multipolare Aspekt der treibenden Kräfte des Wandels ist das Ergebnis der Wahrung komplexer auf der Ebene der kulturellen Einheiten ausgeübter Gleichgewichte; - Die Subsistenzwirtschaft beschreibt ein nicht lineares System und zeugt von Zeiten des Wachstums und des wirtschaftlichen Rückgangs. Diese Systeme sind unbeständig und Krisen ausgesetzt, die sich größtenteils durch die Spannungen zwischen den sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Strukturen ergeben. ; Which among the many different variables can we interrogate to understand the economy of Bronze Age societies? The tools that archaeology has at its disposal, enables us to reach different levels of analysis. The majority of our documentation, especially when it results from preventive digs, describes the daily activities. Habitats, conservation structures, domestic dumpsters. describe the basis of the subsistence economy. Firstly, agro-pastoral's history stretches over a long period of time, and is only slightly exposed to rapid change, which seems to affect other technical systems, such as metallurgy. Does this apparent opposition to progress depict the outlines of a Neolithic economy of which structures had great difficulty in renewing themselves? The observations conducted on the scale of an archaeological site or enlarged to small territories describe a more complex situation. According to the regions and to the different periods of the Bronze Age, the agricultural structures show a great variability and are witness of a micro-economy of which infra-structures seemingly adapt to the change of scale. The agricultural orientation of certain settlements, formed around buried or aerial storage structures contrasts with more temporary structures, related to a different type of territorial anchorage. Whereas the wide plains and the plateaus know variations in their occupation and in the exploitation of the agricultural fields, other areas, such as mountain ranges, engender opposed symmetric dynamics. The pastoral exploitation in areas of average mountain height, such as the Pyrenean range during the Middle Bronze Age, is obviously related to a specialized economy of production. The complete change affecting the sphere of the agro-pastoral economy was followed by heavy mutations in the Bronze Age society. This process leads, at the dawn of the first millennium B.C., to the elaboration of territories in which certain settlements play a polarizing role. Related to the economic climate of that time, certain fortified or naturally protected sites at the very end of the Bronze Age, lose their traditional agro-pastoral role; they are the witness «to small merchant productions» to quote the terminology of Karl Marx. Occupying a key position in the transfer of raw materials and certain manufactured goods, the dumpsters of these settlements indicate a consumption going far beyond the norm of agricultural and pastoral human units. The excavations carried out on hill-fort type settlements undoubtedly show that these sites play at the same time an essential social and economic role. Does this mean that this process constitutes a peak of a mechanism engaged at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.? The production of raw materials – particularly metallic resources such as copper, tin and lead – undergoes on France's current territory a change in the techniques as well as in the distribution networks which can only be apprehended on a different scale than the one affected by these mutations. In the south of France, the production of the first copper objects which takes place at the very end of the 4th millennium BC develops according to a multipolar model which increases the diversity of the types of resources known on the southern slope of the Massif Central. This system of production, which is in keeping with a model of poor spatial diffusion, is interrupted during the entire Bronze Age whereas the alpine sphere, the British islands, and the Iberian Peninsula will be an area of intensive production. In an indebted position, certain regional groups will cease the exploitation of their copper resources to privilege the acquisition of raw materials through trade. Transported in the shape of ingots, bars or rough outlines, metal partakes of an economy of goods requiring the maintenance of trade networks on a regional and even wider scale. Nevertheless, metal consumption doesn't invest a homogenous aspect in time and space. Thus, certain cultural areas, such as the Atlantic coast, consume openly metallic goods. Southern France on the other hand remains out of these processes. To an even higher degree, the long-term trade networks enable us to access wider territorial organisations, notably revealed by the distribution of rare products, known as « prestige » goods, invested with a strong technological value. The distribution of these goods, only consumed by a handful of people making up the Bronze Age society, depicts an economy inscribed in macro-historical networks, belonging to the "économie-monde" type (F. Braudel). Some important tendencies can be deduced from the above statements; firstly the question of temporality. One wonders what was the rhythm and at which moment these changes took place in the different spheres mentioned? Whereas the economy of prestige goods is frequently put forward to describe the economic pulse and the development of a system constantly expanding geographically and quantitatively. This economy is considered more or less objectively as an evolutionary principle, resulting from economic growth. According to this reasoning, the stages of change follow the technological innovations and also the history of their appearance in contiguous cultural areas. The mechanism of these exchanges and the diffusion of the innovations would therefore constitute the driving force. This would lead with time, ineluctably to the appearance of a regulation of the economy, where the political sphere would play an overwhelming role. According to these models, the part played by the long period of time to the construction of the economical structure as well as the changes intervening in the sphere of the subsistence economy can be considered as indirect factors. Many arguments can oppose this model and reverse the temporalities by considering the changes, even the most discreet, as describing the structure of the economy. The definition and the quantification of the agro-pastoral activities provide an essential documentation which recounts even more an oscillatory movement, demonstrated by the establishment of intensive production structures. The economy linked to the production of raw materials, notably metal, is indicative of the different levels of implication according to a producing or non-producing position. This « market » guardianship, requiring the upkeep of social relations, should be as a choice and not as a determinating constraint. Structuring takes place between the sphere of subsistence and the sphere of the raw material economy. Following this scheme, the cultural entities can be considered as coherent spaces in which goods and ideas circulate (.) attributed to the exchange market. The outlines and the temporalities of these entities give us a glimpse of their rhythms and their modifications, describing crisis and accelerations. Clearly asserted during the end of the Bronze Age, this model confers to the spreading of the innovations a central role; the fact that only the « elite » gain from this is not a sufficient explanation for the process being established. In fine, the main difficulty is to make these different layers coincide in order to propose a consistent discourse. Some strong ideas can be identified: - cultural entities – groups and technical complexes - constitute coherent units which structure the economic organization; - the non rhythmical, non synchronic and multipolar aspect of the dynamics of change results from the maintenance of the complex balances which manifest at the scale of cultural entities; - subsistence economy describes a non-linear system and shows episodes of growth and withdrawal. These systems are fragile and exposed to crisis, which result, for a large part, from the inadequacy between the social and the economic structures
Welche Variablen sollten berücksichtigt werden, um die Wirtschaft der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaften zu erfassen? Die Mittel der Archäologie erlauben verschiedene Analyseniveaus. Das Gros des Fundmaterials, insbesondere, wenn dieses aus Präventivgrabungen resultiert, dokumentiert die alltäglichen Aktivitäten. Siedlungen, Speicherstrukturen, Abfallgruben. dokumentieren die Grundlagen der Subsistenzwirtschaft. Auf den ersten Blick vollzieht sich die Entwicklung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht nur sehr langsam; den schnellen Veränderungen, die andere technische Systeme wie zum Beispiel die Metallurgie betreffen, ist sie nur wenig ausgesetzt. Umreißt diese scheinbare Starrheit eine neolithische Wirtschaft, deren Strukturen sich mit Neuerungen schwer tun? Die Beobachtungen auf der Ebene einer archäologischen Fundstätte oder kleiner Territorien lassen eine komplexere Situation erkennen. Die landwirtschaftlichen Einrichtungen weisen, je nach Region und Stufe der Bronzezeit, eine recht große Variabilität auf und zeugen von einer Mikroökonomie, deren Infrastrukturen sich den Veränderungen der Größenordnungen bezüglich der Produktivität anpassen zu scheinen. Die landwirtschaftliche Orientierung mancher um Speichergruben oder oberirdische Speicherbauten gruppierter Gehöfte kontrastiert mit vergänglicheren Siedlungsstrukturen, die einer anderen territorialen Bindung entsprechen. Während die Besiedlung und Bodenbewirtschaftung der großen Ebenen und der Plateaus unbeständig ist, bewirken andere Territorien – zum Beispiel die Bergregionen – entgegengesetzte symmetrische Dynamiken. Die Beweidung der Mittelgebirge, zum Beispiel des Pyrenäenmassivs, während der Mittelbronzezeit, steht ganz offensichtlich in Zusammenhang mit spezialisierten Orientierungen der Produktionswirtschaft. Die Veränderungen im Bereich von Ackerbau und Viehzucht begleiten die bedeutenden Veränderungen, die sich in der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft vollziehen. Dieser Prozess führt zu Beginn des ersten Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung zur Herausbildung von Territorien, in denen bestimmte Siedlungsformen eine polarisierende Rolle spielen. Durch die wirtschaftlichen Umstände bedingt, geben manche befestigte oder durch ihre geografische Lage natürlich geschützte Siedlungen am Ende der Spätbronzezeit den Ackerbau und die Viehzucht auf; sie zeugen von einer "handwerklichen Kleinproduktion" (Karl Marx). Die in den Abfallgruben dieser Siedlungen nachgewiesenen Reste, die man bei Ackerbau oder Viehzucht betreibenden Gemeinschaften nicht vermutet, zeugen von der Schlüsselposition dieser Siedlungen im Transfer der Rohstoffe und bestimmter handwerklicher Erzeugnisse. Die in den Höhensiedlungen durchgeführten Grabungen zeigen deutlich, dass diese Orte am Übergang von der Bronze- zur Eisenzeit sowohl in sozialer als auch in wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht eine bedeutende Rolle spielen. Stellt dieser Prozess deshalb den Höhepunkt eines Mechanismus' dar, der zu Beginn des zweiten Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit in Gang gekommen war? Die Produktion von Rohstoffen – und insbesondere der Abbau von Metallen, wie Kupfer, Zinn und Blei – erfährt damals auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Frankreich bezüglich der Techniken und der Austauschnetze Veränderungen, die nur erfasst werden können, wenn man eine andere Ebene als die des besagten Gebietes betrachtet. In Südfrankreich entwickelt sich die am Ende des 4. Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit einsetzende Kupfermetallurgie nach einem multipolaren Modell, welches die Vielfalt der Ressourcen valorisiert, die am Südhang des Zentralmassivs belegt sind. Dieses Produktionsschema, bei dem sich der Absatz auf einen begrenzten Raum beschränkt, ruht während der ganzen Bronzezeit, während die Vorkommen in den Alpen, auf den britischen Inseln und der iberischen Halbinsel intensiv abgebaut werden. Einige regionale Gruppen werden aufhören die Kupferlager auszubeuten, über die sie verfügen, um den Erwerb der Rohstoffe durch Tausch zu privilegieren. Das in Form von Barren, Stangen, Rohlingen (.) transportierte Metall ist Teil einer Warenwirtschaft, die die Unterhaltung von regionalen und überregionalen Handelsnetzen erfordert. Gleichwohl ist der Metallkonsum räumlich und zeitlich nicht gleichmäßig verteilt. So ist er in einigen Kulturräumen, wie zum Beispiel an der Atlantikküste, auffallend hoch. Südfrankreich steht dagegen am Rande dieses Prozesses. In noch höherem Masse werden durch die über eine lange Periode bestehenden Handelsnetze territoriale Organisationen fassbar, die insbesondere an der Verbreitung seltener Waren, so genannter "Prestigegüter" mit hohem technologischem Wert erkennbar sind. Der Vertrieb dieser Waren, die nur von wenigen Individuen der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft konsumiert werden, beschreibt eine in die makrohistorischen Netze des Typus économie-monde gehörende Wirtschaft. Durch diese Darstellung zeichnen sich einige bedeutende Tendenzen ab und insbesondere die Frage nach den Zeitlichkeiten: In welchem Rhythmus und zu welchem Zeitpunkt vollzieht sich der Wandel in jeder dieser Sphären, auf die wir hingewiesen haben? Der Handel mit Prestigegütern wird oft angeführt, um den wirtschaftlichen Rhythmus und die Schaffung eines in fortwährender Expansion befindlichen Systems, sowohl in geographischer als auch in quantitativer Hinsicht, zu beschreiben, er wird mehr oder weniger objektiv als ein evolutives Prinzip, Produkt eines Wachstums angesehen. Dieser Argumentation zufolge, ließen sich die Etappen des Wandels von den technologischen Neuerungen und der geschichtlichen Abfolge ihres Auftauchens in benachbarten kulturellen Kulturräumen herleiten. Der Mechanismus des Austauschs und der Verbreitung der Neuerungen sei als deren treibende Kraft anzusehen. Er würde auf Dauer und unvermeidlich zu einer Regulation der Wirtschaft führen, bei der die Politik eine herausragende Rolle spielt. Diesem Modell zufolge, würde dem Beitrag der langwierigen Konstruktion der wirtschaftlichen Struktur sowie den im Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft auftretenden Änderungen nur eine Nebenrolle zukommen. Wir können diesem Modell zahlreiche Argumente entgegenhalten und die Zeitlichkeiten umkehren, indem wir annehmen, dass die Änderungen, selbst die unscheinbarsten, die Struktur der Wirtschaft dokumentieren. Die Definition und Quantifizierung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht liefert eine wichtige Dokumentation, die vor allem eine Auf- und Ab-Bewegung mit ihrem vor Augen führt, bei der sich Phasen intensiver Produktion mit solchen der Rezession abwechseln. Die Rohstoffproduktion, insbesondere die der Metalle, spiegelt die unterschiedlichen Ebenen der Konsequenzen wieder, die sie zur Folge hat, je nachdem, ob man Metall produziert oder nicht. Die Betreuung eines – die Pflege sozialer Beziehungen erfordernden – "Marktes" muss als eine freie Entscheidung und nicht als ein deterministischer Zwang angesehen werden. So entstehen Verbindungen zwischen dem Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft und dem der Rohstoffwirtschaft. Wenn man diesem Schema folgt, dann können die kulturellen Einheiten als kohärente Räume angesehen werden, innerhalb derer die Waren und die Ideen zirkulieren und so Teil des Tauschgeschäfts sind. Die Grenzen und die Zeitlichkeiten dieser Einheiten lassen die Rhythmen ihres Wandels erkennen, indem sie Krisen, Beschleunigungen beschreiben . Dieses in der Spätbronzezeit klar erkennbare Modell weist der Diffusion der Neuerungen eine zentrale Rolle zu; der Prozess, der sich vollzieht, kann nicht nur dadurch erklärt werden, dass ausschließlich die "Eliten" daran teilhaben. Schließlich stellt sich die Schwierigkeit, diese unterschiedlichen Analyseergebnisse miteinander in Einklang zu bringen, um einen kohärenten Diskurs vorzuschlagen. Wir können einige Hauptideen herausarbeiten: - Die kulturellen Einheiten – Gruppen und technische Komplexe - bilden kohärente, die Organisation der Wirtschaft strukturierende Entitäten; - Der arrhythmische, asynchrone und multipolare Aspekt der treibenden Kräfte des Wandels ist das Ergebnis der Wahrung komplexer auf der Ebene der kulturellen Einheiten ausgeübter Gleichgewichte; - Die Subsistenzwirtschaft beschreibt ein nicht lineares System und zeugt von Zeiten des Wachstums und des wirtschaftlichen Rückgangs. Diese Systeme sind unbeständig und Krisen ausgesetzt, die sich größtenteils durch die Spannungen zwischen den sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Strukturen ergeben. ; Which among the many different variables can we interrogate to understand the economy of Bronze Age societies? The tools that archaeology has at its disposal, enables us to reach different levels of analysis. The majority of our documentation, especially when it results from preventive digs, describes the daily activities. Habitats, conservation structures, domestic dumpsters. describe the basis of the subsistence economy. Firstly, agro-pastoral's history stretches over a long period of time, and is only slightly exposed to rapid change, which seems to affect other technical systems, such as metallurgy. Does this apparent opposition to progress depict the outlines of a Neolithic economy of which structures had great difficulty in renewing themselves? The observations conducted on the scale of an archaeological site or enlarged to small territories describe a more complex situation. According to the regions and to the different periods of the Bronze Age, the agricultural structures show a great variability and are witness of a micro-economy of which infra-structures seemingly adapt to the change of scale. The agricultural orientation of certain settlements, formed around buried or aerial storage structures contrasts with more temporary structures, related to a different type of territorial anchorage. Whereas the wide plains and the plateaus know variations in their occupation and in the exploitation of the agricultural fields, other areas, such as mountain ranges, engender opposed symmetric dynamics. The pastoral exploitation in areas of average mountain height, such as the Pyrenean range during the Middle Bronze Age, is obviously related to a specialized economy of production. The complete change affecting the sphere of the agro-pastoral economy was followed by heavy mutations in the Bronze Age society. This process leads, at the dawn of the first millennium B.C., to the elaboration of territories in which certain settlements play a polarizing role. Related to the economic climate of that time, certain fortified or naturally protected sites at the very end of the Bronze Age, lose their traditional agro-pastoral role; they are the witness «to small merchant productions» to quote the terminology of Karl Marx. Occupying a key position in the transfer of raw materials and certain manufactured goods, the dumpsters of these settlements indicate a consumption going far beyond the norm of agricultural and pastoral human units. The excavations carried out on hill-fort type settlements undoubtedly show that these sites play at the same time an essential social and economic role. Does this mean that this process constitutes a peak of a mechanism engaged at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.? The production of raw materials – particularly metallic resources such as copper, tin and lead – undergoes on France's current territory a change in the techniques as well as in the distribution networks which can only be apprehended on a different scale than the one affected by these mutations. In the south of France, the production of the first copper objects which takes place at the very end of the 4th millennium BC develops according to a multipolar model which increases the diversity of the types of resources known on the southern slope of the Massif Central. This system of production, which is in keeping with a model of poor spatial diffusion, is interrupted during the entire Bronze Age whereas the alpine sphere, the British islands, and the Iberian Peninsula will be an area of intensive production. In an indebted position, certain regional groups will cease the exploitation of their copper resources to privilege the acquisition of raw materials through trade. Transported in the shape of ingots, bars or rough outlines, metal partakes of an economy of goods requiring the maintenance of trade networks on a regional and even wider scale. Nevertheless, metal consumption doesn't invest a homogenous aspect in time and space. Thus, certain cultural areas, such as the Atlantic coast, consume openly metallic goods. Southern France on the other hand remains out of these processes. To an even higher degree, the long-term trade networks enable us to access wider territorial organisations, notably revealed by the distribution of rare products, known as « prestige » goods, invested with a strong technological value. The distribution of these goods, only consumed by a handful of people making up the Bronze Age society, depicts an economy inscribed in macro-historical networks, belonging to the "économie-monde" type (F. Braudel). Some important tendencies can be deduced from the above statements; firstly the question of temporality. One wonders what was the rhythm and at which moment these changes took place in the different spheres mentioned? Whereas the economy of prestige goods is frequently put forward to describe the economic pulse and the development of a system constantly expanding geographically and quantitatively. This economy is considered more or less objectively as an evolutionary principle, resulting from economic growth. According to this reasoning, the stages of change follow the technological innovations and also the history of their appearance in contiguous cultural areas. The mechanism of these exchanges and the diffusion of the innovations would therefore constitute the driving force. This would lead with time, ineluctably to the appearance of a regulation of the economy, where the political sphere would play an overwhelming role. According to these models, the part played by the long period of time to the construction of the economical structure as well as the changes intervening in the sphere of the subsistence economy can be considered as indirect factors. Many arguments can oppose this model and reverse the temporalities by considering the changes, even the most discreet, as describing the structure of the economy. The definition and the quantification of the agro-pastoral activities provide an essential documentation which recounts even more an oscillatory movement, demonstrated by the establishment of intensive production structures. The economy linked to the production of raw materials, notably metal, is indicative of the different levels of implication according to a producing or non-producing position. This « market » guardianship, requiring the upkeep of social relations, should be as a choice and not as a determinating constraint. Structuring takes place between the sphere of subsistence and the sphere of the raw material economy. Following this scheme, the cultural entities can be considered as coherent spaces in which goods and ideas circulate (.) attributed to the exchange market. The outlines and the temporalities of these entities give us a glimpse of their rhythms and their modifications, describing crisis and accelerations. Clearly asserted during the end of the Bronze Age, this model confers to the spreading of the innovations a central role; the fact that only the « elite » gain from this is not a sufficient explanation for the process being established. In fine, the main difficulty is to make these different layers coincide in order to propose a consistent discourse. Some strong ideas can be identified: - cultural entities – groups and technical complexes - constitute coherent units which structure the economic organization; - the non rhythmical, non synchronic and multipolar aspect of the dynamics of change results from the maintenance of the complex balances which manifest at the scale of cultural entities; - subsistence economy describes a non-linear system and shows episodes of growth and withdrawal. These systems are fragile and exposed to crisis, which result, for a large part, from the inadequacy between the social and the economic structures
Welche Variablen sollten berücksichtigt werden, um die Wirtschaft der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaften zu erfassen? Die Mittel der Archäologie erlauben verschiedene Analyseniveaus. Das Gros des Fundmaterials, insbesondere, wenn dieses aus Präventivgrabungen resultiert, dokumentiert die alltäglichen Aktivitäten. Siedlungen, Speicherstrukturen, Abfallgruben. dokumentieren die Grundlagen der Subsistenzwirtschaft. Auf den ersten Blick vollzieht sich die Entwicklung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht nur sehr langsam; den schnellen Veränderungen, die andere technische Systeme wie zum Beispiel die Metallurgie betreffen, ist sie nur wenig ausgesetzt. Umreißt diese scheinbare Starrheit eine neolithische Wirtschaft, deren Strukturen sich mit Neuerungen schwer tun? Die Beobachtungen auf der Ebene einer archäologischen Fundstätte oder kleiner Territorien lassen eine komplexere Situation erkennen. Die landwirtschaftlichen Einrichtungen weisen, je nach Region und Stufe der Bronzezeit, eine recht große Variabilität auf und zeugen von einer Mikroökonomie, deren Infrastrukturen sich den Veränderungen der Größenordnungen bezüglich der Produktivität anpassen zu scheinen. Die landwirtschaftliche Orientierung mancher um Speichergruben oder oberirdische Speicherbauten gruppierter Gehöfte kontrastiert mit vergänglicheren Siedlungsstrukturen, die einer anderen territorialen Bindung entsprechen. Während die Besiedlung und Bodenbewirtschaftung der großen Ebenen und der Plateaus unbeständig ist, bewirken andere Territorien – zum Beispiel die Bergregionen – entgegengesetzte symmetrische Dynamiken. Die Beweidung der Mittelgebirge, zum Beispiel des Pyrenäenmassivs, während der Mittelbronzezeit, steht ganz offensichtlich in Zusammenhang mit spezialisierten Orientierungen der Produktionswirtschaft. Die Veränderungen im Bereich von Ackerbau und Viehzucht begleiten die bedeutenden Veränderungen, die sich in der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft vollziehen. Dieser Prozess führt zu Beginn des ersten Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung zur Herausbildung von Territorien, in denen bestimmte Siedlungsformen eine polarisierende Rolle spielen. Durch die wirtschaftlichen Umstände bedingt, geben manche befestigte oder durch ihre geografische Lage natürlich geschützte Siedlungen am Ende der Spätbronzezeit den Ackerbau und die Viehzucht auf; sie zeugen von einer "handwerklichen Kleinproduktion" (Karl Marx). Die in den Abfallgruben dieser Siedlungen nachgewiesenen Reste, die man bei Ackerbau oder Viehzucht betreibenden Gemeinschaften nicht vermutet, zeugen von der Schlüsselposition dieser Siedlungen im Transfer der Rohstoffe und bestimmter handwerklicher Erzeugnisse. Die in den Höhensiedlungen durchgeführten Grabungen zeigen deutlich, dass diese Orte am Übergang von der Bronze- zur Eisenzeit sowohl in sozialer als auch in wirtschaftlicher Hinsicht eine bedeutende Rolle spielen. Stellt dieser Prozess deshalb den Höhepunkt eines Mechanismus' dar, der zu Beginn des zweiten Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit in Gang gekommen war? Die Produktion von Rohstoffen – und insbesondere der Abbau von Metallen, wie Kupfer, Zinn und Blei – erfährt damals auf dem Gebiet des heutigen Frankreich bezüglich der Techniken und der Austauschnetze Veränderungen, die nur erfasst werden können, wenn man eine andere Ebene als die des besagten Gebietes betrachtet. In Südfrankreich entwickelt sich die am Ende des 4. Jahrtausends vor unserer Zeit einsetzende Kupfermetallurgie nach einem multipolaren Modell, welches die Vielfalt der Ressourcen valorisiert, die am Südhang des Zentralmassivs belegt sind. Dieses Produktionsschema, bei dem sich der Absatz auf einen begrenzten Raum beschränkt, ruht während der ganzen Bronzezeit, während die Vorkommen in den Alpen, auf den britischen Inseln und der iberischen Halbinsel intensiv abgebaut werden. Einige regionale Gruppen werden aufhören die Kupferlager auszubeuten, über die sie verfügen, um den Erwerb der Rohstoffe durch Tausch zu privilegieren. Das in Form von Barren, Stangen, Rohlingen (.) transportierte Metall ist Teil einer Warenwirtschaft, die die Unterhaltung von regionalen und überregionalen Handelsnetzen erfordert. Gleichwohl ist der Metallkonsum räumlich und zeitlich nicht gleichmäßig verteilt. So ist er in einigen Kulturräumen, wie zum Beispiel an der Atlantikküste, auffallend hoch. Südfrankreich steht dagegen am Rande dieses Prozesses. In noch höherem Masse werden durch die über eine lange Periode bestehenden Handelsnetze territoriale Organisationen fassbar, die insbesondere an der Verbreitung seltener Waren, so genannter "Prestigegüter" mit hohem technologischem Wert erkennbar sind. Der Vertrieb dieser Waren, die nur von wenigen Individuen der bronzezeitlichen Gesellschaft konsumiert werden, beschreibt eine in die makrohistorischen Netze des Typus économie-monde gehörende Wirtschaft. Durch diese Darstellung zeichnen sich einige bedeutende Tendenzen ab und insbesondere die Frage nach den Zeitlichkeiten: In welchem Rhythmus und zu welchem Zeitpunkt vollzieht sich der Wandel in jeder dieser Sphären, auf die wir hingewiesen haben? Der Handel mit Prestigegütern wird oft angeführt, um den wirtschaftlichen Rhythmus und die Schaffung eines in fortwährender Expansion befindlichen Systems, sowohl in geographischer als auch in quantitativer Hinsicht, zu beschreiben, er wird mehr oder weniger objektiv als ein evolutives Prinzip, Produkt eines Wachstums angesehen. Dieser Argumentation zufolge, ließen sich die Etappen des Wandels von den technologischen Neuerungen und der geschichtlichen Abfolge ihres Auftauchens in benachbarten kulturellen Kulturräumen herleiten. Der Mechanismus des Austauschs und der Verbreitung der Neuerungen sei als deren treibende Kraft anzusehen. Er würde auf Dauer und unvermeidlich zu einer Regulation der Wirtschaft führen, bei der die Politik eine herausragende Rolle spielt. Diesem Modell zufolge, würde dem Beitrag der langwierigen Konstruktion der wirtschaftlichen Struktur sowie den im Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft auftretenden Änderungen nur eine Nebenrolle zukommen. Wir können diesem Modell zahlreiche Argumente entgegenhalten und die Zeitlichkeiten umkehren, indem wir annehmen, dass die Änderungen, selbst die unscheinbarsten, die Struktur der Wirtschaft dokumentieren. Die Definition und Quantifizierung von Ackerbau und Viehzucht liefert eine wichtige Dokumentation, die vor allem eine Auf- und Ab-Bewegung mit ihrem vor Augen führt, bei der sich Phasen intensiver Produktion mit solchen der Rezession abwechseln. Die Rohstoffproduktion, insbesondere die der Metalle, spiegelt die unterschiedlichen Ebenen der Konsequenzen wieder, die sie zur Folge hat, je nachdem, ob man Metall produziert oder nicht. Die Betreuung eines – die Pflege sozialer Beziehungen erfordernden – "Marktes" muss als eine freie Entscheidung und nicht als ein deterministischer Zwang angesehen werden. So entstehen Verbindungen zwischen dem Bereich der Subsistenzwirtschaft und dem der Rohstoffwirtschaft. Wenn man diesem Schema folgt, dann können die kulturellen Einheiten als kohärente Räume angesehen werden, innerhalb derer die Waren und die Ideen zirkulieren und so Teil des Tauschgeschäfts sind. Die Grenzen und die Zeitlichkeiten dieser Einheiten lassen die Rhythmen ihres Wandels erkennen, indem sie Krisen, Beschleunigungen beschreiben . Dieses in der Spätbronzezeit klar erkennbare Modell weist der Diffusion der Neuerungen eine zentrale Rolle zu; der Prozess, der sich vollzieht, kann nicht nur dadurch erklärt werden, dass ausschließlich die "Eliten" daran teilhaben. Schließlich stellt sich die Schwierigkeit, diese unterschiedlichen Analyseergebnisse miteinander in Einklang zu bringen, um einen kohärenten Diskurs vorzuschlagen. Wir können einige Hauptideen herausarbeiten: - Die kulturellen Einheiten – Gruppen und technische Komplexe - bilden kohärente, die Organisation der Wirtschaft strukturierende Entitäten; - Der arrhythmische, asynchrone und multipolare Aspekt der treibenden Kräfte des Wandels ist das Ergebnis der Wahrung komplexer auf der Ebene der kulturellen Einheiten ausgeübter Gleichgewichte; - Die Subsistenzwirtschaft beschreibt ein nicht lineares System und zeugt von Zeiten des Wachstums und des wirtschaftlichen Rückgangs. Diese Systeme sind unbeständig und Krisen ausgesetzt, die sich größtenteils durch die Spannungen zwischen den sozialen und wirtschaftlichen Strukturen ergeben. ; Which among the many different variables can we interrogate to understand the economy of Bronze Age societies? The tools that archaeology has at its disposal, enables us to reach different levels of analysis. The majority of our documentation, especially when it results from preventive digs, describes the daily activities. Habitats, conservation structures, domestic dumpsters. describe the basis of the subsistence economy. Firstly, agro-pastoral's history stretches over a long period of time, and is only slightly exposed to rapid change, which seems to affect other technical systems, such as metallurgy. Does this apparent opposition to progress depict the outlines of a Neolithic economy of which structures had great difficulty in renewing themselves? The observations conducted on the scale of an archaeological site or enlarged to small territories describe a more complex situation. According to the regions and to the different periods of the Bronze Age, the agricultural structures show a great variability and are witness of a micro-economy of which infra-structures seemingly adapt to the change of scale. The agricultural orientation of certain settlements, formed around buried or aerial storage structures contrasts with more temporary structures, related to a different type of territorial anchorage. Whereas the wide plains and the plateaus know variations in their occupation and in the exploitation of the agricultural fields, other areas, such as mountain ranges, engender opposed symmetric dynamics. The pastoral exploitation in areas of average mountain height, such as the Pyrenean range during the Middle Bronze Age, is obviously related to a specialized economy of production. The complete change affecting the sphere of the agro-pastoral economy was followed by heavy mutations in the Bronze Age society. This process leads, at the dawn of the first millennium B.C., to the elaboration of territories in which certain settlements play a polarizing role. Related to the economic climate of that time, certain fortified or naturally protected sites at the very end of the Bronze Age, lose their traditional agro-pastoral role; they are the witness «to small merchant productions» to quote the terminology of Karl Marx. Occupying a key position in the transfer of raw materials and certain manufactured goods, the dumpsters of these settlements indicate a consumption going far beyond the norm of agricultural and pastoral human units. The excavations carried out on hill-fort type settlements undoubtedly show that these sites play at the same time an essential social and economic role. Does this mean that this process constitutes a peak of a mechanism engaged at the beginning of the second millennium B.C.? The production of raw materials – particularly metallic resources such as copper, tin and lead – undergoes on France's current territory a change in the techniques as well as in the distribution networks which can only be apprehended on a different scale than the one affected by these mutations. In the south of France, the production of the first copper objects which takes place at the very end of the 4th millennium BC develops according to a multipolar model which increases the diversity of the types of resources known on the southern slope of the Massif Central. This system of production, which is in keeping with a model of poor spatial diffusion, is interrupted during the entire Bronze Age whereas the alpine sphere, the British islands, and the Iberian Peninsula will be an area of intensive production. In an indebted position, certain regional groups will cease the exploitation of their copper resources to privilege the acquisition of raw materials through trade. Transported in the shape of ingots, bars or rough outlines, metal partakes of an economy of goods requiring the maintenance of trade networks on a regional and even wider scale. Nevertheless, metal consumption doesn't invest a homogenous aspect in time and space. Thus, certain cultural areas, such as the Atlantic coast, consume openly metallic goods. Southern France on the other hand remains out of these processes. To an even higher degree, the long-term trade networks enable us to access wider territorial organisations, notably revealed by the distribution of rare products, known as « prestige » goods, invested with a strong technological value. The distribution of these goods, only consumed by a handful of people making up the Bronze Age society, depicts an economy inscribed in macro-historical networks, belonging to the "économie-monde" type (F. Braudel). Some important tendencies can be deduced from the above statements; firstly the question of temporality. One wonders what was the rhythm and at which moment these changes took place in the different spheres mentioned? Whereas the economy of prestige goods is frequently put forward to describe the economic pulse and the development of a system constantly expanding geographically and quantitatively. This economy is considered more or less objectively as an evolutionary principle, resulting from economic growth. According to this reasoning, the stages of change follow the technological innovations and also the history of their appearance in contiguous cultural areas. The mechanism of these exchanges and the diffusion of the innovations would therefore constitute the driving force. This would lead with time, ineluctably to the appearance of a regulation of the economy, where the political sphere would play an overwhelming role. According to these models, the part played by the long period of time to the construction of the economical structure as well as the changes intervening in the sphere of the subsistence economy can be considered as indirect factors. Many arguments can oppose this model and reverse the temporalities by considering the changes, even the most discreet, as describing the structure of the economy. The definition and the quantification of the agro-pastoral activities provide an essential documentation which recounts even more an oscillatory movement, demonstrated by the establishment of intensive production structures. The economy linked to the production of raw materials, notably metal, is indicative of the different levels of implication according to a producing or non-producing position. This « market » guardianship, requiring the upkeep of social relations, should be as a choice and not as a determinating constraint. Structuring takes place between the sphere of subsistence and the sphere of the raw material economy. Following this scheme, the cultural entities can be considered as coherent spaces in which goods and ideas circulate (.) attributed to the exchange market. The outlines and the temporalities of these entities give us a glimpse of their rhythms and their modifications, describing crisis and accelerations. Clearly asserted during the end of the Bronze Age, this model confers to the spreading of the innovations a central role; the fact that only the « elite » gain from this is not a sufficient explanation for the process being established. In fine, the main difficulty is to make these different layers coincide in order to propose a consistent discourse. Some strong ideas can be identified: - cultural entities – groups and technical complexes - constitute coherent units which structure the economic organization; - the non rhythmical, non synchronic and multipolar aspect of the dynamics of change results from the maintenance of the complex balances which manifest at the scale of cultural entities; - subsistence economy describes a non-linear system and shows episodes of growth and withdrawal. These systems are fragile and exposed to crisis, which result, for a large part, from the inadequacy between the social and the economic structures
PRIZE ESSAY NUMBER. i i ~ JUSTE, 1904 IY6L, XIII. HO. i GETTYSBURG COLLEGE GETTYSBURG, PA. i w. V N. C. UARBKMENH, OCTTTOBUflS II n w i HELP THOSE WHO HELP US. The Intercollegiate Bureau of Academic Costume. Chartered igoz. Cottrell & Leonrard Albany, N. Y. AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA WWWWWWWWWWWW Makers of Caps, Gowns, Hoods AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA A. B. BLACK, Gettysburg College Representative. Come and Have a Good Shave, E. A. Wright's or HAIR-CUT at Engraving House, Naffy B. SeftOll's 1108 Chestnut St. PHILADELPHIA We have our own photograph gallery for half-tone and photo engraving. Fashionable Engraving and Stationery. Leading house for College, School and Wedding Invitations, Dance Programs, Menus. Fine engraving of all kinds. Before ordering elsewhere com-pare samples and prices. New Tons:)rial Parlor's, 35 Baltimore St. BARKERS' SUPPLIES A SPECIALTY. Also, choice line of fine Cigars. Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company, *^ A, L, Menbeck, Agent, COLLEGE. IF YOU CALL ON C. A. Bloehef*, JemeleF, Centre Square, He can serve you in anything you may want in REPAIRING or JEWELRY. rffWHipwjPii^jj ifwPBjmHHMP! WE RECOMMEND THESE FIRMS. The Pleased Customer is not a stranger in our estab-lishment— he's right at home, you'll see him when you call. We have the materials to please fastidious men. J. D. LIPPY, lxle;reiaa-rit Tailor, 29 Chambersburg Street, GETTYSBURG, PA. CITY HOTEL, Main Street, - Gettysburg, Pa. Free 'Bus to and from all trains. Thirty seconds' walk from either depot. Dinner with drive over field with four or more, $1.35. Rates, $1.50 to $2.00 per Day. Livery connected. Rubber-tire buggies a specialty. John E. Hughes, Prop. T1PT0H M Now in 1 THE .PHOTOGRAPHER. new Studio 20 and 22 Chambersburg Street, Gettysburg, Pa. One of the finest modern lights in the country. C. E. Barbehenn THE EACLE HOTEL ZB-A-ISIBIEIK Corner Main and Washington Sts. 1905 SPECTRUM Now in Printer's hands. Order from M. M. METZGEE. BEILLHAKT & PARKEE Students' Supply Rooms! Everything You Want. Fine Stationery a Specialty. NO. 5 AND 7 EAST. i r PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. I WE HI A COMPLETE LI Of Novelties for the Spring Season, including Latest Suiting, Coating, Trousering and Vesting. Our Prices are Right. SPECIAL CARE TAKEN TO MAKE WORK STYLISH AND EXACTLY TO YOUR ORDER. tUill Ol. Seliman, T^, 7 Chambefsfaufg St., Gettysburg, Pa. R. A. WONDERS Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, etc. Scott's Corner, opp. Eagle Hotel GETTYSBURG, PA. Pool Parlors in Connection. D. J. Swartz Dealer in Country Produce Groceries Cigars and Tobacco GETTYSBURG. Established 1867 by Allen Walton. Allen K. Walton, Pres. and Treas. Robt. J. Walton, Superintendent. Hummelstown Browq Stone Company and Manufacturers of BUILDING STONE, SAWED FLAGGING, and TILE, WALTOMLLE DAUPHIN COUNTYj: PENNA. Contractors for all kinds of cut stone work. Telegraph and Express Address, BROVVNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station, on the P. & R. R. R. DO YOU NEED PNEY TO GO TO COLLEGE ? [FROM COPYRIGHTED STEREOGRAFH BY UNDERWOOD AND UNDERWOOD] Happy Land of t :e R* staff Sun where Song Unceasing Flows. Stereoscopes * and * Stereographs K\ can furnish it fo.' you during the Summer Vacation, Many New Subjects for this season: Russian-Japanese War, Panama Canal, Balti-more Fire, President Roosevelt, Gettysburg Battlefield: New Comic Series; Stereo-scopic Tours, accompanied by patent maps and interesting descriptive books- Write for particulars- Underwood & Underwood 3 AND 5 W. NINETEENTH ST., COR. FIFTH AVE., NEW YORK. REPRESENTED AT PENN'A COL. BY E- G- HESS- The CDcFGury. The Literary Journal of Gettyburg College. VOL. XIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1904. No. 4 CONTENTS "DE SAPIENTIAE PROFESSORIBUS "—POEM, . . 128 ANDROMACHE ET DECIDIANA. RUSSIAN AGGRESSION—Pen and Sword Prize Essay, . 130 PAUL B. DUNBAR, '04. A MODERN FAUST, 136 "X. Y. Z.'' SOCIALISM ,137 JOSEPH E. ROWE, '04. THE SABBATH AS A CIVILIZER, 144 Miss HELEN WAGNER, '06. THE COURSE OF THE U. S. GOVERNMENT IN CONNECTION WITH THE PANAMA REVOLUTION, . 146 CHAS. W. HEATHCOTE, '05. A HUNTER OF MEN—POEM, 148 "BRIDGET." .'THE PATH OF DUTY IS THE WAY TO GLORY," . 151 POEM, 154 EDITORIALS 155 EXCHANGES, . 157 w 128 . THE MERCURY. «DE SAPIENTIAE PROFESSORIBUS." ANDROMACHE ET DECIDIANA. HOW dear to our hearts are those days when at college We studied and wept o'er the classics of yore; The Latin, the Greek, and the terrible German, And brain-splitting ''Math" which we used to deplore. To-night as we sit in the glow of our fire-side, And think of those days and the pleasures of old, Our hearts fain would turn to our former professors, Who gave to us learning, much better than gold. The fire burns low in its smouldering ashes, The faces appear that we once knew so well, Some pleasant and jovial, and others more solemn, But of each, in his turn, we will .now try to tell. Oh Muse ! pray be kind and remain standing by us, And give to us freely and with no restraint, That much sought for gift, the true power of description, So each one may know whom we're trying to paint. The first who appears in the fast dying embers, Is one who made culprits shake clear to their toes ; He'd rap on the desk with a frowning expression, And quell all confusion, just how, no one knows. His eyes were as blue as the azure of Heaven, His hair was inclined to a faint auburn shade, His stature was tall, and this mighty Apollo Was reverenced alike by each man and each maid. And now we behold one so tall and so handsome, Who led our young minds 'round the fair walls of Troy, Who oft would propound his fav'rite assertion That 'there should be guardians for maidens so coy.' And next to him standing, a man of small stature, Whom feline protectors all look on with dread; He bears in his right hand a tight-covered basket, Just lift up the cover ! Out pops a cat's head. Our dear 'Roman Senator' now looms before us, As tall as a dignified 'senex' of old. He too bears a basket, but it's full of good things, And as a 'rear guard' he has 'Waggles,' the bold. The next that appears to our far-seeing vision Is one who seemed stern tho' at heart he was ki-nd. His friends the}' were num'rous, his travels were many, But ever to "Dutchland" his heart was inclined. THE MERCURY. 129 Scarce had his form disappeared in the ashes, When two more professors came into our sight. A halo of gas, (H2S), was around them, Which ever had been their fond joy and delight. How often we shivered when into their class-room We went in dread fear that we might not come out. A "fiss" and a "bang" and a "crash" would oft greet us; And then the stern question, "What are you about?" And now comes a face that so quietly greets us, He led 'little boys' in the way they should go. He taught them politeness as well as sound doctrine, And stirred to high ideals instead of to low. And last but not least comes that jolly, good "Sap'ens" Who once taught us "Math" and a great deal beside, For he used to tell all the jokes of the season, And solved weighty problems discussed far and wide. The fire dies out and we sit there reflecting On those pleasant days and our teachers of old, And we would not sell our fond recollections For all the rich treasures the deep sea could hold. And so let us close while the dark shadows gather, Which hide from our vision each loved noble face. We hope they still walk through those fair halls of learning, And for many years yet each may keep his old place. 130 THE MERCURY. " RUSSIAN AGGRESSION." [Pen and Sword Prize Essay.] PAUL B. DUNBAR, '04. THE discussion of a subject of world-wide importance can-not fail to be influenced by preconceived prejudices. It seems to be natural for Americans as a whole to entertain strongly such a prejudice against Russia. This is probably the result of our instinctive sympathy for the weak in a contest with the strong. The attempt will be made in this paper, how-ever, to set forth as impartially as possible the facts of the Rus-sian Advance. Having studied these carefully, Russia's motives will be discussed, and finally the probable results of these ag-gressive movements will be briefly summed up. A glance at the map of Russia, her possessions and spheres of influence, shows over how vast a region the Empire of the North holds sway. From the Baltic on the west to the Sea of Okhotsk and the Behring Sea on the east, the Russian territory extends in an unbroken stretch—five thousand miles of steppes and mountains, rivers and inland seas, burning deserts and bar-ren tundras. On the broad plains of Siberia are sections of wonderful fertility practically undeveloped and in its mountain ranges are untouched stores of boundless mineral wealth. This entire region is subject to the most diverse climatic conditions, seasons of extreme cold alternating with intervals of almost tor-rid heat. Such is the Empire of the Czar, embracing more than one seventh of the land surface of the globe and support-ing a population of one hundred and thirty millions. Today we see the Great Bear reaching out ready to seize in his powerful clutch territory after territory. The stress of pres-ent events draws our attention especially to the Far East. There we see the Muscovite pressing relentlessly upon the territory of China, and now by the test of battle it must be decided whether Korea also shall be Russian. The Far East is not the only object of Russia's advance. Slowly, silently, by stealth of di-plomacy, plans are being laid, forces set to work to widen Asi-atic Russia to the southward. During the last forty years; THE MERCURY. 131 , •% . — Britain has watched with apprehension the southward advance of the Bear toward her Indian border. Never for an instant dare she relax her vigilance against the encroachment of the Czar. Russian advisers ever ready to advance the interests of their master hold the ears of many of the native border princes. But yesterday came rumors of Russian influence in Tibet, of a treaty of that country with Russia, and the presence of envoys in the Tibetan capital whose purpose is to forward Russian in-terests in opposition to those of England. Turkey and the Balkan States feel this powerful hand and Sweden and Norway look with alarm toward the borders of Finland. What is the history of the growth of this giant among nations ? Three hundred and twenty years ago Russia was a small and semi barbarous state whose advance posts were scarcely eight hundred miles east of St. Petersburg. In the closing years of the sixteenth century, however, there came to the throne a ruler distinguished for severity even in that stern age. Ivan the Ter-rible, by the very cruelty of his rule, inaugurated the eastward movement of that Slavic invasion which now after three cen-turies of alternate advance and retreat is now approaching so terrible a crisis. Rebellious subjects of the Czar fleeing from pursuing troops were forced to take refuge in the unknown, frigid wilderness to the eastward. As they retreated, they easily overcame the scattered nomads who inhabited these regions. Then by turning over the conquered territory to Russia, they obtained the pardon of the Czar Ivan. This was the first step —the entering wedge—in Russia's eastward advance. The tide thus setting toward the Pacific flowed on slowly but resist-lessly, unopposed by rival nations, for the region was to them unknown. A century passed and another mighty figure ascended the Russian throne. Under Peter the Great came further aggres-sive expansion. The northern ocean presented an insurmount-able barrier but in other directions the advance continued. Southward the Muscovite ruler forced his way and to the west-ward Sweden and Poland felt the force of Russian aggression. Thus year after year, under ruler after ruler, the slow policy of 132 THE MERCURY. expansion has gone on. Wherever opportunity offered the Great Bear forced his entering wedge. West and south felt the advance, but it was toward the east that he moved most steadily. As has been said, Russia aims to follow the line of least re-sistance. The vast plains of Siberia, frozen in winter, parched in summer, were a part of the world's surface uncoveted by the earth-hunger of Europe. So while other nations fought and wrangled over other portions of the globe, the Empire of the Czar silently absorbed this mighty region. Thus by slow movements or sudden leaps, by treachery or by diplomacy, by fair means^or foul, Russia at last reached the Pacific—the ocean outlet which she has always desired. Here was encountered an unsurmountable difficulty. Russia, having apparently overcome all obstacles in her march to the sea, was now met and held by the strength of perpetual winter. The ice bound harbors of northern Asia were valueless. Warmer waters must be reached and, having come thus far, Russia was not to be baffled. By a sudden, bold move the Amur was made the southern boundary. Then in i860, subtle diplomacy obtained from China the strip of coast upon which is built the port of Vladivostok. It is significant that the name of this city is the Russian phrase for " Control of the East." As a seaport Vladivostok is a vast improvement over Petropaulovsk, the first Russian port in Kamtchatka, but still there is not en-tire freedom from the disadvantages of winter. Russia still hungered for a warm-water port. The Trans-Siberian Railway was built—five thousand miles of single track reducing the in-terval of transit between Moscow and Vladivostok to only fif-teen days. Events now began to move rapidly in the Far E^ast. In 1894, the close of the Chino-Japanese war left Japan in possession of the valuable harbor of Port Arthur. On the plea that the possession of this port by Japan threatened the in-tegrity of China, Russia forced the retrocession of Port Arthur to its original owner. Two years later, a Russian squadron entered this harbor ostensibly to winter there. Ere many months the world was startled to learn that Russia had leased Port Arthur from China. The integrity of the latter country THE MERCURY. 133 seemed no longer a consideration. Immediately came military occupation of the city and the erection of tremendous defensive works. Russia had obtained her warm-water harbor; but was she satisfied ? Between Port Arthur and the Siberian frontier lies the rich Chinese province of Manchuria. In it have settled many native Russians. What could be more natural than that the Great Bear should covet this prize also to make his possessions com-plete? Asa preliminary step, a Chinese concession was ob-tained for shortening the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway to Vladivostok by a line across Manchuria. Russia had at last obtained a foot-hold south of the Amur. The erection of branch lines to the borders of Korea and the very gates of Pe-kin was but a short stride. In every case the right of garri-soning the railroad was included in the concession. In 1900, came the Boxer Rebellion. Its close saw Manchuria held by an immense Russian army of occupation. In concert with the allies, Russia agreed to withdraw from Chinese territory, but months went by and the Manchurian'army lingered., The wily Muscovite concluded a treaty with China providing for the long-promised withdrawal, but it soon became evident that before this would be carried out new concessions were expected. The Russian representative in Pekin even went so far as to demand that all the Manchurian concessions be granted to Russians. This was but one of Russia's diplomatic attempts to gain a controlling voice in Chinese affairs. China, however, was al'ive to the true state of affairs and refused to commit herself to any further agreements. As a consequence, Russia is still in mili-tary possession of Manchuria. Nominally her troops were kept there solely in pursuance of the treaty-right of protecting her railroad interests. In reality, the whole line was turned into an armed camp by the establishment of forts garrisoned by all branches of the Russian army, and today Manchuria is practically a Russian province. • We now reach the final chapter in the history of Russian aggression—final because it brings us to the present time, cer-tainly not because it marks the end of the advance. With hr's 134 THE MERCURY. grip firmly fixed on Manchuria, the Bear now turned a longing eye to the little kingdom of Korea. The possession of this choice bit of the world was now his aim. Even before the Chino-Japanese war Russia was laying her subtle plans to this end. In 1893 or early in 1894, she made a generous present of rifles to the Korean army and even furnished a Russian drill-master to train Korea's seven thousand soldiers in European tactics. At the same time swarms of Russian agents entered the country. The fruit seemed almost ripe for plucking. But now an opponent faced Russia. Japan had long watched this onward march with jealous eye. In this move toward Korea she saw a positive menace to her existence. Nothing remained but to throw down the guage of battle and to begin the contest whose result is being awaited by the entire world. What are Russia's motives and what her ultimate policy ? Her statesmen would have us believe it is a simple one. Says M. Witte, the former chief of Russian finances and now presi-dent of the Committee ot Ministers : " History measures not by years, but by centuries ; and from this point of view, by the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway to Port Arthur and Dalny.a mighty work is completed, a historical problem is solved, and one of the last steps is taken in the advance of Russia to the Far East, in her effort to find an outlet to the open sea, to the ice-free shores of the Pacific ocean." This is indeed Russia's principal object, but its fulfillment means also the control of northern Asia. And since the de-velopment of her railroad policy has done so much already for the advance of Russian territory, there is no reason to believe that it will not be made the occasion of further advance. We have the word of M. Witte that Russia's object is to obtain a warm-water port. This is in the main a legitimate object and has been partly fulfilled by the acquirement of Port Arthur. But it must be remembered that Port Arthur is not wholly a Russian possession. It is, therefore, obvious that the Russian wishes will not be entirely satisfied until that port is Russian beyond a doubt. The same is equally true of the whole pro- THE MERCURV. 135 vince of Manchurfa. Then, too, it is more than probable that the desire is to reserve the acquired territory for Muscovite trade alone. It is true that Dalny is an open port, but Port Arthur is closed and foreign merchants find much difficulty in meeting Russian competition in Manchuria. As a recent writer puts it: The Russian motive may be viewed from two stand-points. Russia herself would have us believe that it is benevo-lent. She is building a railroad through unopened territory, erecting modern cities and valuable mills in the wilderness, and setting up an orderly government in the place of misrule. The outsider acknowledges all this, but what, lie a;ks, will Russia demand in return for these enormous expenditures? The an-swer is apparent. It has already been given. She has the right of protecting her interests and now demands a complete monopoly. Such are Russia's complex motives. What will the outcome be? If Russia be successful in the present contest, will her aggressive plans be concluded without opposition ? Will the world witness the spectacle of Korea and China absorbed or will the Powers step in to fix a limit to further expansion ? If they do so, will their strength be sufficient to restrain the Bear already flushed with victory ? If Russia be vanquished, will the settlement thus arrived at be permanent ? Will little Japan continue to be an efficient barrier, or will returning strength again put in motion the tide setting toward the Orient with overwhelming volume ? Will the gallant Island Kingdom perish or may it look for help to Europe and America? Time alone can bring an answer. Here prophecy has often failed and will fail again, for as has been well said: "Russia's state-craft is not of the months or of the years; it is of the ages. It is not of monarchs, but of a dynasty, and it is less the policy of the dynasty than it is the need of a people and of a land." 136 THE MERCURY. "A MODERN FAUST." (BEING A BIT OF TRUTH MASQUERADING AS NONSENSE.) ONCE upon a time—during the twentieth century—there lived a young man who had been but three years out of college. Having entered the greater University of the World, he had been hailed by his fellow Freshmen as a comrade, had been hazed by Sophomores, patronized by condescending Juniors, and deluged with advice by venerable Seniors, even as he had been in college. But he was a restless and adventure-some youth. The monotony of the office palled upon him, and, for relief, he experimented in Mysticism and Christian Science. One momentous evening he conceived the idea of putting his knowledge to the supreme test, by summoning be-fore him the Prince of Darkness. Thereupon he took down his LeConte and. his Mary Baker Eddy from the shelf and set to work. And in very truth, gentle reader, in less than half the run-ning of an hour glass, Mephistopheles himself stood before him. faultlessly attired in evening clothes—for the red cap and mantle had succumbed to the spirit of progress in Hades even as the simple sins of our forefathers have given place to the more delicately refined and ingenious vices of to-day. But in this one respect was the Devil unchanged. For no sooner had the usual conventionalities been exchanged than lie attempted to purchase the soul of the youth in the most approved man-ner. He showed him visions of fair women, even as he had shown them to the Faust of old. But the youth was unmoved; he smiled and shook his head, for he was a wise youth. And the Devil promised him great riches and power. But the youth, for he was wise, replied, "If these things were worth while, O Lucifer, I could attain at a lesser price, even hard work. It is not enough." T,hen did the Devil promise a most miraculous thing, "For," said he, "if thou wilt give thyself to me, Grover Cleveland and William J. Bryan shall make a truce and be as brothers. Shoulder to shoulder they will fight for thee and nominate thee for the Presidency on the Democratic THE MERCURY. I 37 ticket. Thou wilt be the most talked-of man in the Nation." But the youth, being wise, replied : "Am I not own cousin to the Proprietor of Pennsylvania, and is it not agreed that I shall be the next State Treasurer? And is not this better than to be President, much less a candidate for President mid on the Democratic ticket? Go to, it is not enough." Now the Devil was almost vanquished, but he was also wise and he thought deeply, and he said, "I can then offer thee nothing more than again to make thee a reckless, carefree Sophomore among thy former classmates. Think! Is it not enough?" And the youth meditated within himself; he knew there were no days like those days; he longed again to be carefree and thought-less, recognizing no higher authority than his own sweet will and the majority action of his class; his heart called out for those friends who, too, had dwelt in Arcady. And he replied, "It is enough." For he was a wise youth withal. MORAL—Eat, drink, and be merry, ye Seniors, for to-mor-row ye die. "X. Y. Z." • SOCIALISM. ( Written for the Pen and Sword Prize Essay Contest.) JOSEPH E. ROWE, '04. THE word socialism was first used in 1835 in connection with an organization founded by Robert Owen of Eng-land. This society was given the grandiloquent appellation of the Association of all Classes of all Nations, and its purpose was to secure "Social improvement and reconstruction." Since that time the word socialism has been applied rather incautiously, and,as a consequence, it is an exceedingly difficult word to define with precision. According to some writers there is a growing tendency to regard as socialistic any inter-ference with property undertaken on behalf of the poor, or any measure promoted by society to limit or modify the working of the economic principle of laissez-faire. Roscher defined socialism "as including those tendencies which demand a greater regard for the common-weal than consist with human 138 THE MERCURY. nature." John Raeof our day declares that it is common to describe as socialistic "any proposal that asks the State to do something lor the material well being of the working class, or any group of such proposals, or any theory that favors them." Janet defines it as "every doctrine which teaches that the State has a right to correct the inequality of wealth which ex-ists among men, and to legally establish the balance by taking from those who have too much in order to give to those who have not enough, and that in a permanent manner, and not in such and such a particular case—a famine, for instance, or a public calamity." But these definitions and all others describe only phases of the question. For instance, in order for any measure to be socialistic it need not proceed from the State; it may emanate from individuals just as well; in fact the earliest socialistic measures proceeded from individuals. There was socialism in colonial times when they had a common storehouse from which each one received his equal share of goods; the instituting of a wider system of public schools is a highly socialistic measure ; an equal distribution of profits between two partners, or among the many members of a company is also socialistic; and yet it is just as proper and usual to describe as socialistic the so-called "strikes," or the assassination of million-aires by dynamite. It is, therefore, evident that socialism em-braces a great deal; at the same time, we must remember that all these are only different phases of the same great question. All socialists are alike in attempting to secure a more equit-able distribution of wealth, or in endeavoring to equalize op-portunities for acquiring it; but the salient points upon which they differ are the ways and means of accomplishing their ends. Some maintain that the State, by managing industry and controlling land, could best promote the commonweal; others very emphatically declare that there should be no cen-tral government at all. The more radical of the first class try to get control of the government; those of the latter class en-deavor to destroy it. Unfortunately in the present age the most influential forrfl of socialism is of the most radical and revolutionary character— THE MERCURY. 139 that which desires no government at all. Alexandria II. of Russia and our late President McKinley fell victims to this outrageous doctrine. Nihilism and anarchism are its more specific names. Yet we cannot afford to consider as danger-ous all socialistic measures of today. Upon exactly this prob-lem a great amount of useless discussion has taken place. Politicians of late years have made very effective use of the ambiguity in the word socialism. Whenever an opponent could accuse a candidate for public office, of promoting socialistic measures, no matter how benevolent or beneficial they might have been to the people, the mention of that word together with the prevalent misconception of it in its better sense, was generally the most derogatory charge brought against him in the eyes of the ignorant working classes—the very persons whom worthy socialistic principles would benefit. Although every writer has made his own classification of so-cialists, they all directly or indirectly acknowledge the four following classes: (1) large-hearted and thoroughly benevo-lent men whose feelings have been touched by the unjust op-pression of laborers ; (2) those who are revolting against cruel oppression; (3) those who are discontented with their positions in life, principally because they fail to realize their limitations; (4) the lowest class whose adherents are characterized by a covetous, selfish, and utterly lawless spirit. The first of these classes consists principally of nothing more than ardent sympathizers with the socialistic movement in its better meaning. According to good authority more than a half million of such men are found in the United States. Many ministers of the gospel and other benevolent men as well as the members of philanthropic and humanitarian orgini-zations belong to this class. They sympathize deeply with the oppressed laborer and endeavor to alleviate his misery by every peaceable means. Others of this class" become so impressed with the necessity of social and industrial improvements that they have devoted their lives entirely to the cause. These are quite liable to be-come extremists, and notwithstanding the fact that their inten- 140 THE MERCURY. tions are of the most noble character, more harm than benefit results from their efforts, chiefly because the lower moral and mental capacities of those whom they influence are not vigor-ous enough to prevent the latter from becoming radical, desper-rate, and fanatical. Hall Cane has pictured such a man in his "Eternal City" in the person of Dr. Roselli or of David Rossi, especially in the latter; but the futility and evil consequences of their efforts are also portrayed in a striking manner. It is only natural that there should be such men especially in a Christian nation. When one considers the extremely low wages for which laborers had to work at certain periods of our history, the condition of some of their homes even in our day, the company store and the extortion ot overwork from them by overseers, it is not very strange that large hearted men should bestow their symapthy. No doubt, these conditions have been vastly exaggerated by some writers, but that they exist to a reasonable extent cannot be doubted. The oppressed or those who imagine themselves to be in such a condition, constitute the second class of socialists. Only men who work come properly under this divisicjp; those who become discontented and quit work will be considered later. Labor Unions consist almost entirely of such men; if they suspend labor, it is only temporarily, and is for the purpose of bringing about better conditions. Occasionally the labor union-ists content themselves by merely putting a stop to production, but more frequently, almost invariably, they manifest quite "an omnivorous spirit of destruction." The whole cause of the unreasonable demands made by Labor Unions seems to arise out of ignorance. They claim that the whole production of their labor belongs to them, on the ground that wealth belongs to those who make it. In a certain sense this is true, but not according to the interpreta-tion of it given by these laboring men. They understand it to mean that the entrepreneur, landlord and capitalist have no natural right to a portion of the wealth produced, forgetting that in the modern differentiated and specialized form of in-dustry these—especially, the entrepreneur and capitalist—are THE MERCURY. 141 absolutely indispensable. The socialistic idea of the State's ownership of land could probably do away with the landlord, but to attempt the abolition of entrepreneur and capitalist in our present industrial system is absurd. Another very prevalent kind of socialism arises out of the fact that a great many men, failing to realize their limitations, complain of the more advantageous opportunities of other in-dividuals. They claim that the world owes them a living, but as some one has said, "are too lazy to collect the debt." It is this sort of socialism which is the "besetting sin" of our age. Ambitious people now-a days are so thoroughly imbued with the spirit of "sticktoitiveness" that only a few failures leave them practically undaunted. Having been taught, as Dr. Furbae says, such precepts as "There is always room at the top," encouraged by such maxims as "Try, try again," and cautioned to aim high instead of directly at the mark, they continue to strive for positions to which it is impossible for them to attain and for which, if they did reach, they would find themselves wholly unfitted. Many a proud father and fond mother, either because they have wished to encourage a son, or because of the blindness of paternal love, are respon-sible for a young man's superabundance of self-esteem by their having told him that he is not like the average person, and then he goes forth into the world only to consider his efforts unsuccessful because he cannot do as much as some one else who probably has much greater talent. It is this tendency of the individual's failure to realize his true place in life and his proper relation to others that has produced in our age so many dissatisfied, petulant, and cynical socialists. The last and most dangerous sort of socialism is that which manifests itself in murder, vandalism, and other lawless practices. It is exactly synonymous with anarchism. The number of such persons in the United States is as astounding as the awful doctrines which they promulgate. Some years ago President Seelye of Amherst College, declared: "There are probably 100,000 men in the United States to-day whose animosity against all existing social institutions is hardly less than bound- 142 THE MERCURY. less.' In 1881 their press consisted of 19 journals with a cir-culation of about 80,000, and since that time their numbers and the powers of their press have vastly increased. The fol-lowing are statements from some of their papers. "Religion, authority, and state are all carved out of the same piece of wood—to the Devil with them all!" "Dynamite is the power which in our hands, shall make an end of tyranny." "War to the palace, peace to the cottage, death to luxurious idleness." "You might as well suppose the military orginizations of Eu-rope were for play and parade, as to suppose labor orginizations were for mere insurance and pacific helpfulness. They are organ-ized toprotect interests, for which, if the time comes, they would fight." This last, taken from a socialistic paper of Chicago, pro-bably shows, to a great extent, the true relation between Labor Unions and socialistic tendencies of the most awful character. Such socialists probably began their careers as oppressed working men, or as men who failed to realize their true posi-tions in life, and later under the influence of violent socialistic journals or the lectures of an Emma Golden, became fanatical. A great number of them are foreigners who, having become disgusted with the absolutism of Europe, have come to Amer-ica to carry out their nefarious designs. Several great movements of the past two centuries have conspired to inspire socialistic propensities in men. The foun-dation of the American Republic, with the annunciation of her principles—-such as, "all men are equal and possessed of cer-tain inalienable rights such as, life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness"—paved the way for ideas which, carried to extremes by the ignorant and mischievous, resulted in socialism. In the same way, the French Revolution radiated its evil influences; and the Proclamation of Emancipation by Abraham Lincoln had its baneful as well as its worthy effects. But more influential than any of these has been the greatly increased profits of the rich. How would a poor down-trodden laborer look upon the following statement which occurred in a paper of 1880 ? "The profits of the Wall Street Kings the past year were enormous. It is estimated that Vanderbilt made THE MERCURY. 143 $30,000,000; Jay Gould $15,000,000; Russel Sage $10,000,- 000; Sidney Dillon $10,000,000; and James R. Keene $8,- 000,000. Is it strange if the working man thinks he is not getting his due share of the wonderful increase of national wealth ?" How do men to-day regard a rise in the price of coal-oil and the next week read in all the papers that the larg-est stockholder of the Standard Oil Company has made a be-nevolent gift of several million dollars ? The assassination of rulers and millionaires, the wanton des-truction of property by strikers, and the inconvenience accru-ing from a stoppage of production are not the only bad results of socialism. It tends to ruin the Church as well as the State. Infidelity and skeptacism follow closely in its tracks. In a so-cialistic convention at Pittsburg not many years ago the follow-ing nefarious resolution was unanimously adopted: "The church finally seeks to make complete idiots of the mass, and to make them forego a paradise on earth by promising them a fictitious heaven." "Truth, a socialistic journal of San Fran-cisco says : "When the laboring men understand that the heaven they are promised is but a mirage, they will knock at the door of the wealthy robber, with a musket in hand, and de-mand their share of the goods of this life now ! " What could have a more disasterous effect upon discontented humanity than to read such doctrine ? The socialist of this order denies the existence of God on the ground that if there would be one, wealth, happiness and opportunities would be more equally shared ; they forget to see that the rich are as often unhappy as the poor, and that God sends "his rain upon the just and unjust." Although an attempt to solve a problem of such magnitude may appear absurb, there is, at least one, feasible solution— a more general acceptance and use of the principles ot Chris-tianity. "Socialism attempts to solve the problem of suffering without eliminating the factor of sin." That all suffering caused by our industrial system is the result of sin, either on the part of employer or emplyee, or of both, there can be no doubt. If the spirit of the Golden Rule were put into practice, it "would 144 THE MERCURY. dictate such arrangements between capitalist and laborer as will secure to the latter a fair return for his toil." As Dr. Fisher says, "It will check the accumulation of wealth in a few individ-uals. And the Christian spirit, as in ancient days, will inspire patience and contentment, and a better than earthly hope, in the minds of the class whose lot in life is hard." THE SABBATH AS A CIVILIZER. Miss HELEN WAGNER, '06. WHEN God said, " The seventh is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God, in it thou shalt not do any work, thou nor thy man servant—," He surely had more ends in view than the mere refreshing of man and His own glorification. Besides achieving these results the Sabbath has other far-reaching in-fluences. Chief among these influences we see its power as a civilizer, as an educator and a refiner. It has long been an ac-knowledged fact that Christianity pnd education go hand in hand. In the accomplishment of one we necessarily attain the other. The influence of the Sabbath is like the atmosphere—it sur-rounds every one it touches, whether with that one's approval or not. The most violent atheist would be no more likely to scorn the influence of the day set apart chiefly for the worship of the God he ignores than would our staid old deacons. It has been proven that no civilized country can exist without the aid of the soothing influence of the Sabbath on the passions ot men, in the observance of its laws. Because the influence of the Sabbath is so all-prevailing and must be felt everywhere, no man can or does escape it. Christians, of course, are those most directly affected by the Sabbath. They come into immediate contact with some of its most potent influences. A true Christian never misses the Sabbath—he spends . it in the worship of God and for rest as was commanded. And so he reaps not only the physical bene-fit but the intellectual as well. One of his chief duties and THE MERCURY. MS '* pleasures is a regular attendance upon divine worship. Thus while being spiritually fed and elevated he assimilates some of the best literature and art of the world as it radiates from the pulpit and the organ loft and the temple of God itself. But the people who do not come into direct contact with the Sabbath influence, feel it just as surely. They must breathe it with the very air. One cannot go anywhere on the Sabbath Day without being made very conscious that this day differs from all others. In the cities and towns the stillness imparted to the streets, noisy and hustling on other days, by the aspect of the closed stores and shops and the absence of the clattering dray and shouting venders, and the quietly passing inhabitants with their peaceful, serene countenances and their fresher, more artistic raiment, and the sweet music of the church bells—all have a subduing, refining influence on the sensibilities and pas-sions of men, not easily thrown off. And out in the open country away from church bells and changed surroundings one feels an unwonted peace and calm—one breathes with the very air which draws one a little nearer Mother Earth—and thus is made to appreciate her beauties and truth a little more fully. Besides these maternal, physical influences there is another, more subtle, ever advancing influence—the influence of man upon man. Usually the Christian does not need the Sabbath environment for purposes of self-education and refinement, but those with whom he associates or with whom his friends come in contact may and are more helped, as they imperceptibly absorb from him a finer sense of right and wrong and a better general knowledge, than they would be by any numbers of over-zealous instructors and noisy evangelists. I46 THE MERCURY. THE COURSE OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERN-MENT IN CONNECTION WITH THE PANAMA REVOLUTION. ( Written for the Pen and Sword Prise Essay Contest.) CHAS. "VV. HEATHCOTE, '05. PANAMA has an area of about 31,500 square miles and a population of almost 300,000. When Panama revolted a short time ago, it was not the first time she attempted to throw off the yoke of Columbia. In 1885 a similar revolution took place. Columbia promised various reforms which checked the revolution. However, Columbia failed to carry out these reforms. Columbia established a centralized form of govern-ment which caused Panama to lose the privilege of a state. For years the idea of building a canal across the isthmus has been in vogue. The French Company, which attempted it a few years ago, failed miserably. It remains for the United States to carry out the plan. The Panama and Nicaragua routes were suggested. The need of the canal is very evident. If the canal had been built when the Oregon made her long run around Cape Horn the United States government would have been saved much expense. Then, the American interests in Porto Rico, Cuba and the Pacific possessions strongly urge the construc-tion of this canal. For a time the Nicaragua route was favored. A bill was drawn up and unanimously ratified by both Houses of our Na-tional Legislature. The main idea of this bill was that when the canal was completed it was to remain neutral under the protection of the great European powers. However, delay over this part led the people to favor the Panama route. Fi-nally, upon the recommendation of the Walker Commission, the Panama route was chosen providing it could be bought from the old French Company for $40,000,000. However, to keep our word with Nicaragua, the Spooner compromise was passed which instructed the President to select the Panama route pro-viding the necessary arrangements could be made. If, not the Nicaragua route was to be chosen. About this time Columbia became very much interested in THE MERCURY. 147 the canal affairs. They gave the United States every assurance that a treaty favoring the Panama route would be ratified by their Senate. However, after much delay, it was unanimously rejected. Columbia was to receive $10,000,000 for certain con-cessions. Columbia thought the United States was an easy mark and refused to ratify the treaty unless $20,000,000 was given to them. In all these proceedings the Columbian politi-cians refused to consult the wishes of Panama. Panama knew the value of the canal. That the Columbian politicians were working for their own interests was very evident. Conse-quently Panama's hatred for Columbia grew more intense. When the revolution broke out the world was not surprised. The revolution was virtually bloodless. The republic was soon recognized by the United States, France, Germany, Russia and many other powers. In a short time a treaty was drawn up and signed. By this treaty the United States gained complete ownership of the canal and received much more territory than she would have received had Columbia-not acted in such an ugly manner. The course of the United States government has met with general approval by all well-thinking people. All the foreign powers sanctioned the action. Many people tried to condemn the course of the government because the warships were or-dered to prevent any of Columbia's troops being landed to bring Panama to time. How often in the South American rev-olutions the lives of our citizens and likewise their property have been endangered. Many times before this the United States marines and sailors were landed to protect the property of our citizens. American interests are better developed in Panama than in any other South American state. American capital runs the whole railroad system on the isthmus. What good is a government to its people if it fails to protect them ? Then again Panama had been recognized by the United States and for that reason alone her action was justifiable. Some people in criticizing the government forget the action of Presi-dent Polk in the way he started the Mexican War. His action cost the United States' thousands of lives and dollars in order to maintain the national honor. Today all people recognize 148 THE MERCURY. that the addition of Texas to United States territory is a blessing. The idea that the government's course is a stain up-on the history of our country is erroneous. The government has upheld our traditions by being the champion of the weak and helping young republics maintain their standing. "A HUNTER OF MEN." "BRIDGET." WITHIN the forest depths I wandered far, O'er the great battlefield, where bloody war Had made upon our land a loathsome sore, Healed now, but still retaining its deep scar. At last, upon a wooded hill was found, what I had sought, A monument, commemorating strife With victory and loss of life, The boon God-given, A monument for heroes, dearly bought, A witness unto Heaven. Upon a natural rock, like those which on the hillside lay, Was carved the figure of a man; Not as the Knights of old, with upright pose, And fearless eyes, he faced his foes, at bay, But crouched and hid him, midst the trunks of trees, And with a deadly purpose, did the hillside scan. 'Twas here I rested me, A dream I dreamed, Which, to my wand'ring fancy, even seemed A waking dream, a reverie. Within the homestead of an old Virginian farm, A mother sat one sunny summer morn, Holding, within the shelter of her arm, A little babe, her son, her own first born. Oh! what a wondrous grace was in those words,, "her own," What sword could pierce the soul of such a one ? A soul, so full of hopes, before unknown, The deed too cruel, to be planned or done. THE MERCURY. 149 A glorious future lay before her boy, All fashioned with her mother love and care, A future, full of happiness and joy, Devoid of sin, the bait of Death's dread snare. "Her own," but ever since the earth wastrod By her, above all women blest of God, In honor of her wondrous motherhood, The soul of womankind has felt the sword. He grew into a handsome, stalwart youth, Beloved by many, and disliked by few, Then came the blow; her soul was pierced in truth, And he went forth to die, as sons of all brave mothers do. To die, but could he kill his fellow-man? This was the question that had haunted him, Upon the day of march, and in the nightly din Of dreadful dreams, bloody with warfare's ban. A marksman of sure eye, and hand unfaltering, Far-famed was he, And many a woodland voice had cased to sing Through death, from him, its untaught melody. So, when night's dreams were changed to day's reality, Not placed in ranks that fought an open war was he, But called of men, a sharpshooter, lay low, Upon the hillside's brow, to slay the unwary foe. #**#*#***♦* The sun comes flickering through the whispering leaves, Casting their shadows on green moss and fern, A birdling, from a nest above, moves restlessly, and grieves, In dismal chirpings, for its mother's late return. The noonday calm is over hill and glen, Save for the distant sound of battle's roar, There, where a multitude of bravest men, Fight onward for their country's noble fame, for honor more. Then with a rustling sound, the calm is broken, The underbrush is parted by a man in blue, A moment's pause; no warning word is spoken, To tell him "Death is waiting now for you." And he, whom destiny ordained to give to Death her prey, One instant hesitated, in his covert lay Sickened by fear, of his dread deed alone, Then aiming fired and it was done. ISO THE MERCURY. Quickly his weapon casting on the ground, He bounded fearless, down the wooded slope, His boyish eyes, all bright with unshed tears, For in his soul remorse fought hard with hope. And Hope, how soon 'twas vanquished in the fray, A boy, scarce older than himself, his victim lay, Dying in agony upon the sod ; No word he spoke, but with great eyes of pain, Looked up into his face, who had his brother slain, And then, just as the birdling fell to earth, His spirit met his God. 'Twas then a red mist rose before his eyes, a mist of blood ; Concealing the poor body of the slain, from which the soul had fled, He climbed once more the hillside's weary road, Determined to repeat his deed of dread. At sunset, when the wounded mother-bird Returned, to find her nestlings gone, No sound, upon that dark hillside she heard, To tell her of the deeds that there were done. Yet, 'midst the underbrush, there silent lay What had been seven brave men, And he, who watched the little bird's dismay, Red-eyed and haggard, envied each of them. But God is good, his day of darkness o'er, A wandering bullet claimed him for its own, And his sad soul, its struggles knew no more, No more did yearn for murder to atone. As from my dream I woke, my heart was torn With pity, for the " Man of Sorrows " who, Upon another hill, in distant clime, Gave up his life " hunter" for such as you. " Oh, God Omnipotent! " aloud I cried, " For His dear sake forgive the crimes, Committed in the name of Liberty, and dyed With heroes' blood, the curse of warlike times." THE MERCURY. 151 "THE PATH OF DUTY IS THE WAY TO GLORY." NO one will deny me the fact that our present age with all its hurry and hustle, its energy and propelling-force, its competition and its competitors, is an age for the success of in-dividual purpose. Having granted this concession, it follows that individuals must exist with specific purposes, carrying out and fulfilling the obligations which are imposed on them. Be-lieving that no man has ever been created without a purpose, which results in a duty or obligation to his Creator, and when he fulfills this obligation or carries out this duty he has a for-tune worth more in realistic and spiritual value than all the Rockefellers, Carnegies, Vanderbilts or any other gods of gold that ever lived—believing this, I ask you to come with me to the rich meadow-lands of Connecticut, where on Oct. 5, 1703, a man was born who graduated from Yale University at the early age of 16 and set out into the world following the paths of duty and therein was his fortune, a legacy far richer than any earthly inheritance the world could have given him. It was during his boyhood days that a problem of extreme importance began to trouble him, and the solution of this was the determining of his course in after life. From that time he became a man that had an end in view, a something to say and he said it. A bold, fearless, ardent and consistent advocate of his belief; a man with a conscience so clear, so pure, and so unbiased that all the world loved him though he sought not for their favor; a man with iron-clad precepts, not for others, but for himself and he lived them; a man that has come down through two centuries, spotless, to live in the hearts of all man-kind, and who dares to say that his glory shall not live till the sun shall cease to rise and set and until time shall be no more ! This man of purpose or duty has been the father of a very illustrious progeny. Among his descendants more eminent men have been numbered than have been recorded of any other man in American history. They have been most promi-nent in the ministry, in education, in law and a number have sat on the bench. Let me mention some of them: Dr. Jo-nathan Edwards, Aaron Burr, Vice-President, Prof. Park, of Andover, President Woolsey and President Uwight, of Yale, 152 THE MERCURY. not forgetting the elder President Dwight. Three Presidents of Yale are his descendants. Could any man be more signally blessed or have a richer inheritance in the hearts of his child-ren ? He was also a born naturalist, and there is hardly any doubt that had he not become our greatest theologian he would have been our father of Natural Philosophy. As a boy he dis-covered facts which have been handed down to the naturalist of today as most valuable information. Who can set the limit for his discoveries had he devoted himself to this branch of science with his purpose and ambition ? Jonathan Edwards as a man, as a theological and philosophi-cal writer, as a naturalist and as the broadest and grandest man the American pulpit has ever produced, stands out in lines so bold, in verse so tender, and in character so spotless as to thrill with admiration and awe every American youth of today. Who would not love to be what he has been ? Who would not exchange all the wealth he possesses—I care not whether it be millions—for the place Jonathan Edwards holds in the hearts of the people and in the history of his country ? His life is a story that should make any young man enthusiastic and his success has been such as would turn the heads of thousands had it been theirs, but not his for he had a purpose, a convic-tion, a duty to the world and his fellow-man and until that should be accomplished his labor was with him incessantly. Truly he knew the paths of duty and just so surely his glory followed. In two centuries from today how many men's 'names of the present generation, lives and characters do you suppose will have been handed down to posterity ? Where are our Long-fellows, our Emersons, Whittiers, Bryants, Lincolns and Far-raguts of today ? Are we producing any such ? Indications from the past decade and more do not show them and it is believed that unless a change in the ambitions of the young of today is brought about, America will have none to record in her history. The lust for gold is the keynote to this dearth of noble manhood. Men are willing to sacrifice anything—prin-ciple, creed, honor, friends, self, anything—no matter what to obtain the riches of a Carnegie or Morgan. THE MERCURY. 153 Says B. O. Fowler, "if this, our republican form of govern-ment is to stand we must have men" and he means more men like Jonathan Edwards. The U. S. Senate has grown to be a rich man's club, the offices of the government are filled and controlled by political graft with men who are unable to cope with the issues demanded of them. Oh for a few fearless preachers of duty and loveliness, for a few men like Jonathan Edwards; men with purposes, men with a sense of duty and honor, men with the love of a superior being in their hearts ! Our nation must have these men and she is going to get them. Whether they come from Connecticut or from Florida, from California or from Pennsylvania it matters not; they must come. Would you have this, your free form of government turned into a monarchy? Indications point us to the fact that it is gradually being done and there is only one sure method of making the wrong right. This threatening evil can only be averted by finding men who are willing, if need be, to die for a correct principle. Nothing counts so much as principle and nothing tells in a man like purpose. If you would have a for-tune, have a principle, and if you would have the love and esteem of your fellow men live a principle. In all the history of the world there never was a grander period in which to live than the present. Never was there so much to do, so many chances, so bright an outlook, but it is only for the man with a sense of duty. The nation wants men, but she wants them stern, tender and fearless, full of duty and loneliness as was this missionary to the savages, this first of American naturalists, this explorer of philosophy and theology. If for no other vir-tue we should love and revere the memory of Jonathan Edwards today because of his devotion to stern duty and to no other cause can we attribute his success and glory. If asked to write his epitaph I would have inscribed on his monument the sub-stance of his acts done on earth : "The part of duty is the way to glory." "C. E. B. '05." 154 THE MERCURY. POEM. ( Written by a quondam High School pupil.) We come before you this evening, To tell of our High School days, And while our stories we relate, Don't criticize our ways. We started the fourth of September The ladder of knowledge to climb, While the months were rapidly passing, Marking the flight of time. While our work was thus progressing. The holidays drew near, And through all the glad and happy days Were pleasures, unbedimmed by tears. We studied hard to reach the goal, We scholars of Number Ten, And now to the fullest we realize " Laborum Dulce Lenimen." The friendships, sympathies and all That were our life in school, Are meshed with memories of the hall, Which was our working tool. 'Tis sad to part with friends so dear, With whom so long we've been. Try as we will, the briny tears Will come, and sight bedim. School life, so dear, is over now, On life's broad wave we speed, May God 'ere guide our journey through, And we His warnings heed. To one and all we bid farewell, As now are separated The many friends who proved us well, And joys anticipated. Farewell to many undone tasks, To victories not yet won ; May all unfinished work In heaven, if not on earth, be done. * f THE MERCURY Entered at the Postoffice at Gettysburg as second-class matter VOL. XIII GETTYSBURG, PA., JUNE, 1904 No. 4 Editor-in-ch ief C. EDWIN BUTTER, '05 Exchange Editor CHARI,ES GAUGER, '05 Business Manager A. L. DILLENBECK, '05 Asst. Business Managei E. G. HESS, '06 Associate Editors H. C. BRILLHART, '06 ALBERT BILLHEIMER, '06 H. BRUA CAMPBELL, '06 Advisory Board PROF. J. A. HIMES, LITT.D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M.D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D.D. Published each month, from October to June inclusive, by the joint literary societies of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price, one dollar a year in advance; single copies 15 cents. Notice to discontinue sending the MERCURY to any address must be accompanied by all arrearages. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Busi-ness Manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. EDITORIALS. LOYALTY TO Probably no force, power or influence among ALMA MATER, the graduates of a college is felt so much as Loyalty. We all believe that a college can be only what her Alumni wills her to be. If she is to spread her influence through-out many states; if she is to wax strong and command a place among the leading universities and colleges of the world; if she is to grow and prosper as she should, and as so many col-leges are doing, she must have your support, Alumni. Loyalty to Alma Mater must be your watch-word day and , night. Be eager, ready and enthusiastic at all times and you will be surprised beyond measure how much you can do for her. The very fact that you are a graduate is proof of your obligation and should be a sufficient incentive to rouse your earnest endeavors on her behalf. I56 THE MERCURY. Every college, no matter where or how situated, has its own reasons for producing loyal Alumni. It is, indeed, a sad day for the old mother when liar son turns his back on her, and it is a sorry day for Gettysburg when an Alumnus forgets her love and devotion. Perhaps a true indication of the success a man will make in the world is the spirit and vehemence with which he accomplishes his college work. If the undergraduate does his very best and is loyal to the core, the college cannot be without loyal Alumni. He who sings most lustily his Alma Mater'a songs, who has again and again made his throat raw with a "heike" for the orange and blue, who fervently loves every spot of this historic ground, he is the fellow who usually counts for something. Tis to the devotion and love and in-terest of such men that Gettysburg pays tribute. Loyalty to Alma Mater means the preaching of her charms to every boy who expects to go to college, and to many more who have never had a thought of a college course. Loyalty to Alma Mater means doing one's best and a keen and lively interest in all her affairs. Loyalty to Alma Mater means your unbounded support, Alumni, to your college publications. Gettysburg wants love and devotion and loyalty from every Alumnus. How much will you do for her in the next year ? Shall we, undergraduates, believe your efforts to be commen-surate with your love ? It is the only criterion we have with which to take your measure. Are you one of the many who are always so busy that when an appeal comes you must beg to be excused ? If you are made of such stuff, Gettysburg has no use for you, and the noise you will make in the world will never cause a disturbance. Our dear old college has many loyal alumni who have fought, bled and died in her interests, and to them, we, her sons, give all the honor and reverence for what she is today and for what she gives promise of in the not far distant future. Sooner or later in the life of many a young person the ques-tion comes, "To what college shall I go after I have prepared myself in the academy or high school?" It is thrusting itself upon a great many young people in this month of June, as the THE MERCURY 157 colleges and universities are sending out their scores and hun-dreds of graduates and the preparatory schools are finishing up the share of- the work that properly belongs to them. It is a serious question, one that will mean much in the life of the in-dividual, one that should not be decided without grave con-sideration. Shall he go to the college having the most successful ath-letic teams ? or to the one having the greatest reputation ? or to the one which makes the greatest promises ? These are some of the questions usually taken into consideration by pro-spective college students. But how many stop to ask them-selves and to consider the vastly more important question, "Which college lays the greatest emphasis upon the training of its students in the duties of good citizenship and the devel-opment of Christian character?" This, after all, is the important consideration. Not how great a reputation do the athletic teams have, not how much does it seem to promise, but how much importance does it attach to the development and training of that which really makes character ? H. C. B. -^> EXCHANGES. " Criticism is essential to good work. True criticism is both appreciative and corrective, but it is not so essential that a writer receive perfect criticism after all. Public judgment, fav-orable, adverse or perverse, is instructive and leads us to correct our errors, improve our style, sharpen our wits and pay more attention to the perfecting of our work, line by line. Have you a thought, the plot of a story, the idea of a poem ? Write it in your best and freshest moments and lay it by until the frost of cool evenings has chilled it, and it has become a thing apart from yourself. Then criticize it, remodel it, with your best impartial judgment. Never doubt that the English lan-guage has the right word ; and the right words rightly and ar-tistically constructed, make famous literature of the thought of men."—The Bowdoin Quill. I58 THE MERCURY. V The Otterbein Argus contains a rather interesting story en-titled " Character Painting." It pictures quite vividly the con-dition of many a poor child in the mining districts of our coun-try and portraying the effect produced by refinement and wealth upon so uncultured a mind as that of the heroine. While this story is good in the main, it is the only article of a literary nature in the journal. We cannot feel that such a meagre amount of literary matter does justice to a school which styles itself an university. The editorial pointing out why students should remain for commencement, whenever it is at all possible, is timely and well worth putting into practice. Commence-ment exercises are the crowning events of the year, and cer-tainly, whenever possible, the student should avail himself of this privilege to enjoy the happy closing of the school-year and also to bid farewell to the graduating class for whom it means so much. Remember that you yourself expect to be in a similar position some day, then perhaps you can better appreci-ate its significance. The best part of the World's Fair number of The Wabash is its "exchange pickings." The exchange editor is to be com-mended^ for his judgment and selection of clippings. We quote a few of them. " Are you Hungary ? Yes; Siam. Well, come along ; I'll Fiji." Again : " It is said some girls are pressed for time ;—others for the fun of it." " If college bred is a four-year loaf (The Smart Set says its so.) Oh tell me where the flour is found For us who need the dough !" —The Acorn. TEACHER—Johnny, repeat after me " Moses was an austere man and made atonement for the sins of his people." JOHNNY—" Moses was an oyster man and made ointment for the shins of his people." MM » "THE MERCURY. 159 "Usefulness is the rent we are asked .-to pay for room on earth. Some of us are heavily in debt." The May number of the Manitou Messenger \s a credit to the new staff. The oration "The Public Service of Church and School" is a well written and logical development of the power exerted upon the state by church and school. " Chaucer's Hu-mor" is a terse estimate of one side of his nature, as seen in "The Canterbury Tales." We are glad to welcome the Bucknell Mirror to its long va-cant place on our table. The only literary article, "The Col-umn to the Right of the Doorway," is an interesting and amusing reminiscence of a college prank fifty years ago. An increase in amount of literary matter would greatly improve the paper. The Buff and Blue contains a number of short articles. Among them "The Assassination," while an interesting recital of an imaginary college joke, it might be much improved by a smoother style, less abrupt and " choppy " sentences. The article on "Fiction" gives a brief history of its beginning, de-velopment, present use and abuse. " Ninety-Seven," an episode of an undergraduate who was determined to win his race in an indoor meet, is well written and worth reading. The Red and Blue is always among the best journals of fic-tion on our table. The June number is no exception. Roses bloom and roses fade, Flowers bloom and die. Life is made of sun and shade, ' Laughter and a sigh. Heigh-o ! sun and shade, Laughter and a sigh. Love is like the roses red, Fading in a day ; Soon 'tis dead, its sweetness fled On the wind away. Heigh-o ! soon 'tis dead— Pluck it while you may.— The Haverfordian. ■ The Susquelianna contains a well written article on Jonathan Swift, setting forth his true character. It calls attention to the fact that the vulgarities in his writings, on account of which he ■ i6o THE MERCURY. is not read, are no index to his real character. The spirit of the age demanded writings of such a nature, hence his contri-bution. "The Midnight of the Revolution" gives us a good resume of the condition of affairs in our own country during its struggle for birth. The writer has well digested the his-torical facts relating to this period and gives them to us in terse and unbiased form. In The Western Maryland College Monthly, "Old Man Knowl-ton's Greenbacks " is quite an interesting narrative of how an old miser was robbed of his greenbacks by rats. We think the story might have been told in a more interesting way. The break in the story, caused by shifting the scene to events in the court room, detracts from the narrative; while, on the other hand, were the style in which the story is begun continued, the produc-tion would be much better. The other articles are good. On the whole, the paper is worthy of commendation. The Pharetra contains a sort of parody on " The Raven " (under the title of " Easter Vacation "), which begins well, but soon loses rythm and at times whole lines are entirely devoid of any claim to poetry. However, considering the production as a whole and its probable intent, it is fairly good. SPRING TIME. The cro- cusses As the bull rushes O'er the grass-blades 'Neath the " bloomin' shades ' Of trees which are short For the cro-cusses frolicking sport. —Ex. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Weaver Organs Weaver Pianos Used by Gettysburg College Y. M. C. A. Used by Druid's Society Gettysburg College. of Further recommendation unnecessary. Close Prices, Easy Terms, Old Instru-ments Exchanged. Satisfaction Abso-lutely Guaranteed. WEAVER PIANO AND ORGAN CO., MANUFACTURERS, YORK, PA., U. S. A. I|. \ Ec^eil Latest Styles in HATS, SHOES AND GENT'S FURNISHING .Our specialty,. WALK-OVER SHOE M. K. ECKERT Prices always right The LutfieM putting |Ioiige,. No. 1424 Arch Street PHILADELPHIA, PA. Acknowledged Headquarters for anything and everything in the way of Books for Churches, Col-leges, Families and Schools, and literature for Sunday Schools. PLEASE REMEMBER That by sending your orders to us you help build up and devel-op one of the church institutions with pecuniary advantage to yourself. Address H. S. BONER, Supt. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. FURNITURE Mattresses, Bed Springs, Iron Beds, Picture Frames, Repair Work done promptly. Under-taking a specialty. * Telephone No. 97. H_ E. Bender 73 Baltimore. St., Gettysburg, Pa. THE STEWART & STEEN CO. College 'EngTcuueTs ctnd (pTi/nteTs 1034 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. MAKERS AND PUBLISHERS OF Commencement, Class Day Invitations and Programs, Class Pins and Buttons in Gold and Other Metals, Wedding Invitations and Announcements, At Home Cards, Reception Cards and Visiting Cards, Visiting Cards—Plate and 50 cards, 75 cents. Special Discount to Students. A. G. Spalding «S Bros. Largest Manufacturers in the World of Official Athletic Supplies. * * * * * * ^ Plans'and Blue Prints of Gymnasium Parapherna-lia furnished on request. BASE BALL, LAWN TENNIS, FOOT BALL, GOLF, xs^sa^. FIELD HOCKEY, AST TRADE JSM, BASKET BALL, TOW OFFICIAL ATHLETIC ^ajjjgj^ INPLEMENTS. Spalding's Catalogue of all Athletic Sports Mailed >^» «^V *^V #^ T) TT others of the popular OLD FAMILIAR TUNES; be- Ti sides OLD FAVORITES; and also many NEW SONGS. ifrWJf ff ft SONGS OF ALL THE COLLEGES. fTff £Mt CopjriEhv, Price, ?f .JO, postpaid, «0u. uuu HINDS & NOBLE, Publishers, New York City, ui^, *T ft Schoolbooks of ail publishers at one store, ff^f p^q^t :**= :«=:«: :«= :\*= :**= :«= :**: =*5fc =**: Rig 1^2 ^tr *^ 3A= ^Srt: :**: ;**: :**: :**= :\*= :**: =**: ELJ mm mm m m. w mm m 50 YEARS' EXPERIENCE TRADE MARKS - DESIGNS r , . , - COPYRIGHTS &C. Anyone sending a Fleet oh nnd description may quickly ascertain our opinion free whether an invention is probably patentable. Communica-tions strictly confidential. Handbook on Patents sent free. Oldest ngency for securing patents. Patents taken through Munn & Co. receive gpecialnotice, without charge, in the Scientific American. A handsomely illustrated weekly. Lnrcest cir-culation of any scientific Jrrarnu'. Terms, $3 a year: four months, tl. Sold by all newsdealers. MUNN & Co.361Broadwa>- New York Branch Office, 625 F St., Washinuton, D. C. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs and Fine Stationery at the People's Drug Store Prescriptions a specialty. FOR HOMES, Schools, Colleges and Libraries,. . . The Underwood Stereoscopic Tours. A marvel in the educational world! Endorsed by prominent American and European Educa-tors. E. G. HESS 37 E. Penn Hall, Gettysburg, Pa. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. EAGLE HOTEL Rates $2.00, $2.50 and $3.00 pr day. HAS A CAPACITY OF 400 GUESTS— ~-^ GEO. F. EBERHART, PROFR. Picture Frames of All Sorts. Repair work done promptly. &g"I will also buy or exchange any second-hand furniture 4ChambersburgSt., - GETTYSBURG, PA. Bujj pur Summer Suit at |upp' It fits. Is stylish, looks well, wears well. We mean hand-tailor-ed, ready to wear clothing-. "* Nobby Dress Hats, Swell Neckwear, Fancy Shirts, ivlen's Underwear. • • TDTTppJO CENTRE SQM -1- -*" v-^ "^ -1" »—'f IS.-u.pp Building, YORK, PENN'A. Watch for his Representative when he visits the College. TX3::E3 sn^^^eo: SET. A MACAZINE OF CLEVERNESS Magazines should have a well defined purpose. Genuine entertainment, amusement and mental recreation are the motives of Tlie Smart Set, the most successful of magazines. Its novels (a complete one in each number) are by the most brilliant authors of "both hemispheres. Its short stories are matchless—clean an I full of human interest. Its poetry covering the entire field of ve :se—pathos, love, humor, tenderness—is by the most popular poets, men and women, of the day. Its jokes, witticisms, sketches, etc., are admittedly the most mirth-provoking. io3 pages delightful reading. No pages are wasted on cheap illustrations, editorial vaporings or wearying essays and idle discussions. Every page will interest, charm and refresh you. Subscribe now—$>.s° per year. Remit in cheque, P. O. or Express order, or regis-tered letter, to The Smart Set, 452 Fifth Avenue, New York. N. B.—Sample copies sent free on application. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. Geo. E. Spacer, PIANOS, ORGANS, MUSICAL MERCHANDISE Music Rooms, - York St. Telephone 181 GETTYSBURG C. B. KITZMILLE,R DEALER IN HATS,'CAPS, BOOTS AND DOUGLAS SHOE. M*53£wJfc'* Gettysburg, Pa. k M. AIxIxEMAN, Manufacturer's Agent and Jobber of Hardware, Oils, Paints and Queensware Gettysburg, Pa. THE ONLY JOBBING HOUSE IN ADAMS COUNTY W. F. Codori, ^DEALER IN - SPECIAL RATES TO CLUBS — York Street, Gettysburg:, Pa.
학위논문(박사)--서울대학교 대학원 :의과대학 의학과,2020. 2. 강영호. ; 1. Background Low-quality services of emergency medical institutions, unclear function of institution classification, and overcrowding of emergency departments (ED) of regional emergency medical centers (regional centers) have been major problems in the Korean emergency medical services system (EMSS). In 2015, the Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) outbreak spread from patients waiting for hospitalization in the overcrowded ED. The MERS outbreak was an event that revealed the vulnerability of EMSS and opened the policy window to solve the problem of EMSS in Korea. Several policies for EMSS improvement were implemented after the 2015 MERS outbreak focusing the improvement of emergency medical services (EMS) delivery system and ED infection control. This study investigates the policy processes for improving emergency EMSS and infection control program after the MERS outbreak. The purpose of this study was to examine the policy processes regarding EMSS from the view of policy actors and draw lessons for improving the EMSS in Korea. 2. Methods A mixed method was utilized to identify and explain the complex subject of the policy processes of Korean EMSS during and after the MERS outbreak in 2015. As a quantitative study, changes in EMSS after MERS were investigated according to the WHO's model of a national health system infrastructure. Literature review and data analysis of Korean Health Insurance Service (NHIS) database were conducted. In Korea, the NHIS covers all citizens. A quantitative analysis was performed on 16,965,755 cases using ED during 2014-2016. In-depth interviews were conducted on 30 experts, who were involved in the emergency medical policy process, including clinicians, policy experts, and hospital management experts. The total interview time was 55 hours and 4 minutes. Changes in EMSS and the policy process after the MERS outbreak were evaluated from the view of policy actors. In this study, quantitative data was interpreted qualitatively, and independent qualitative evaluation was conducted, as well. Therefore, this research is a mixed-methods study focusing on qualitative research. SAS version 9.4 was used for the quantitative analysis and NVivo 12.0 was used for the qualitative analysis. 3. Results The quantitative analysis results showed that in the area of EMS delivery system, the human resource of ED and number of regional centers have been increased and facility, equipment, and manpower standards have been revised in order to expand emergency medical resources. As a result, the number of medical personnel and emergency intensive care units in regional centers increased and profitability of ED improved as well. The number of monthly ED visits temporarily decreased during the MERS outbreak but then recovered afterward. As ED overcrowding indicators were emphasized in the evaluation of EMS institutions, monthly mean ED length of stay of regional centers was decreased. However, despite the emphasis on providing critical care, transfer rate of severe emergency patients was not decreased. In the policy processes of EMS, experts evaluated that EMS delivery system was set up as a pseudo-agenda and exploration and comparison of policy alternatives were not sufficiently carried out. As a result, the physicians did not comply with the policy implementation and policy goals were not achieved. In the area of ED infection control program, the human resources for infection control and the number of isolation unit of ED were increased. Budgets for emerging infectious disease management were increased and profitability of infection control was also improved. The EMS Act was revised to respond to emerging infectious diseases and indicators related to infection control were strengthened in evaluation of EMS institutions. In the qualitative research, experts said that since the ED infection control program was such an intuitive and obvious problem, it was easy to become a policy-agenda. Despite the resistance of small hospitals, ED infection control program was implemented by powerful policy measures such as the revision of the Law. As a result, policy goals of expanding the infection control resources and improving the infection management environment were able to be achieved. From results of observing EMS policy process, the following characteristics of policy actors were found. First, there was difference of opinions within the physician subgroup as well as between government and medical professionals. ED staff, other department staff, and hospital executives, who have different views on policy alternatives could have all served as veto points in the policy process. Second, while the EMSS expert organization, which was an unofficial participant in the emergency medical policy process, could have played both roles of cause group and sectional group in the policy process, their sectional position has been emphasized, thereby weakening their insider status during policy process. Third, policy actors understood the publicness of EMS differently in terms of its ownership and function. The ED staff insisted that government support is needed because emergency medical care is based on public interest, however, some staffs were unwilling to provide less profitable cares, leading to conflict. Main characteristics of the emergency medical policy process that made it difficult to successfully implement are as follows: First, there was lack of consideration regarding variation of EMSS in Korea, such as distribution of medical resources among different regions, incentives to hospitals, and understanding of functional variations in ED. Second, the problem of the EMS delivery system was a problem of the low quality of emergency medical care. Third, the lack of professionalism in some physicians has lowered the capacity of emergency medical care, as well as trust between patient and doctor, therefore made the problem more difficult to solve. 4. Discussion Based on the analysis of the policy processes of the EMSS after the MERS outbreak in Korea, following lessons are suggested. First, setting the goals of EMS from the perspectives of citizen is warranted. The final performance goal should focus on improving health status of citizen and satisfaction with emergency medical care. Second, to close the gaps among policy actors in understanding policy content and policy process, actors should work together to explore the root causes of the problems and establish a policy agenda together. Third, a policy alternative should be causal in solving the problems in EMSS considering variation of EMS. Fourth, compliance with policies could be secured by internal persuasion among policy actors with proper incentives and reasonable punishment, especially EMSS expert organization. Fifth, policy outcomes should be evaluated based on both policy output and side effects together to identify policy impact. Sixth, policy governance regarding EMSS should be established and the roles of EMSS expert organization should be strengthened as the cause group rather than sectional group. This study examined the emergency medical policy processes from the view of policy actors through the 2015 MERS outbreak in Korea. The improvement of EMSS should be based on understanding of the emergency medical policy process and policy actors. ; 1. 서론 응급의료기관의 응급환자 진료 역량부족과 불명확한 종별 기능 구분, 일부 응급실의 과밀화는 한국 응급의료체계(emergency medical services system, EMSS)의 고질적인 문제였다. 2015년 과밀화된 상급종합병원 응급실에서 입원대기 중이던 환자로부터 메르스(Middle East Respiratory Syndrome, MERS) 유행이 확산되었다. 메르스 유행은 우리나라 응급의료체계의 취약성이 드러난 사건이자 응급의료 문제를 해결할 수 있는 정책의 창이 열린 사건이었다. 정부는 메르스 유행 이후 여러 가지 응급의료 개선정책을 추진하였다. 이 연구는 취약한 응급의료 전달체계 하에서 응급환자 감염관리의 실패로 인해 메르스 유행이 발생했다는 점에 문제의식을 두었다. 그래서 응급의료 전달체계와 응급환자 감염관리 영역에서 메르스 유행 이후 이루어진 정책과정과 그로 인한 변화를 분석하였다. 응급의료 정책행위자의 관점에서 정책과정과 정책결과를 분석함으로써, 향후 응급의료 개선을 위한 정책과정에서 고려해야 할 점을 도출하는 것이 이 연구의 목적이다. 2. 연구방법 메르스 유행 이후 응급의료 정책과정 분석이라는 복잡한 주제를 파악하고 설명하기 위하여 혼합연구방법(Mixed methods research)을 사용하였다. 양적연구로 문헌고찰과 국민건강보험공단 자료 분석을 통해 메르스 유행 이후 응급의료체계의 변화를 보건의료체계의 구성요소별로 조사하였다. 한국은 1989년 전국민 의료보험제도를 도입하여 전 국민이 국민건강보험에 가입되어 있는 국가이다. 메르스 유행 전후 응급실 이용 변화를 조사하기 위하여 국민건강보험공단 DB의 2014-2016년 응급실 이용 진료건 16,965,755건을 분석하였다. 질적연구로 응급실 의료진, 정책 전문가, 병원 경영진 등 응급의료 정책과정의 관련 전문가 30명을 대상으로 심층면접을 수행하였다 전체 심층면접 분량은 55시간 4분이었다. 심층면접을 통해 정책 행위자의 관점에서 메르스 이후 이루어진 응급의료 정책과정을 고찰하고, 응급의료체계의 변화를 조사하였다. 양적연구 결과를 질적연구로 해석하고 질적연구로 독자적인 분석을 수행하여, 이 연구는 질적연구가 중심이 된 혼합연구로 볼 수 있다. 양적연구의 분석에는 SAS version 9.4를 사용하였고, 질적연구 분석은 NVivo 12.0을 사용하였다. 3. 연구결과 응급의료 전달체계 영역에서 응급의료 자원을 확대하기 위해 권역응급의료센터(권역센터)가 확대되고 시설·장비·인력기준과 관련 수가가 개정되었다. 그 결과 권역센터의 의료인력과 응급중환자실 병상 수가 증가하고 수익성이 개선되었다. 달빛어린이병원 사업을 확장한 결과 달빛어린이병원 수도 증가하였다. 응급실 과밀화를 완화하기 위해 응급의료기관 평가에 재실시간 지표를 수가연동지표로 도입하고 응급의료에 관한 법률에 응급의료센터 24시간 이상 재실환자 관리 규정을 넣었다. 그 결과 응급실 월별 방문환자 수는 2015년 메르스 유행 당시 일시적으로 감소한 후 지속 증가 추세이나, 권역센터 응급환자의 월별 재실시간 평균은 2014-2016년 기간 동안 감소 추세를 보였다. 응급의료기관의 응급환자 진료역량을 강화하기 위해 응급의료기관 평가에 중증해당환자 최종치료 제공 관련 지표를 강화하였으나 2017-2018년 기간 중증응급환자의 전원율은 개선되지 않았다. 전문가들은 응급의료 전달체계 개선은 위장의제(pseudo agenda)로 설정되어 정책대안 탐색과 비교평가가 충분히 이루어지지 않았으며 점중주의적으로 쓰레기통 모형의 정책결정이 이루어졌다고 평가하였다. 그 결과 정책대상집단인 의사들은 정책집행에 순응하지 않았고, 정책은 집행 후에도 정책목표를 달성하지 못했다. 응급환자의 감염관리 영역에서 권역센터 시설·장비·인력기준과 감염관리실 설치기준 및 인력기준이 개정되어 응급실 감염관리 자원이 확대되었다. 정부는 응급실 방문객 관리를 도입하고, 감염예방관리료 등 감염관리 관련 건강보험 수가를 신설하였으며, 신종감염병 대응 관련 법률 등 감염관리 관련 법률을 개정하여 응급실 감염관리 여건을 개선하였다. 전문가들은 응급환자 감염관리는 직관적이고 명확한 문제라는 특성이 있어 병원 내 감염관리 강화로 의제화되기 쉬웠다고 평가하였다. 감염관리 개선정책은 보호적 성격을 가진 규제정책으로 집행 과정에서 중소병원을 중심으로 일부 병원의 반발이 있었다. 그러나 응급의료에 관한 법률 개정과 같은 강력한 정책수단을 사용하여 집행된 결과, 응급실 감염관리 자원확대와 감염관리 환경개선이라는 정책목표를 달성하였다. 응급의료 정책행위자들의 관점에서 응급의료 정책과정을 관찰한 결과 다음과 같은 정책행위자의 특징을 발견하였다. 첫번째, 정부 전문가와 의료진 전문가 사이뿐 아니라 의사 하위집단 내에서도 견해 차이가 존재하였다. 정책대안에 대해 다른 견해를 가지고 있는 응급실 의료진, 배후진료과 의료진, 병원 경영진은 정책과정에서 모두 거부점(veto point)으로 작용할 수 있었다. 두번째, 응급의료 정책과정의 비공식적 참여자인 응급의료 관련 전문학회는 정책과정에서 대의집단이자 파벌집단의 역할을 동시에 수행할 수 있으나, 정책과정에서 파벌집단의 역할이 강조됨으로써 내부자의 지위가 약화되었다. 세번째, 응급의료의 공공성에 대하여 소유주체 기준에 따른 공공성과 기능에 따른 공공성 개념이 혼재되어 사용되며 서로 다른 공공성 개념에 따른 정책행위자간 갈등이 발생하였다. 응급실 의료진은 응급의료가 공공의 이익을 실현하는 의료영역이므로 정부 지원이 필요하다고 주장했으나 일부 의료진은 수익성이 낮은 진료를 기피하는 모습을 보여 정부 전문가와 의견 차이를 보였다. 응급의료 정책과정의 성공적 추진을 어렵게 한 정책과정의 특징은 다음과 같다. 첫번째, 응급의료 정책과정에서 지역간 의료자원 분포, 병원에 작용하는 유인, 병원 내 응급실의 역할과 같은 응급의료에 존재하는 변이에 대한 고려가 부족했다. 두번째, 응급의료 전달체계 문제는 곧 응급의료기관의 취약한 응급환자 진료 역량의 문제였다. 세번째, 일부 의사들의 전문직업성(professionalism) 부족이 응급의료기관의 응급환자 진료 역량을 취약하게 하고, 환자-의사 사이 신뢰를 저하시켜 대형병원 쏠림현상을 악화시켰다. 4. 고찰 메르스 유행 이후 이루어진 응급의료 개선정책의 정책결과 분석과 정책과정에 대한 연구 결과를 근거로 하여 향후 응급의료 정책과정에 대하여 다음과 같이 제언한다. 첫번째, 국민의 관점에서 응급의료체계의 개선목표를 설정할 필요가 있다. 건강수준 향상과 응급의료 서비스에 대한 만족도 향상이라는 최종 성과목표가 개선정책의 목표로 설정되어야 한다. 두번째, 정책행위자의 인식 차이를 좁히기 위하여 여러 행위자가 함께 문제의 원인을 탐구하고 정책의제를 설정하는 과정이 필요하다. 세번째, 문제 해결에 인과성 있는 정책대안이 결정되어야 한다. 인과성 없는 정책대안은 정책이 집행되어도 정책문제를 해결하지 못한다. 네번째, 정책대상자의 순응을 확보할 필요가 있다. 유인과 처벌 이전에 전문가이자 정책대상자인 의사들에 대한 내면적 설득 과정이 필요하다. 다섯번째, 정책산물과 부수작용을 포괄하는 정책결과 평가가 필요하다. 여섯번째, 응급의료 정책 거버넌스를 확립하고 응급의료 관련 전문학회를 정책과정에 참여시켜 대의집단의 성격을 강화할 필요가 있다. 이 연구는 2015년 메르스 유행이라는 사건을 통해 응급의료 정책행위자들의 관점에서 우리나라 응급의료 정책과정을 고찰하였다. 응급의료 정책과정과 정책행위자에 대한 이해를 바탕으로 응급의료체계 개선을 추진해나가야 한다. ; I. 서 론 1 1. 연구 배경과 필요성 1 1) 한국 응급의료체계의 문제 1 2) 2015년 메르스 유행과 응급의료체계 4 3) 연구의 필요성 6 2. 연구 목적 10 II. 이론적 배경 12 1. 보건의료체계의 평가 12 1) WHO 보건의료체계의 구성요소 12 2) 보건의료체계 개혁을 위한 조종손잡이 14 2. 정책론 18 1) 정책과정의 이해 18 2) 응급의료 정책과정의 이해 25 III. 연구방법 35 1. 혼합방법 연구설계 35 2. 양적연구 방법 43 1) 양적 연구의 자료 수집 43 2) 양적 연구의 자료 분석 46 3. 질적연구 방법 54 1) 연구팀 구성 54 2) 심층면접 설계 55 3) 분석 방법 67 4. 혼합방법 연구의 통합 70 IV. 연구 결과 72 1. 양적연구 결과 72 1) 응급의료 전달체계 72 2) 응급환자의 감염관리 121 2. 질적연구 결과 134 1) 심층면접 참여자의 특성 134 2) 응급의료 전달체계 137 3) 응급환자의 감염관리 249 3. 연구결과의 종합 297 1) 2015 메르스 유행의 응급의료체계에 대한 의의 297 2) 메르스 유행 이후 응급의료 정책과정 분석 298 3) 응급의료 정책과정의 특징 340 V. 논의 363 1. 응급의료 정책과정 고찰 363 2. 연구의 한계 380 3. 연구의 의의 383 1) 방법론적 의의 383 2) 정책적 의의 384 4. 연구의 결론 385 1) 메르스 유행 이후 응급의료 전달체계와 응급환자 감염관리의 변화 385 2) 응급의료 정책과정 고찰 386 3) 응급의료체계 개선을 위한 정책과정에의 시사점 388 VI. 참고문헌 390 ; Doctor
Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors. ; Colonial rule had influenced 19th century monumental Architecture as a form of imperial expression in India. European concepts of architecture reached the Asian subcontinent through visuals, literature, paintings and pattern books. Various examples from this neoclassical and neo gothic phase, also referred to as Anglo-Indian1, Indo-Sarasanic2, Indo Gothic3, Mughal Gothic4, Neogothic, Hindoo or Hindu5 Gothic architectural style that could be experiential at various levels and scales. This new vocabulary tried to reach not only the major cities under colonial rule but it reached the smaller towns and countryside instantaneously.6 7 Calcutta, Madras, Bombay procured their identity during the late eighteenth and nineteenth century beginning with neoclassical era. These three presidency towns developed with sculptural indications of the colonial rule. This was an effort of collaborative works between locals and British officials. Comparatively smaller towns like Poona8 tried to nurture its space as a part of this wave in their own way. Notably these emerging urban patterns gave rise to new public realm and social spaces. This research is divided into five parts commencing with literature review. Review of books, annals, travelogues, helps understand the context of research that is covered in detail in the further discussions. Diverse aspects of the colonial, with elements of local architecture developed in late 19th century India, are covered by various travellers, artists, historians and architects. This helps in developing frame of research and knowing what could be our contribution to the state of art. The first chapter analyses 19th century architecture developed in India and especially the Deccan9 as a result 1 Word Anglo-Indian architecture is used for style with English and Indian elements. Anglo-Indian is used by various British officers referring to person relating to England and India or a person of mixed English and Indian descent or an English person who lives or has lived for a long time in India. 2 Indo-Saracenic style mainly demonstrated by British architects and engineers to mention few Stevens, Chisholm, Beg, Charles Mant worked with local Indian contractors used Indo-Islamic and Indian architectural elements with Gothic revival style for various public buildings in India during late nineteenth century. Word Saracenic is used for people lived in desert areas nearby Roman province of Arabia. Meyer Schapiro defines style as "the constant form –and sometimes the constant elements, qualities and expression- in the art of an individual or group." Gothic revival styles defined empire style after great rebel of 1857. East India Company dissolved its powers and concentrated Queen Victoria's control on India lead in the development of architectural style using Gothic forms in Public buildings. 3 Indo Gothic phrase mainly indicates mix of Indian and Indo-Islamic forms with European Gothic style. 4 Mughal Gothic denotes elements from Mughal and Gothic architecture flourished in India in late nineteenth century. Mughal ruler was Muslim dynasty of Turkish Mongol called as Mughal rulers, ruled from 16th to mid 18th century in northern part of India. 5 Hindu or Hindoo word is generally referred to people from India. It's a pronunciation derived from Sindhu/ Indus River largest in India. 6 Jan Morris, Simon Winchester, Introduction to Stones of Empire: The buildings of the Raj, (Oxford University Press, 1983) 7 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered, (Partridge Publishing, 2014),5. 8 Poona is pronounced as 'Pune' in colloquial language. For research writing purpose it is used as Poona as the name used earlier in 19th century. 9 Deccan is a peninsular plateau located in central India comprised states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. In this research western Deccan is mainly referred to western part of Maharashtra state developed under 8 of British initiative of infrastructure development following European models in Indian settings mainly for their own determination. With the examples of individual pattern of architectural expression it is significant to note how western models adapted in local climatic and geographical context. Some call this as magnificent pieces of architecture to some extent while in opinion of few these Indo Saracenic structures were unacquainted and had obsessive ornamentation too.10 Emergence of Public architecture in urban context focusing on essentials of European and local migrations were erected with western concepts. Collaborative works of European notions with Indian features lead to eclecticism in the manifestation of architectural style developed.11 Bombay presidency. 10 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered .cit., 6. 11 Christopher W., Bombay Gothic, (Mumbai, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 2002), 131. Eclecticism he explains as "the 'discovery of a repository of styles established a great range of decorative options for architects of the period. In India, this led to the absorption of Hindu (Indo) and Mughal (Saracenic) architectural elements into neo-Gothic and Fig 1 St Paul Cathedral Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Fig 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864), Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 3 Deccan College Poona designed by St Clair Wilkins 1868. Designed in Venetian Gothic Style one of the landmark structure in Poona. Source: Photo by Lavand Vaidehi Figure 1 St Paul Cathedral Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1863) Figure 2 Deccan College Foundation Stone laid by Bartle Frere (1864) 9 Royal engineers were the key persons worked in collaboration with local engineers and masons at grass root level in the process of establishing British rule in India. Many of them came from middle and lower class families but reached greater heights by their performance. Diverse projects from basic architectural interventions, railway, bridges, basic infrastructure, and services were coordinated in India. They worked on European models in local context with successful and unsuccessful efforts.12 To explain this further, till early nineteenth century simple and function based structures built for residential and religious purposes. Engineers were experimenting and modifying European models considering local climatic conditions. From mid nineteenth century building construction activity received more attention as vocabulary of Raj13. Which kept on changing adapting local climate, material and incorporation of local traditional art forms in architecture. This argument extends with the cases of medieval town planning, comprising meandering roads for warfare strategies with fortress at a central location of main axis of town, those were extended with grid Iron pattern. This could be grasped prominently in case of towns where cantonments were developed under colonial rule like Ahmadnagar, Sholapur (Solapur), Kolhapur,14 and Poona in Deccan context under Bombay presidency. Multiethnic, cosmopolitan settlements took place in these newly developed areas.15 Cantonments flourished with residential units for British Officers and market space known as Sadar Bazar mainly comprising migrating communities like Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati16 to serve neo-classical compositions. Sometimes the buildings were pure enough in their use of indigenous stylistic sources to be called 'Indo-Saracenic' in other instances they were not, merely certain elements or certain areas of the building exhibited these unusually mixed stylistic character." 12 Sandes E. W. C. Lieut. Colonel, Preface The Military Engineer in India, Vol II, (Chatham: Institution of Royal Engineers, 1933), 35. 13 Word Raj indicates British hegemony in India. 14 Ahmadnagar, Sholapur, Kolhapur are few of important historic towns of western Maharashtra developed under Bombay presidency in 19th century 15 Deddee Jaymala and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit Introduction. 16 Parsi, Bohara, Tamils and Gujarati are different trading communities settled in parts of India. Parsi belongs to Iran, Boharas are Muslims from parts of Pakistan and Gujarat, Tamils and Gujarati are from state of Tamilnadu and Figure 4 Reay Market Designed by Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar Photo by Lavand Vaidehi 10 British residential colonies. This mix culture of Anglo-Indian society reflected in the development of architectural language emerged in the vicinity in several typologies. Then cases of late 19th century Poona developed with its preexisting native town with two cantonments and Sadarbazzar (Market adjacent to cantonment) with evolving typologies of buildings are examined with the support of varied sources. The reasons behind selecting Poona as an example of this process of change in architectural style are its geographical location, political and cultural importance in Deccan region. It was the monsoon capital under Bombay presidency. Two major events such as the railway connecting Poona with Bombay and formation of municipality geared physical expansion of the town.17 Sir Bartle Frere's18 (Fig 1 and 2) initiatives of public building activities in Poona lead in developing face of Poona as an Educational hub, which is well known even today. Building activity at an early stage of colonial expanse was mainly utility based. But later officers in East India Company implemented policy of getting connected with local rulers so they beheld for architectural style that will impress locals and reflect power of colonial rulers. European surveyors and engineers procured and adapted various elements, details and layouts from pattern books for particular site requirements.19 Native philanthropists were inspired by Enlightenment20 and progress that; they tried to implement Neo-gothic revival style at urban level in late nineteenth century.21 Colonial government with local elites shaped cities with new urban infrastructure. European and Indian engineers, architects and artists made designs, whereas Indian laborers, craftsmen and artisans worked on actual execution. In the process, the local teams left their mark on the vocabulary at different levels right from selection of materials, construction techniques, features, and ornamentation. Examples such as Governors bungalow, Deccan College (Fig 3), College of Engineering, Reay Market (Fig 4) and number of churches erected in Poona are very evocative. These monumental scale buildings are still reminiscent of the colonial presence in Poona. Third, fourth and fifth part of research is an original contribution to the state of art, focusing on Contribution of Colonel Walter Marden Ducat R.E.22 and native engineer Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuji Kanitkar23 in the development of architectural vocabulary of Poona and Deccan region in late nineteenth century. Walter Ducat had carried out several projects in important towns like Bombay, Gujarat in India simultaneously 17 Jaymala Deddee and Samita Gupta, Pune Queen of the Deccan.cit., 175. 18 Sir Bartle Frere was Governor of Bombay presidency from 1862-67 initiated public building activities in neo-Gothic style 19 Das Pradip Kumar, Henry Irwin and the Indo Saracenic Movement reconsidered.cit. 20 Enlightenment is used for awareness of science, western technologies and art getting widespread in elites from India in nineteenth century architecture context. They tried to imitate to some extent for their construction activities. 21 Preeti Chopra, A Joint Enterprise: Indian Elites and the Making of British Bombay, (University of Minnesota Press, April 2011), 90. Muncherji Cowasji Murzban as assistant engineer worked on several projects in Mumbai in association with royal engineers and local philanthropists. 22 Colonel Walter Mardon Ducat R.E. hence used as 'Walter Ducat' 23 Local engineer from Poona, Rao Bahadur Vasudev Bapuj Kanitkar hence used as 'Vasudev Kanitkar' 11 Kolhapur, Ahmedabad24, Poona, Dhuley25 and Sholapur. He worked as executive engineer, urban designer and simultaneously was mastermind behind projects like Gokak water mill, Poona drainage layout and so on. He started his career as Second Lieutenant then became Lieutenant colonel then executive engineer and ended his official career as Superintending engineer in Deccan.26 His collaborative works with local engineers and his contemporaries like Charles Mant27 are important to note. His experience of work in Indian conditions led him to develop his skills as technical expert and designer, which later exemplified in the cases of two covered markets in Poona. In this chapter his technical and practical solutions for various proposals, executed projects are highlighted with various instances. Whereas Vasudev Kanitkar worked with Charles Mant, Chishom28, Trubshaw29 and Walter Ducat in towns like Baroda, Bombay, and Poona as Indian contractor. He was nominated as Rao Bahadur by British government for his important role in construction activity in Deccan.30 Laxmi vilas Palace in Baroda, Secretariat Building, High court in Bombay and Reay/ Phule market Poona are some of his major contribution in the architectural development under Bombay Presidency as an Indian local contractor. His self executed projects in Poona left his mark as significant designer and engineer in late nineteenth century. Educational, official, Public, and domestic buildings show his advancement from local contractor to designer with his intricacy of work. His influences originated from the earlier work experiences of varied projects amalgamated with local traditional workmanship lead into development of style could be named as local Indo-Saracenic architecture. This could be perceived in his own designs executed in Poona such as Fergusson College, Anandashram31, 24 Dhuley is a historic town located at north part of Maharashtra state 25 Ahmdabad is the largest city of Gujrat a states of India, known for its great tradition of local and modern architecture. 26 Second Lieutenant and Lieutenant colonel are ranks in British Army, but Walter Ducat appointed under PWD for infrastructural development. As per Medley's book he mentions Executive engineer had to work under Superintending Engineer. He is responsible person for executing various projects right from Barracks, Road developments, Railway to layout and construct. Designs, estimations and workings drawings are made under guidance of superintendent and execution is done under his supervision. 27 Charles Mant important from Indo-Saracenic designers series in India. He joined as Royal Engineer in Indian PWD, he designed Laxmi Vilas Palace (1878) for ruler of Baroda Sayajirao Gaekwad , New Palace Kolhapur (1878), Mayo School Ajmer and Palace at Darbhanga. 28 Architect Robert Fellowes Chisholm famous for Indo-Saracenic works in India. To mentions few of his important works are Bombay Yatch Club, execution of Laxmi Vilas Palace after Mant, University of Madras(1874-79), Lawrence Asylum building(1865) 29 Lieutenant colonel Trubshaw appointed on Bombay Rampart removal committee and worked on several remarkable projects in Bombay such as General Post Office, Elphinston College(1975), High court (1878), Plan for Bombay. 30 Lethbridge Roper, The Golden Book of India, (London, Macmillan and Co., 1893), 566. This is Genealogical and Biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles and other personages, titles or decorated of the Indian Empire. 31 Anandashram (1888) trust located in Poona, founded by Mahadev Chimnaji Apte for providing residential facility for middle and economically weaker class students. It also publishes books for Sanskrit and has collection of manuscripts. 12 Sangamashram32 and Pune Nagar Vachan Mandir (Poona Native Library)33 and so on. His contribution as a local contractor and designer working in collaboration with Royal Engineers and local social reformists like Bhandarkar34 and Apate35 is underlined in the further discussions. Main focus is on his role in the development of architectural vocabulary in late nineteenth century Poona. In the fifth part analysis of covered markets developed in Poona with the support of primary and secondary sources is done. Nine covered markets Lambert Market Karachi, Tollington Market Lahore, Crawford Market Bombay, Bolten Market Karachi, Hogg Stuart Market Calcutta, Empress market Karachi, Reay/ Phule Market, Shivaji / Connaught market, Moore Market and were built in India during eclectic movement of late nineteenth century. All endured and still in use, out of which Reay and Shivaji market exists in Poona. These are instances of 'Public landscapes' as idiom used by Preeti Chopra in case of Bombay, which is pertinent in case of Poona too. Two markets in Poona are unique examples of covered markets in India during this phase. In both the projects Walter Ducat was involved as a designer and exponent. Different contractors built these two markets in the year 1886 which in turn reflect the choices of architectural vocabulary used. Both have followed entirely distinctive models. Two uniquely designed covered markets are benchmarks in the context of old core and cantonment area of Poona. There are very few references and primary sources available on these markets. Original drawings are not available to refer and designer Walter Ducat is not very well acknowledged for these markets in historic documents. Perhaps his references in some local articles are mentioned wrongly. Walter Ducat and Vasudev Kanitkar's contribution in architectural development of Poona need more research to understand their collaborative landmark project of Reay market/ Phule Mandai located at the heart of the city. Two covered markets emerged in Poona during 19th century were resultant of eclectic movement followed to a larger scale in India by royal engineers and local contractors. Thought the models adopted from western roots they mark their difference as a language self developed and experimented by local contractors in terms of ornamentation, decoration, use of material and construction techniques. This research will contribute in deriving the method of architectural research that is helpful in understanding architectural history of a particular case in its socioeconomic and political context. This study will try to analyze European models with various influences, inspirations from varied styles and sources how implemented with modifications in local conditions. In extension this will support in understanding history of Public Architecture typology of covered market as an emerging typology in India during late nineteenth century. Along with this it can be probably a tool to understand different aspects and layers of study related to architectural vocabulary developed in late 19th century designed and executed by Royal engineers in association with Indian local contractors.
AMÉRICA LATINA Venezuela adelanta las elecciones presidenciales a 2012.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/americas/venezuela-presidential-voting-set.html?ref=world http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Venezuela/adelanta/elecciones/presidenciales/2012/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_13/Tes http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/E6BDD105-543E-45C1-A5AE-CD1C288AA929.htm?id={E6BDD105-543E-45C1-A5AE-CD1C288AA929} http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13687918.htm http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/ya-tiene-fecha-la-eleccion-presidencial-en-venezuela_10354066-4La colisión de un tren y un autobús en Buenos Aires causa al menos 11 muertes.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44507800/ns/world_news-americas/ http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/colision/tren/autobus/Buenos/Aires/causa/muertes/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_10/Tes http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/_portada/noticias/FA08E5EB-C6C8-45C9-AACD-C93832AB731E.htm?id={FA08E5EB-C6C8-45C9-AACD-C93832AB731E} http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44501154/ns/world_news-americas/El ex presidente argentino Carlos Saúl Menem es absuelto en juicio por tráfico de armas a Ecuador y Croacia.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/09/13/argentina.weapons.sales/index.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/expresidente/argentino/Carlos/Saul/Menem/absuelto/trafico/armas/Ecuador/Croacia/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_15/Teshttp://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/AD4725E6-3677-4E45-8A92-3464F2D45805.htm?id={AD4725E6-3677-4E45-8A92-3464F2D45805} http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-14909000Un ex militar y un populista rivalizan por la presidencia de Guatemala.Para más información: http://www.economist.com/blogs/americasview/2011/09/guatemalas-presidential-election-0 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-guatemala-vote-20110912,0,7766717.story http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/exmilitar/populista/rivalizan/presidencia/Guatemala/elpepuint/20110912elpepuint_4/Tes http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/prez-molina-encabeza-las-presidenciales-en-guatemala_10340984-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-guatemala-election-20110913,0,596771.storyLatinoamérica, la región con mayor índice de violencia, según el PNUD.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/latinoamerica-es-la-region-con-mayor-indice-de-violencia_10363204-4Rumores sobre la salud de Castro. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/09/08/cuba.castro.photo/index.htmlCultivos de coca en Bolivia se mantienen estables en 2010, según informe de ONU. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/815703A5-9B9B-4E80-834C-E414F30540D3.htm?id={815703A5-9B9B-4E80-834C-E414F30540D3La crisis europea ha dejado a 100.000 ecuatorianos desocupados en España.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/crisis/ha/dejado/100000/ecuatorianos/paro/Espana/elpepueco/20110913elpepueco_13/TesLa tormenta tropical María se acerca a costas americanas.Para más información: http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44502339/ns/weather/Dimite ministro de Turismo de Brasil tras denuncias de corrupción.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/dimite-ministro-de-turismo-de-brasil_10362286-4ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁSe recuerdan los 10 años de los atentados del 9/11.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/dcimo-aniversario-de-los-atentados-del-11-de-septiembre_10336624-4Obama presentará proyecto para generar empleo en Estados Unidos.Para más información: http://www.portafolio.co/internacional/obama-presentara-proyecto-generar-empleo-ee-uu Obama considera que "ha llegado el momento" de que lleguen los cambios a Cuba.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Obama/considera/ha/llegado/momento/lleguen/cambios/Cuba/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_2/TesLos republicanos consiguen un bastión clave en Nueva York.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-14904065 http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2011/09/14/apres-le-scandale-weiner-les-republicains-enlevent-un-bastion-democrate-a-new-york_1571880_3222.htmlAl Qaeda reaparece con mensaje sobre el aniversario del 11-S. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/al.qaeda.message/index.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/D2821A56-6B21-4C42-B32A-5E1EE3AE4F31.htm?id={D2821A56-6B21-4C42-B32A-5E1EE3AE4F31}La CIA estrecha lazos con la Policía de Nueva York.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13683413.htmLa acumulación de desfavorables datos económicos socava la reelección de Obama.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/acumulacion/datos/economicos/malos/socava/reeleccion/Obama/elpepiint/20110914elpepiint_5/Tes http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13682558.htmEUROPAChirac y Villepin acusados de recibir fondos ilegales de Estados africanos.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/09/13/a-paris-kagame-suivi-a-la-trace-par-ses-opposants_1571755_3210.html http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Chirac/Villepin/acusados/recibir/fondos/ilegales/Estados/africanos/elpepiint/20110913elpepiint_7/Tes http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14912454La UE y el FMI piden un esfuerzo extra a Portugal de 1.000 millones.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/UE/FMI/piden/esfuerzo/extra/Portugal/1000/millones/elpepueco/20110913elpepueco_3/Tes Gran Bretaña continúa sacudida por el escándalo de las escuchas ilegales.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/A8FF43B3-6102-4B0B-A622-0F6A2B3C22D9.htm?id={A8FF43B3-6102-4B0B-A622-0F6A2B3C22D9}Bélgica enfrenta una importante crisis política.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2011/09/14/crise-politique-belge-elio-di-rupo-laisse-entrevoir-l-echec-des-negociations_1571955_3214.htmlCameron critica a Rusia tras asesinato de espía.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/09/12/russia.cameron/index.htmlUn muerto y cuatro heridos por explosión en planta nuclear francesa.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-france-nuclear-blast-20110913,0,609378.story http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/explosin-en-una-planta-nuclear-francesa_10341484-4Eurozona amenazada por crisis económica griega.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13684443.htm http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-greek-euro-20110914,0,1628135.story http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/papandru-pedir-a-merkel-y-sarkozy-que-aceleren-ayudas-a-grecia_10359844-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-europe-economy-20110913,0,412910.story http://www.economist.com/blogs/charlemagne/2011/09/euro-crisis http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-14913517Autoridades consideran que los disturbios en Inglaterra podrán afectar las Olimpiadas.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/11/content_13666669.htmCiber ataque en Europa resalta los riesgos de Internet.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-cyber-attack-20110910,0,5076260.storyPrimer Ministro turco se encuentra con líderes egipcios.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-erdogan-20110913,0,254216.storyASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTETalibanes atacan embajada de Estados Unidos y cuartel de la OTAN en Afganistán.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/asia/14afghanistan.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ataque-a-embajada-de-ee-uu-en-afganistn_10349324-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/afghanistan.kabul.attack/index.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14909004 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-afghan-kabul-attack-20110914,0,5795907.story http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/fuerzas/afganas/acaban/horas/ataque/EE/UU/OTAN/Kabul/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_7/Tes http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/_portada/noticias/BCB69422-9DC6-4666-B76A-BD38433AC680.htm?id={BCB69422-9DC6-4666-B76A-BD38433AC680} http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/09/13/a-paris-kagame-suivi-a-la-trace-par-ses-opposants_1571755_3210.htmlLa ONU cifra en 2.600 los muertos por la represión siria.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/ONU/cifra/2600/muertos/represion/siria/elpepuint/20110912elpepuint_6/Tes http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-iran-hikers-20110914,0,3321737.story http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14918325 http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/09/14/les-attaques-des-talibans-tuent-quatorze-personnes-a-kaboul_1571898_3210.htmlIrán liberará a los dos estadounidenses acusados de espionaje.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/world/middleeast/irans-judiciary-clouds-fate-of-american-hikers.html?ref=world http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Iran/liberara/par/dias/estadounidenses/presos/espionaje/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_9/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/09/13/iran.hikers.release/index.html http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2011/09/14/l-iran-dement-la-prochaine-liberation-des-deux-randonneurs-americains_1571970_3218.htmlJapón intercepta barcaza con posibles desertores norcoreanos.Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2011/09/14/internacional/internacional/noticias/B909D923-FF9D-4E2A-9CF6-84267A596CAC.htm?id={B909D923-FF9D-4E2A-9CF6-84267A596CAC} http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/asia/14japan.html?ref=world http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/japan.north.korea.boaters/index.htmlAlerta en las bolsas asiáticas por temores a una quiebra griega.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/alerta-en-las-bolsas-asiticas-por-temores-a-una-quiebra-griega_10341344-4Reactores de Fukushima están ahora estables, según agencia atómica de la ONU.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/asia/estabilidad-en-los-reactores-de-fukushima_10346305-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/japon/article/2011/09/13/japon-noda-promet-une-nouvelle-politique-energetique-sur-fond-de-hausse-du-yen_1571364_1492975.htmlInundaciones en Paquistán dejan más de 226 muertos y 300000 desplazados.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/pakistan.flooding/index.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13687915.htm http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44522452/ns/world_news-south_and_central_asia/Al menos 15 soldados iraquíes muertos por explosión en Bagdad.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/middleeast/anbars-provincial-leaders-assail-iraqi-government.html?ref=world http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/explosin-en-bagdad_10357564-4 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44514096/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ONU denuncia a Yemen por uso desmedido de la fuerza durante protestas.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/14/world/middleeast/united-nations-accuses-yemen-of-using-deadly-force-in-protests.html?ref=world4 muertos y 16 heridos en un ataque a un ómnibus escolar en Pakistán.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/pakistan.school.bus.attack/index.htmlBomba explota al sur de Filipinas.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13685289.htmIndia: choque de trenes deja 10 muertos.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14907206 Al menos 20 muertos en ataque en Kashmir.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/asiapcf/09/13/india.bus.crash/index.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13686789.htmÁFRICAAmnistía acusa a los dos bandos libios de crímenes de guerra.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Amnistia/acusa/bandos/libios/crimenes/guerra/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_5/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/13/libya.war/index.html http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/44521764/ns/world_news-mideast_n_africa/ http://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2011/09/13/libye-le-rapport-d-amnesty-international-n-epargne-pas-les-rebelles_1571749_3210.htmlEl líder del Gobierno rebelde libio promete un islam moderado y mayor cuota para las mujeres.Para más información: http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/lider/Gobierno/rebelde/promete/islam/moderado/mayor/cuota/mujeres/elpepuint/20110913elpepuint_6/Tes http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/11/libya.war/index.htmlUn incendio en un oleoducto deja al menos 82 muertos en Nairobi.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-nigeria-boko-haram-20110914,0,703649.story http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-kenya-fire-20110913,0,5237204.story http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13682572.htmhttp://www.economist.com/blogs/baobab/2011/09/kenya http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/incendio-en-kenia_10341504-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/13/kenya.fire/index.htmlLa mujer que desea gobernar Egipto.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2011/09/13/world/meast/egypt-bothaina-kamel/index.htmlAl-Qaeda amenaza constantemente en Yemen.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2011/09/13/al-qaida-constitue-un-danger-croissant-au-yemen-selon-la-cia_1571810_3218.htmlReconciliación en Ruanda: será cuestión de generaciones.Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2011/09/13/reconciliation-au-rwanda-une-question-de-generations_1571229_3212.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14912701Saadi, hijo de Gadafi, llegó a Niamey, capital de Níger.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/saadi-gadafi-llego-a-la-capital-de-niger_10355365-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/09/11/libya.war/index.html http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-14909734Banco Mundial promoverá de recursos a Libia para su reconstrucción.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2011-09/14/content_13682551.htmOTRAS NOTICIASONU alerta sobre los riesgos de las medidas de austeridad gubernamentales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/07/world/europe/07nations.html?ref=worldFMI reduce proyección de crecimiento económico global a 4,0%Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/economia/internacional/fmi-reduce-proyeccin-de-crecimiento-econmico-global_10308844-4"El Universal" presenta su portal dedicado al cambio climático.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/coberturas/cobertura3.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week".Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21528682
Elecciones municipales en Venezuela El pasado Domingo 23 de noviembre se llevaron a cabo las elecciones municipales en Venezuela. Se eligieron los gobernadores, alcaldes y legisladores regionales en una jornada con una participación histórica. Hugo Chávez, obtuvo una victoria agridulce: aunque el oficialismo se impuso en 17 de las 22 gobernaciones, perdió en cinco distritos, dos de ellos considerados claves, como el estado Miranda y la alcaldía mayor de Caracas. Varios medios informan al respecto:"El País" de Madrid:"Venezuela vota para elegir a gobernadores, alcaldes y legisladores regionales: Hay una asistencia masiva a los centros electorales.- Para Hugo Chávez, está en juego el futuro de la "revolución bolivariana"": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Venezuela/vota/elegir/gobernadores/alcaldes/legisladores/regionales/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_10/Tes"La oposición intenta arrebatar a Chávez el monopolio de la lucha por los pobres: Las elecciones de hoy en Venezuela despejarán el control de algunos Estados y municipios clave": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/oposicion/intenta/arrebatar/Chavez/monopolio/lucha/pobres/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_2/Tes"New York Times":"Venezuelan Opposition Gains in Vote": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/25/world/americas/25venezuela.html?_r=1&ref=world "Le Monde":"Elections au Venezuela : les pro-Chavez en tête, mais l'opposition se renforce": http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2008/11/24/elections-au-venezuela-les-pro-chavez-en-tete-mais-l-opposition-se-renforce_1122170_3222.html#ens_id=1120093"CNN":"Chavez passes Venezuela election test":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/24/venezuela.elections/index.html "BBC": "Victoria agridulce para Chávez": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7745000/7745164.stm "Venezuela: todos ganan": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7745000/7745263.stm "Todos celebran en Venezuela": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/multimedia/video/newsid_7745000/7745721.stm "MSNBC":"Chavez allies win majority in Venezuelan vote: Opposition makes gains, winning two of most populous states": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27873573/"La Nación":"Fuerte tensión y demoras en Venezuela: extendieron el horario de votación por la masiva afluencia; la oposición acusó al gobierno de obstaculizar el recuento de votos": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073631"Afirman que las elecciones dejan a Chávez en un rol de negociación: Analistas políticos señalaron a lanacion.com que la oposición está logrando imponer la idea de que hay que frenar al presidente venezolano": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073725"A pesar del triunfo chavista, avanza la oposición en Venezuela":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073662 "Los Ángeles Times":"Chavez foes claim symbolic victories in Venezuela": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-venez25-2008nov25,0,7748341.story"El Tiempo" de Colombia:""Avance de la oposición complica idea de reelección indefinida de Chávez":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/home/avance-de-la-oposicion-complica-idea-de-reeleccion-indefinida-de-chavez_4684645-1"Miami Herald":"Chávez allies score big wins in Venezuela elections": http://www.miamiherald.com/news/world/story/785055.html"El Universal" de México:"Mitad de venezolanos votó por la oposición: El gobierno de Chávez insiste en que la revolución salió fortalecida": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/59724.html "EL Mercurio" de Chile: "Elecciones en Venezuela" http://www.elmercurio.com/editorial/2008/11/25/elecciones-en-venezuela.asp AMERICA LATINA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Siete muertos en un motín en una prisión de Guatemala: Cinco de las víctimas fueron decapitadas": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/muertos/motin/prision/Guatemala/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_6/Tes"MSNBC" anuncia: "Gunmen open fire in Tijuana bar, 6 killed: The bar, popular with students, is located near three university campuses": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27862527"New York Times" publica: "Sandinista Fervor Turns Sour for Former Comrades of Nicaragua's President": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/24/world/americas/24nicaragua.html?ref=world"MSNBC" plantea: "Leftist Sandinistas win Nicaragua vote: Ruling party triumphs in most municipal races amid claims of fraud":http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27833050/"El País" de Madrid informa: "Más avalanchas y las lluvias dificultan el rescate de los atrapados tras la erupción del Nevado del Huila: La Cruz Roja ha advertido de otro alud, de mayores proporciones.- Toneladas de lodo con troncos arrasan con viviendas en Belalcázar, en el suroeste colombiano": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/avalanchas/lluvias/dificultan/rescate/atrapados/erupcion/Nevado/Huila/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_13/Tes"El Universal" de México analiza: "Llegan a 34 los muertos por las lluvias en Colombia: La fuerte época de lluvias, la segunda del año, y que empezó a mediados de septiembre, ha afectado a 255 municipios de 26 de los 32 departamentos colombianos": http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/558188.html"El País" de Madrid publica: "Bolivia levanta el estado de sitio en el departamento de Pando: El ex prefecto de ese distrito seguirá detenido a la espera de un juicio por una masacre de campesinos afines al Gobierno de Evo Morales": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Bolivia/levanta/estado/sitio/departamento/Pando/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_12/Tes"BBC" plantea: "Brasil: 20 muertos por inundaciones": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7745000/7745139.stm"CNN" informa: "Deadly flooding leaves thousands homeless in Brazil":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/24/brazil.deaths/index.html"MSNBC" plantea: "Floods, mudslides kill 45 in southern Brazil :Heavy rains also forced 22,000 to flee, cut off access to four towns": http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27889608/-"Los Angles Times" publica: "59 dead in floods, landslides in Brazil: Some are missing and at least 43,000 people have left their homes as heavy rains wreak havoc in the south.":http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-floods25-2008nov25,0,1385608.story"The Economist" analiza: "The Amazon's indigenous people: The other Brazil.The mixed blessings of the simple life led by indigenous people deep in the forest": http://www.economist.com/world/americas/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12641796"CNN" : "Chile strike ends with 10 percent raise": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/21/chile.strike/index.html"La Nación" anuncia: "Dentro de unas horas llegarán los barcos rusos: Chávez prepara las maniobras con Rusia":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073633"El Tiempo" de Colombia plantea: "Flota rusa de cuatro buques llegó a Venezuela para realizar maniobras militares conjuntas":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/home/flota-rusa-de-cuatro-buques-llego-a-venezuela-para-realizar-maniobras-militares-conjuntas_4685947-1 ESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADA"New York Times" anuncia: " Report Calls for Fresh Approach to Latin America": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/24/washington/24latin.html?ref=world"La Nación" informa: "Brasil y México, las prioridades de Obama en América latina: Lo afirman sus asesores para la región; el presidente electo todavía no habló con Chávez": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073495"CNN" analiza: "Obama's economic team takes shape": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/24/transition.wrap/index.html"China Daily": "Obama focuses on job creation": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/24/content_7231583.htm"La Nación" informa: "Obama presenta hoy a todo su equipo económico: Timothy Geithner será secretario del Tesoro; Lawrence Summers, consejero económico": http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073580"Times" plantea: "Bin Laden's driver to leave GuantanamoBay": http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article5227621.ece EUROPA"CNN" publica: "Magnitude 7.0 quake rocks Russia's far east": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/24/russia.earthquake/index.html"New York Times" anuncia: "French Socialists Face Division and Derision After Vote for Leader": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/24/world/europe/24france.html?ref=world"CNN" informa: "German business confidence hits 15-year low": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/11/24/germany.business.confidence.ap/index.html"La Nación" plantea: "Ofensiva del gobierno británico por la crisis: Lanzan hoy un paquete de medidas":http://www.lanacion.com.ar/nota.asp?nota_id=1073585"CNN" informa: "Britain to raise tax on high earners": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/11/24/britain.income.tax.ap/index.html"BBC" analiza: "R. Unido: estímulos. e impuestos": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7745000/7745913.stm"Le Monde" analiza: "Silvio Berlusconi évoque de nouveau le bronzage d'Obama": http://www.lemonde.fr/ameriques/article/2008/11/23/silvio-berlusconi-evoque-de-nouveau-le-bronzage-d-obama_1122080_3222.html#ens_id=1108513"El País" de Madrid anuncia: "Una protesta contra la crisis en Islandia acaba en enfrentamientos entre la policía y los manifestantes: Miles de islandeses realizan desde hace seis sábados concentraciones para protestar contra la actuación del Gobierno en la crisis que ha situado al país al borde del colapso financiero": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/protesta/crisis/Islandia/acaba/enfrentamientos/policia/manifestantes/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_9/Tes Asia – Pacífico /Medio Oriente"El País" de Madrid informa: "El Dalai Lama asegura que luchará "hasta la muerte" por un Tíbet libre: El líder espiritual ha salido fortalecido en la reunión de los tibetanos exiliados en India": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Dalai/Lama/asegura/luchara/muerte/Tibet/libre/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_5/Tes"CNN" publica: "Protests cancel Thai parliament session": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/11/24/thailand.unrest/index.html"China Daily" anuncia: "Thai protesters vow to topple government by Wednesday": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/25/content_7237152.htm"El Tiempo" de Colombia plantea: "Manifestantes sitian sede temporal del Gobierno de Tailandia":http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/otrasregiones/home/manifestantes-sitian-sede-temporal-del-gobierno-de-tailandia_4685920-1"New York Times" informa: "N. Korea Stiffens Reconciliation Stance": http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/25/world/asia/25korea.html?ref=world"Times" publica: "Latest pictures of Kim Jong Il released": http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article5227959.ece"El Tiempo" de Colombia analiza: "Fosas comunes fueron descubiertas en prisión militar de Estados Unidos en Vietnam": http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/otrasregiones/home/fosas-comunes-fueron-descubiertas-en-prision-militar-de-estados-unidos-en-vietnam_4685928-1"CNN" plantea: "Bombings kill at least 19 in Baghdad":http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/meast/11/24/iraq.blast/index.html"Times" anuncia: "Iraqi parliament prepares to vote on status of US troops": http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/iraq/article5233145.ece"The Economist" analiza situación política en Iran: "The party's over: Iran's President Ahmadinejad has had a good run. For how much longer?": http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12650281 AFRICA"El País" de Madrid informa: "Ataque al palacio presidencial de Guinea Bissau: El presidente del país africano pide ayuda a Senegal y considera el ataque como parte de un pronunciamiento militar": http://www.elpais.com/articulo/internacional/Ataque/palacio/presidencial/Guinea/Bissau/elpepuint/20081123elpepuint_8/Tes"China Daily" publica: "Shippers urge naval blockade of Somali coast": http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-11/25/content_7237887.htm"Los Angeles Times" plantea: "Jimmy Carter says Zimbabwe crisis is 'much worse' than imagined": http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mugabe25-2008nov25,0,7756381.story"Le Monde" anuncia: "Le choléra a tué 300 personnes au Zimbabwe": http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2008/11/24/le-cholera-a-tue-300-personnes-au-zimbabwe_1122334_3244.html#ens_id=1105701"El Tiempo" de Colombia analiza: "500 opositores habrían sido asesinados en el Congo desde hace dos años, según Human Rights Watch": http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/otrasregiones/home/500-opositores-habrian-sido-asesinados-en-el-congo-desde-hace-dos-anos-segun-human-rights-watch_4685926-1 ECONOMÍA"CNN" informa: "Citigroup secures $20 billion U.S. government lifeline": http://edition.cnn.com/2008/BUSINESS/11/24/citi.rescue/index.html "BBC" anuncia: "Plan de emergencia para Citigroup: El Departamento del Tesoro de Estados Unidos anunció a última hora del domingo un plan de rescate de US$20.000 millones para Citigroup uno de los principales bancos del mundo.": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7745000/7745166.stm"The Economist" publica su informe semanal: " Business this week":http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12652488"BBC" plantea: "La economía británica decreció": http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/business/newsid_7688000/7688795.stm
Dan Cassara (CEGA Project Manager, Financial Inclusion) and Ariana Zapanta (IPA Research Manager, Financial Inclusion) introduce a new synthesis on the relationship between the digitization of credit and development. Explore the full report or a condensed summary.The first digital credit loan was made in Kenya in 2012 [1]. By 2019, these loans had spread across the globe, with billions of dollars of credit disbursed to consumers in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [2]. Though the proliferation of quick and easy loans made demand for these products clear, their impact on consumers was uncertain.While proponents hailed digital credit as a transformative development with the potential to drive financial inclusion and reduce poverty, reports of fraud, exploitation, and over-indebtedness led to concerns that many digital credit users suffered financial harm. Until now, a shortage of rigorous evidence has made it difficult to answer questions about the true impacts of the first wave of digital loans. Even as a sufficient body of evidence has formed to evaluate early digital credit products, rapid evolution in the market and the digitization of new credit products over the past decade has further complicated the challenge of fully understanding the impacts of digital credit today. Insights from early evaluations should be applied to critically assess newer forms of digital credit and focus future support on more productive and impactful products.A New SynthesisSupported by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Mobile Instant Credit: Impacts, Challenges, and Lessons for Consumer Protection is a collaborative report from the Center for Effective Global Action (CEGA) and Innovations for Poverty Action (IPA) that contributes to a shared vocabulary, reference base, and conceptual framework to advance discussion on the relationship between the digitization of credit and development. The report draws on evidence mainly from CEGA's Digital Credit Observatory (DCO) and IPA's Consumer Protection Research Initiative (CPRI). Both initiatives have supported extensive research on digital credit and approaches to better protect consumers and support their financial health.This new report should temper both the fears of critics and optimism of proponents. The current evidence on digital credit suggests the average consumer has not benefited economically, but did see modest improvements in subjective well-being. Causal studies did not find that recipients were harmed by digital loans, but descriptive evidence showed a rise in problems such as debt stress, price shrouding, overcharging, and predatory collection practices. When considered alongside the proliferation of digital credit, these challenges necessitate new consumer protections.A small-business owner can be seen serving patrons in her restaurant in Nkhoma, Malawi. | Credit: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation/Barbara KinneyKey EvidenceThe report focuses on studies investigating the welfare impacts of digital credit, the forms of misconduct associated with digital credit, and the effectiveness of consumer protection tools. It emphasizes the narrower topic of Mobile Instant Credit (MIC) — small digital loans that are primarily marketed and used for consumption — and airtime loans, which together comprised the first wave of credit digitization. As digital credit continues to evolve with new products like Buy-Now Pay-Later, overdraft facilities, and Pay-As-You-Go schemes, this report synthesizes research on MIC to generate insights that can inform digital credit-related policy more broadly.The report's main findings include:The current evidence on MIC and airtime loans reveals modest improvements in subjective well-being for the average consumer. Most loans are small — the average loan was less than US$3 in half of the studies on the welfare effects of digital loans — which may limit how large the impacts can be. Although the majority of evidence indicates MIC has not affected financial outcomes, including resilience, consumption, and financial health, studies that examined subjective well-being found a positive impact. One research team speculated — with the caveat that more evidence is needed — that the ability to access resources in times of need can relax constraints that damage mental health, consistent with prior studies [3, 4].The absence of negative impacts contrasts with robust descriptive evidence on the diverse consumer harms associated with rapidly digitizing credit, including rising debt stress, price shrouding and overcharging, predatory collections, and fraud. The rapid digitization of finance in many regions of the world has revealed new and growing consumer protection risks. While digital credit does not appear, on average, to harm consumers' financial health, ability to save, or overall spending, descriptive evidence from digital finance and mobile money, which underlies MIC and digital credit, reveals misconduct and other risks.Upgrading consumer protection regimes is imperative given the increasing digitization of finance and credit. Fortunately, there are promising approaches to improve market monitoring and empower consumers. Despite existing challenges, a handful of causal studies and pilot interventions confirm the effectiveness and feasibility of interventions to address consumer protection concerns. New data sources and collection methods, along with advanced data analytics, suggest that a next-generation approach to market monitoring would enable regulators to move towards preventative interventions. Further, several interventions directly targeting consumer and provider behavior have empowered consumers in early evaluations, and may be effective if scaled up.Policy InsightsDigital credit is growing and evolving rapidly, with providers increasingly using digital lending to offer more than just small consumer loans and targeting a wider array of sectors, from agricultural finance to e-commerce. The digital credit model has the potential to enable growth as reduced costs, faster underwriting, and better information on prospective borrowers may lead to more suitable and sustainable products, particularly in more productive parts of the economy. Evidence on Mobile Instant Credit and airtime loans is particularly informative for emergent forms of consumer-oriented digital credit, such as Buy-Now Pay-Later and overdraft products. However, the effectiveness of many forms of digital credit, particularly those focused on productive activities, remains unexplored, and regulatory frameworks are still being developed in many countries, leaving consumers at risk. More research is needed to understand who benefits from digital credit, and why.There are also clear dangers to maintaining the status quo in unregulated or underregulated markets. Although causal studies have not found clear negative impacts of MIC and airtime loans, decision-makers should consider a broader set of evidence. Robust descriptive studies highlight diverse consumer protection challenges associated with digitizing credit, and there is evidence that the most vulnerable people are more susceptible to fraud and exploitation as they enter the formal financial system via digital credit. Though risks have grown, initial research on new market monitoring techniques and interventions to directly support consumers have shown promise, and could pave the road to more proactive regulatory approaches.Despite what remains unknown, there are reasons for optimism. Digitization has catalyzed rapid growth in financial inclusion, and addressing known policy issues now can be instructive for informing management and regulation of digital credit products more broadly, including the potential movement of digital credit into more productive parts of the economy. Mobile Instant Credit: Impacts, Challenges, and Lessons for Consumer Protection gathers existing evidence on the relationship between the digitization of credit and development, while clarifying the need for further research. Whether the next evolution of digital credit improves upon the first to provide less risky and more transformative solutions will depend on the evolution of commercial product design and public policy to monitor markets and protect consumers.References:[1] Totolo, E. (2018) Kenya's Digital Credit Revolution 5 Years On. FSD Kenya, Blog. https://www.fsdkenya.org/blogs-publications/blog/kenyas-digital-credit-revolution-5-years-on/[2] Cornelli, G., J. Frost, L. Gambacorta, P.R. Rau, R. Wardrop, T. Ziegler, (2023) Fintech and big tech credit: drivers of the growth of digital lending. Journal of Finance and Banking, 148, 106742. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbankfin.2022.106742[3] Haushofer, J., E. Fehr, (2014) On the Psychology of Poverty. Science 344, no. 6186: 862–867. https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1232491[4] Banerjee, A., M. Faye, A. Krueger, P. Niehaus, T. Suri, (2020) Effects of a Universal Basic Income during the pandemic. UC San Diego Technical Report.The Promise and Harms of Digital Credit: What Does the Evidence Say? was originally published in CEGA on Medium, where people are continuing the conversation by highlighting and responding to this story.
In early 2021, Secretary of State Antony Blinken removed the Houthis from the State Department's lists of foreign terror groups, reversing a last-minute Trump administration move. "This decision is a recognition of the dire humanitarian situation in Yemen," Blinken said at the time. "We have listened to warnings from the United Nations, humanitarian groups, and bipartisan members of Congress, among others, that the designations could have a devastating impact on Yemenis' access to basic commodities like food and fuel." Three years later, the situation in Yemen remains precarious, but the Biden administration has changed its calculus. Amid a Houthi campaign of attacks on ships headed toward Israel, Blinken announced that the U.S. will redesignate the organization as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist group (SDGT) next month. (The Houthis say their attacks would stop if Israel ends its assault on Gaza.) This designation, though less stringent than the one imposed by the Trump administration, will likely complicate the distribution of aid in Yemen, according to Ashleigh Subramanian-Montgomery, the associate director of the Charity and Security Network. In practice, U.S. and UK airstrikes have already forced some aid groups to cut back operations in the country. RS spoke with Subramanian-Montgomery to get her take on how the designation and the broader escalation will affect average Yemenis, as well as how political calculations influence national security decision making. The following conversation has been edited for length and clarity. RS: How are humanitarian groups responding to this decision? Subramanian-Montgomery: Likely many humanitarian groups and aid groups are responding how they always do when either an SDGT designation or other designations happen, which is to review all of the authorizations that Office of Foreign Assets Control has put out. OFAC put out five general licenses and an FAQ. Organizations are looking into those and understanding what's allowable and what's not allowable then trying to act accordingly. Likely all humanitarian organizations will be forced to have conversations with their banks because any type of designation makes banks very, very hesitant and scared to continue transactions, even when things are authorized and allowed. There are certain places in the world where banks are more hesitant to transact to, and Yemen is definitely one of those places. RS: Do you have a sense of how the designation might affect the ability of NGOs to distribute aid? Subramanian-Montgomery: Where we have a little bit of the advantage is that it's not going into place until Feb. 16. So I think there can be some mobilizing around that that's kind of unique. You don't usually get any heads up that that designation will happen. There are potentials for humanitarian aid organizations to be able to sort of figure out things a little bit ahead of time and find any workarounds that they need to do there. But the big challenge they'll face is the de-risking by banks, which will then make them not be able to do their aid delivery in the places that are going to need it the most, or potentially at all. RS: Can you tell me more about the history of the relationship between NGOs and their banking partners in the Middle East? Subramanian-Montgomery: Certain countries are always flagged. Banks will sometimes reject transactions just because of a certain name, like Syria, for instance, or Palestine, even before Oct. 7. Some organizations, if they have that in their name, or they're saying the transaction is going to this country, the transaction will be stopped or delayed. Delayed is the best case scenario, but that's not a good scenario if you need humanitarian aid immediately. Sometimes they'll be stopped altogether, or a bank will drop the relationship completely. Unfortunately, the relationships between humanitarian aid organizations in the region and banks can be really difficult. It's a fraught, challenging relationship. And it comes to be hard for aid organizations to know where in the pipeline the delay or the stopping of the transaction happened. Was it where the funds originated? Was it a bank along the way? That can be really, really challenging. RS: Can you tell me more about the distinction between the SDGT designation and the FTO designation? My understanding is that they were both put in place by Trump, both reversed by Biden, and now just the SDGT put in place by Biden. Subramanian-Montgomery: That's exactly right. I will say that it's very, very positive that the FTO designation was not reinstated, and it was just the SDGT. FTO designations are the prohibition on material support to terrorists. When an FTO designation goes into effect, most types of engagement with an FTO are then prohibited. And anybody running afoul of this, any individual organization running afoul of this can face really hefty fines and can face really dire criminal penalties, including up to 10 years of jail time. So it's pretty severe, and they cause a big chilling impact and effect on humanitarian aid. Since you can't really engage with anyone that's designated as an FTO, they also prevent you from then being able to go and negotiate with the Houthis to get humanitarian aid through. So that designation is particularly challenging, and also, as you can imagine, prevents any type of peacebuilding. SDGT designations can be authorized either by the Department of Treasury or of State, which makes it both a counterterrorism designation, since State can issue can authorize this designation and those CT designations fall under State's purview, and because it has the financial and asset-freezing part of it that's under Treasury's purview. Basically, it means that all property and interests in property in the U.S. or even that later can come within the U.S. are blocked. RS: We've already seen some impact from this escalation on the ability of aid groups to do their jobs on the ground. Some organizations have said that the bombings from the U.S. and the UK have prevented them from continuing operations normally. What effect would a renewal of hostilities have on the country's humanitarian sector? Subramanian-Montgomery: A renewal of hostilities would be completely devastating given how dire the humanitarian situation already is in Yemen. It's almost hard to imagine that the situation could be exacerbated further given how bad it is and that it's one of the world's absolute worst humanitarian crises. It would block basic access to infrastructure, impact where and how aid could be delivered, how aid could get into the country, who aid could reach. All of these things will be impacted, and unfortunately, the Houthis are not going to be who suffer most. It's going to be the people of Yemen who are going to suffer the most with any kind of hostilities starting up again and everything that's going to follow on from that with the SDGT designation and whatever else it is to follow. RS: What's the administration's justification for this decision? Do you see this as a politicization of the terrorist designation system? Subramanian-Montgomery: Absolutely. Look, when the Biden administration removed the Houthi designation, both the FTO and SDGT designations in Feb. 2021, Blinken said it was "a recognition of the dire humanitarian situation in Yemen." As I talked about before, that dire situation still exists today. If the priority for lifting it then in February 2021 was recognizing how bad the humanitarian situation is, and we know that it hasn't really gotten better to date, then how can you say that we're going to reinstate one of the designations that was lifted? It just feels really, really hypocritical. The Biden administration is making choices on political whims rather than realities and needs on the ground, which is unfortunate. But it's the way these designations work. An example I always give is the Taliban. They've been designated as an SDGT since 2001, and the reason that they continue to be designated as an SDGT rather than as an FTO is because the administration would basically, if they made them an FTO, designate themselves out of being able to engage the Taliban. So the Doha talks in 2016 and 2019 couldn't really have happened because nobody could have engaged with the Taliban as they were an FTO. It's just an example that shows how political these designations are, and that, administration to administration, regardless of who's in power in the U.S., the decisions are always very political. They're very tactical and strategic. I don't mean that in a good way. They're making these very calculated decisions on terrorism designations based on a number of factors that they think will benefit their own self interest.
The Government's Levelling Up & Regeneration Bill includes substantial planning reforms, setting out frameworks for the levelling up missions and introducing a range of devolution measures. The amendment of its "nutrient neutrality" rules was under fire from rebels and Tories, with the bill currently in the House of Lords, for blocking much-needed housebuilding. As housing targets are made advisory only and a reduction in housing requirements over the next few years, 100,000 more houses will be able to be built thanks to Michael Gove's agreement to the amendment (NC77). On the other hand, environmentalist groups are outraged by the amendment as they claim it would further increase water pollution, despite the fact that this new road has opened up the property market and will benefit the economy by approximately £18 billion. Over its 13 years in power, the Conservative Party has continuously been divided over the subject of housing. This recent change is undoubtedly a huge victory for rebels led by former cabinet minister Theresa Villiers. "It will enable thousands of new homes to be built which are currently blocked, while also securing real progress on cleaning up our waterways" according to Villiers. It has been obvious that a retreat was coming since the first sign of mutiny emerged a few weeks ago when Gove postponed a Commons vote out of fear of losing. Additionally, several of the leading Tories were furious. During Liz Truss' brief office, Sir Jake Berry, the former party chairman, fumed: "Conservatives need to deliver for the next generation if we ever expect them to vote for us." It was a key pledge in the Tories' 2019 manifesto and supporters claimed it was in keeping with Margaret Thatcher's crusade for a property-owning democracy and new homes for younger voters. Thus, Truss's Levelling Up Secretary Sir Simon Clarke blamed the failure to build more homes for the Tory vote in London collapsing, accusing the party of "pulling up the ladder" for younger voters. Contrastingly, Labour's shadow housing secretary Lisa Nandy further accused the government of being "weak", calling the move "unconscionable in the middle of a housing crisis". In accordance with regulatory requirements, Natural England and the Government are collaborating with local planning authorities (LPAs) to ensure that wastewater produced by new homes does not increase pollution in our rivers and coasts while also allowing for quicker decisions that enable the construction of the homes the nation needs. To establish the legal context for this matter, it is necessary to go back in time to 1974 when the Control of Pollution Act initially seized control of waste disposal. When it took effect, a lot of old landfills were discreetly shut down and, for the most part, forgotten about—perhaps by residents of the area. The Government now also plans to cooperate with the housing sector to make sure that larger developers contribute fairly and appropriately to this programme during the ensuing years. In order to put protected sites on the road to recovery in the most affected catchments with the highest housing demand, Natural England will develop new Protected Site Strategies, and the government will then accelerate work on full site restoration. London councils who support the amendment see it as a method for them to set their own planning fees to cover the cost of the service provided, improve performance, and solveresource and capacity shortages in local planning departments as well as to cover costs associated with the service. However, the proposal might result in a new infrastructure levy rather than more affordable housing, which would mean fewer new affordable houses. However, it would provide local authorities the authority to demand that a certain amount of the infrastructure charge be delivered on-site. In a time when there is widespread concern that poverty and health disparities have gotten worse, housing policy can either help to increase disparities in society or be a method to reduce them. According to a source in the housing sector, "This is undoubtedly good news for Britain's housing supply. The only question is why it has taken so long for the government to get around to doing something about this". The District Local Network, meanwhile, welcomed the news and pointed out that in some local areas, nutrient neutrality regulations have limited the supply of affordable homes and raised the price of new homes for purchasers. Local authorities in hundreds of protected regions across England have been encouraged to not approve any new construction that is anticipated to increase river nutrients like phosphates and nitrates, either through wastewater from new residences or runoff from construction sites. The EU first imposed such rules in an effort to stop the growth of harmful algae and other plants that can suffocate aquatic life. Existing regulations required builders to reduce increasing nutrient loads brought on by expanding populations in homes, either on-site or in other parts of the same catchment. By making investments in new wetlands or by establishing buffer zones along rivers and other watercourses, they can achieve this. This has been criticised by builders as being expensive and time-consuming. Former cabinet minister and ASI Patron Sir Brandon Lewis, MP for Great Yarmouth, told PoliticsHome Gove's proposals were welcome and a "really good move". As opposed to theoretical proposals for a long-term plan, Lewis said scrapping nutrient neutrality would allow the Government and developers to build more homes very quickly."It's not a solution to everything, but it releases 100,000 to 140,000 homes. That's a lot of homes, a lot of jobs, and a lot of opportunity." The neutrality announcement also included a £280 million increase in support in Natural England's nutrient reduction programme, which helps builders reduce the impact of developments on water pollution. Additionally, farmers and water businesses will receive incentives totaling £166 million for slurry infrastructure. Katie-Jo Luxton, director of conservation at the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, said: "If nutrient neutrality rules are scrapped, pollution will accumulate unchecked and our rivers face total ecological collapse." In agreement with Luxton, Doug Parr, policy director at Greenpeace UK said "Who would look at our sickly, sewage-infested rivers and conclude that what they need is weaker pollution rules?". He acknowledged that it would necessitate requiring water companies and home builders to utilise their revenues to upgrade treatment facilities and pipes to the level that a modern, functional nation would demand. Developers contend that farming is a considerably greater source to the pollution in question while asserting that Natural England is enforcing the regulations in such a severe manner that they have been compelled to halt the construction of up to 120,000 new houses. In response to protests from developers, ministers introduced a mitigation programme in 2022 that allowed builders to purchase "credits" in order to obtain clearance for their projects. However, according to those developers, the procedure for buying such credits has occasionally resulted in unforeseen repercussions, such as the acquisition of farmland to put it out of production in an effort to lessen water run-off. In order to reduce the likelihood of slurry leaks, they will provide payments totaling around £400 million to farmers and waterbusinesses. They will also spend about an additional £300 million assisting developers in reducing the effects of their projects. According to the Dasgupta review, investing in nature leads to wealth since it serves as the foundation for all we do. Leonardo Da Vinci once remarked that "water is the driving force of all nature" and that no society can function effectively without it. Nutrient pollution does not affect the bulk of house projects nationwide, but in 74 of England's 333 Local Authorities, pollution levels in some areas with abundant natural beauty are so high that additional mitigation measures are required. However, along with the elimination of the nutrient neutrality rules, new environmental measures will be implemented, such as increasing investment in and developing Natural England's "Nutrient Mitigation Scheme" (NMS), a programme that enables developers to purchase credits to offset nutrient pollution from housing development. Therefore, while the government moves forward with its housing ambitions, the neutrality statement has in fact slowed down environmental initiatives. To improve opportunity and the nation's environment, however, a number of mechanisms have been adopted to absorb the loss when pollutants and houses are built. In conclusion, despite objections from environmental groups, the amendment that was agreed upon was generally a good decision. Mr. Gove thanked backbenchers in a statement for "their hard work and support to drive forward these much-needed changes to create a planning system that works for all". More affordable housing offers a respite from the dark clouds of rising interest rates and inflation. So, while still investing in a healthy environment, we can see how the removal of the "nutrient neutrality" laws will be good for the economy and for the people in the long term.
학위논문(석사)--서울대학교 대학원 :행정대학원 글로벌행정전공,2019. 8. 전영한. ; 공무원은 정부 목표의 추진과 실현이라는 중요한 역할을 하는 정부 기관의 주축이다. 그러므로, 공공봉사동기가 높은 직원들을 채용하고 유지하는 것은 정부 기관의 중요한 역할이다. 그들이 높은 직무 만족도를 갖는다면 조직 성과에 엄청나게 영향을 미칠 수 있기 때문이다. 많은 기존 연구들에 따르면 공공봉사동기는 국가에 상관없이 직원들의 직무 만족도에 긍정적인 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 그러나 공공봉사동기에 관한 여러 연구에서는 공공봉사동기의 가치가 지역에 따라 다를 수 있다는 것을 제시했다. 따라서 본 연구는 미얀마 공직에서 공공봉사동기가 직원들의 직무 만족도에 미치는 영향을 조사하였다. 본 연구는 횡단면적, 비실험적, 양적 설문지로 행해졌으며, 250명의 공무원 모집단에서 간단한 무작위 표본 추출로 미얀마 연방인사위원회(UCSB)의 152명의 중간급 및 하위직 공무원의 표본을 조사하였다. 또한 공무원들의 공공봉사동기 및 직무 만족도에 대한 인식은 개정된 공공봉사동기 설문(Kim et al., 2012)과 직무만족도 설문(Spector, 1985)을 결합한 설문조사를 통해 수집되었다. 자료는 SAS 소프트웨어의 기술통계분석, t-검정, 상관관계 및 회귀 분석을 사용하여 분석하였다. 본 연구의 주요 결론은 본 연구에서 수행된 설문의 자료에서 기존 공공봉사동기 이론이 관찰되었다는 것과 공공봉사동기가 미얀마 연방인사위원회 공무원들의 직무 만족도에 긍정적인 영향을 미친다는 것이다. 또한 상위 직급의 직원들은 다른 인구통계학적 변수들 중에서 공공봉사동기와 긍정적으로 관련이 있는 것으로 밝혀졌다. 이에 더하여 본 연구는 공공봉사동기의 차원들과 직원들의 인구통계학적 변수가 직무 만족도에 미치는 영향도 알아냈다. 그 결과 공무원의 직무만족도를 가장 잘 예측한 것은 공공봉사동기 중 '공공 서비스에 대한 관심도(APS)'였으며, 고등교육을 받은 근로자의 경우 직무만족도에 크게 부정적인 영향을 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 그 결과 올바른 직책에 적임자를 채용하고 공공의 이익을 도모하려는 목표를 가지고 적격 심사 및 개인 면접을 수행한다면 공무원 시험 단계에서 공공봉사동기가 구체적으로 구현될 수 있음을 알 수 있다. 또한 UCSB는 공직 가치에 대한 공무원의 태도를 강화하기 위해 공공봉사동기 이론과 관련하여 중앙행정기관이 실시하는 공무원 연수 과정을 추진할 수 있다. UCSB는 지원자에게 현실적인 직업 설계와 조직의 목표에 대한 상세한 정보를 제공하여 공직의 본질에 대해 이해하도록 함으로써 공무원 채용 과정에서 공공봉사동기를 촉진할 수 있었다. 또한 직원의 직무만족에 대한 공공봉사동기의 합리적 측면이 우세한 것으로 판명됨에 따라, UCSB는 공무원이 자신의 관심사를 통해 사회에 기여할 수 있는 공공 프로그램에 참여할 수 있는 기회를 조성할 수 있었다. 미얀마 공직 시스템의 인적자원개발 과정에 더 많은 기여를 하기 위해 개인-조직 간 적합 이론에 의해 매개되는 공공봉사동기와 직무 만족도 사이의 관계에 대하여 질적 접근과 양적 접근 모두를 수행하는 추가 연구를 하는 것도 흥미로울 것이라고 여겨진다. ; Civil servants are the keystone of any government agency taking the critical role of implementation and realization of the goals of government. It is, therefore, vital function for government agencies to recruit and retain employees with higher public service motivation so that they would achieve job satisfaction which incredibly impacts organizational performance. Many previous academic researchers discovered that public service motivation is positively associated with employees' job satisfaction across the world. However, many academic studies on public service motivation suggested that values of public service motivation may differ according to different regions. This research, therefore, intended to investigate the impact of public service motivation on employees' job satisfaction in the context of Myanmar civil service. This study was a cross-sectional, non-experimental and quantitative survey research. This study surveyed the sample of 152 middle level and lower rank civil servants in the Union Civil Service Board (UCSB) of Myanmar by using simple random sampling from the population of 250 civil servants. The perception of civil employees on public service motivation and job satisfaction was collected through a single survey made by combining revised public service motivation questionnaire (Kim et al., 2012) and job satisfaction survey (Spector, 1985). Data was analyzed using statistical procedures of descriptive analysis, t-test, correlation and regression analysis in SAS software. The major finding of this study was that the existing public service motivation theory was observed in the survey data of this study and public service motivation has positive impact on employees' job satisfaction in the Union Civil Service Board of Myanmar. In addition, employees with higher rank was found to be positively associated with public service motivation among other demographic variables. Moreover, this study also found out the influence of dimensions of public service motivation and employees' demographic variables on job satisfaction. The results indicated that "attraction to public service (APS)" dimension of public service motivation was the best predictor of employees' job satisfaction and employees with higher level education had significantly negative effect on job satisfaction. The policy implication drawing from the findings is that public service motivation can be specifically embodied in the stages of civil service exam such as screening test and personal interview in the objectives of recruiting the right person in the right job position and in order of achieving job commitment with the public interest. In addition, the UCSB can promote the civil service training courses conducted by the Central Institutes of Civil Service with respect to the theory of public service motivation to strengthen civil servants' attitudes towards on the values of public service professions. The UCSB could promote the sense of public service motivation in the civil service hiring process by providing applicants with the detailed information of realistic job designs and goals of the organization to better understand the nature of the civil service professions as well as to meet employees' expectations. As rational motive was found to be the dominant category of public service motivation on employees' job satisfaction, the UCSB could foster opportunities for its civil employees to participate in the public programs which permit them to contribute to the society through their interest. Further research would be interesting to conduct both qualitative as well as quantitative approach by adopting the relationship between different dimensions of public service motivation and job satisfaction mediated by person-organization fit theory in order to contribute more to the human resource development processes of Myanmar civil service system. ; Abstract i Table of Contents iv List of Tables viii List of Figures xi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1. Background of the study 1 1.2. Statement of the problem 3 1.3. Purpose of the study 5 1.4. Significance of the study 5 1.5. Definition of terms 6 Chapter 2: Literature Review 8 2.1. Public service motivation (PSM) 8 2.1.1. Measurement of PSM 11 2.2. Job satisfaction 13 2.3. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction …………………………………………………………………….14 2.4. Control Variables 17 2.4.1. Public service motivation control variables 17 2.4.2. Job satisfaction control variables 19 2.5. Background of the Union Civil Service Board (UCSB) 21 Chapter 3: Research Methodology 27 3.1. Conceptual framework 27 3.2. Research questions and Hypothesis 28 3.3. Population and Sample 29 3.4. Instrumentation 30 3.5. Data analysis methodology 32 3.6. Data collection strategy 32 Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Research Findings 34 4.1. Introduction 34 4.2. Reliabilities of the dependent and independent variables 35 4.3. Demographic information of the study 35 4.4. Descriptive statistics of the PSM 39 4.4.1. Descriptive statistics of PSM by demographic variables 39 4.5. Descriptive statistics of five aspects of job satisfaction 44 4.6. Correlation between five facets of job satisfaction and public service motivation 44 4.7. Relationship between pay satisfaction and public service motivation …………………………………………………………………….46 4.8. Relationship between work satisfaction and public service motivation 48 4.9. Relationship between promotion satisfaction and public service motivation 49 4.10. Relationship between coworker satisfaction and public service motivation 52 4.11. Relationship between supervision satisfaction and PSM 54 4.12. Bivariate correlation between dependent and independent variables …………………………………………………………………….55 4.13. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction 56 4.13.1 Relationship between pay satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 57 4.13.2 Relationship between promotion satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 57 4.13.3 Relationship between work satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 58 4.13.4 Relationship between coworker satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 59 4.13.5 Relationship between supervision satisfaction and four dimensions of PSM 60 4.14. Summary 61 Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendation 63 5.1. Relationship between demographic variables and PSM 63 5.2. Relationship between public service motivation and job satisfaction …………………………………………………………………….68 5.3. Dimensions of public service motivation and job satisfaction 71 5.4. Limitations 73 5.5. Recommendation for further research 73 5.6. Practical implications 74 5.7. Conclusion 76 Bibliography 79 Appendix: Public Service Motivation Measurement, Job Satisfacción Survey 89 국문초록 94 Acknowledgement 97 ; Master
In the last decade of the 20th century, profound social and urban changes took place in the ports of Iquique and Pisagua, in northern Chile. This meant the advent of a new mindset which was modern, liberal and marked by relations imposed by the capitalist model. They were new cities, different from the Spanish-colonial root, without foundation date or military-management strategy. They arose without links to the past, organized by a new institution formed by liberal politicians, business people and enlightened businessmen, and with the sole purpose of fulfilling the role assigned by modern technique of commercial nexus and services in the product flow of nitrate explotation. It is there, where a theater that hosted the aspirations and social conventions of the ruling class was built. It was the economic boom of the nitrate cycle, where opulence was the attitude that characterized the society at that time, promoting the construction of buildings that recalled the great European theaters, hosting the refinement of social events and lyric-dramatic singing entertainment. Thus the nitrate towns joined the route of the major theater companies in their journey through the world, giving both European immigrants that settled in these desert land and locals, representative of the ruling elite, to reproduce the social and cultural European world. So the theaters were prominent landmarks of the city, as a testimony of that time, and showing the golden past of the nitrate economic boom period. In parallel, the emergence of the working class and social crisis, marked the social and cultural process of the boom phase of nitrate cities with special features. It was on the opposite scenario where another phenomenon emerged, linked with socio-spatial transformations associated with the industrial era, the development of the working class. A process that spread from Europe to America by the cities that were adhering to the industrialization process. The massive concentration of workers in the nitrate offices was the substrate for the origin and expansion of the labor movement that was born in the struggle for its social demands. It was also the basis for the development of guild and mutual associations which were accompanied by illustrated movements that saw in education and culture, the solution to overcome the state of deprivation in which they lived. Thus, the forms of social organization and representation, with the spread of theatrical performances, with operettas and farces, with philharmonics and estudiantinas. It is there where an inner transgressive theatrical endeavour arose, and moved away from conventional buildings of the ruling class and stuck to the mutual and philanthropic societies, building a testimony that was highlighted not by material but by their works. In this definition of context, the crisis that marked the end of the nitrate cycle indicated the decline of the bourgeois theater which disappears with the ruling classes that leave the cities and nitrate offices. However, the theater that emerges is reinvented and represents the middle and lower classes. Until that time, these classes were away from the stage. This process will be supported by the welfare state promoting the creation of new spaces for performances, and by the strengthening of a national theatre. The hypothesis raised focused the study on the imaginary of modernity and its catalytic spread, of improvement by the sake of improvement. At the same time, the partial vision that triggered modern thinking validated the idea of a bounded world of relationships, ignoring the multiplicity of processes that constitutes it. The history of theater in Chile is related to the social history of the process of the occupation of space, inseparable, like all processes in space and time, of the multiple existing links between political, economic, and cultural factors that are expressed in a spatial taxonomy of accumulation, production and space occupation. ; En la última década del siglo XIX afloraron en los puertos de Iquique y Pisagua, en el norte de Chile, profundas transformaciones sociales y urbanas dando cuenta de la instalación en la sociedad de una nueva mentalidad, moderna, liberal y marcada por las relaciones que impuso el modelo capitalista. Eran nuevas ciudades, distintas a las de raíz hispano-colonial, sin fecha de fundación ni afán de estrategia administrativa-militar. Surgieron, sin recurrir al pasado, organizada por una nueva institucionalidad formada por políticos liberales, empresarios e ilustrados hombres de negocio, y con el sólo objeto de cumplir con el rol que la técnica moderna le asignaba, la de nexo comercial y de servicios en la circulación del producto de la explotación del recurso del salitre. Es allí donde surgió un teatro que acogió las aspiraciones y convenciones sociales de la clase dirigente. Se vivía el periodo de auge económico del ciclo del salitre, donde la opulencia fue la actitud que caracterizó a la sociedad en aquel momento, amparando la edificación de salas, que rememoraban a los grandes teatros europeos, acogiendo el refinamiento del evento social y del espectáculo del canto lírico y dramático. De este modo las ciudades del salitre se integraron al itinerario de las principales compañías de teatro en su periplo por el mundo, concediendo tanto a migrantes europeos que poblaron estas tierras desérticas como a los nacionales, representantes de la elite dirigente, para que reprodujeran el mundo cultural y social europeo. Las salas de teatro quedaron así, en sitios destacados de la ciudad, como testimonio de aquella época, dando cuenta del pasado portentoso que se vivió alrededor del auge económico del salitre. En forma paralela, la emergencia de la clase obrera y la crisis social marcó con un selló el proceso social y cultural de la etapa de auge de las ciudades del salitre. Fue en el escenario opuesto donde surgió otro fenómeno socio-espacial asociado a las transformaciones de la era industrial, el desarrollo de la clase obrera. Un proceso que se expandió desde Europa hacia América, por las ciudades que fueron adhiriendo al proceso de industrialización. La concentración masiva de trabajadores en las oficinas salitreras fue el sustrato para el origen y expansión del movimiento obrero, que nació en busca de sus reivindicaciones sociales. Asimismo, fue la base para el desarrollo de la asociatividad gremial y mutualista, la que estuvo acompañada por movimientos ilustrados que vieron en la educación y en la cultura la forma de superación del estado de postración en que se encontraban. En ella, las formas de organización y representación social actuaron a través de las cofradías de la Fiesta de la Tirana, con el teatro que se fue masificando, con zarzuelas y sainetes, con filarmónicas y estudiantinas. Es allí donde surgió un quehacer teatral interiormente transgresor, que se alejó de los edificios convencionales de la clase dirigente y se apegó al de las mutuales y sociedades filantrópicas, edificando un testimonio que no se destacó por lo material sino por sus obras. En esta delimitación del contexto, la crisis que marcó el fin del ciclo del salitre señaló el declive del teatro burgués, el que desaparece con las clases dirigentes que abandonan las ciudades y oficinas salitreras. No obstante, el teatro que se reinventa y emerge es el que representa a las clases media y populares, hasta ese momento, las clases alejadas de los escenarios. Un proceso que va a estar sostenido por el estado benefactor con el apoyo a la creación de nuevos espacios de representación, y por el afianzamiento de un teatro con carácter nacional, que tomando cuerpo en la zona central del país, va a llegar a un punto de auge con la llamada "Etapa de Oro" del teatro chileno, y que va a irradiar hacia las regiones. La hipótesis levantada centró su estudio en el imaginario de la modernidad y en su propagación catalizadora, de la superación por la superación. A la vez, la visión parcializada que impulsó el pensamiento moderno instauro la idea de un mundo acotado de relaciones, desconociendo la multiplicidad de procesos que la constituyen. La historia del teatro en Chile se relaciona con la historia social de los procesos de ocupación del espacio, inseparable, como todo proceso en el espacio y en el tiempo, de los múltiples vínculos existentes entre procesos políticos, económicos, y culturales que se expresan en una taxonomía espacial, de acumulación, producción, y ocupación del espacio. ; Postprint (published version)
