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The horrific attacks in Paris in January spurred a torrent of commentary, most of which addressed their specifically French context. Commentators, particularly in France itself, recalled the long traditions of French satirical writing behind Charlie Hebdo, which had published deliberately offensive cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed. They dissected the militant French form of secularism and the long history of French anti-Semitism—which seemed particularly relevant to the siege of a kosher market where a gunman killed four hostages after earlier murdering a policewoman. They discussed the legacies of French republicanism, French universalism, French racism, French colonization, French decolonization, French immigration, and French urban planning.This emphasis on France itself, however, has been misguided.

Abstract A leader is a core element of making and implementing foreign policy in a state. The study of "Individual Level" in international relations proves that ideas, emotions, psychology of a leader leave a deep impact on foreign policy and internal policies of a state. This aspect and school of thought is quite applicable in Pakistan where individuals have made more policies than governments. These leaders took those decisions as per their cognitive map and left deep, long lasting and relatively negative impacts at social level in Pakistan. These affects needs to be met and resolved on emergency footings or else they will further destabilize Pakistan in future.Key words: Cognitive paradigm, psychoanalysis, war, Islamization, Musharraf's secularism

Liberalism means here Orientalist attempt to attract even Islam conformity with the principles of Western liberalism in form and substance. Hence Zhardha in the Islamic world have to do Orientalism, which under his leadership became the U.S. currently wants Islam that corresponds to the values of modernity and secularism and Western liberalism. And this phenomenon coincides appearance in the Islamic world with its appearance Malay archipelago and Indonesia to face particular Alholanda since colonial days, and then taking this trend develops even have an influence on contemporary history in these islands. So this includes talking on two things: Orientalist role for the emergence of liberalism in the Islamic world, and its influence in the Malay islands.

Producción Científica ; Turkey has been an «imperfect democracy». Turkey has been knocking on the European Union's door for decades. Joining the Union is a long and arduous process-since it involves transforming the laws and economies of the applicant countries. In the case of Turkey, the accession process comes up against insurmountable obstacles like the lack of true democratic deepening or the weak protection of human rights (pluralism, freedom of expression, judicial independence, women's situation etc). However, the economic side is more advanced. Another major obstacle is the Turkey's attitude towards Cyprus. All these aspects hinder the EU's accession of a «torn country», struggling to overcome the conflict between secularism and Islamism.

Producción Científica ; Turkey has been an «imperfect democracy». Turkey has been knocking on the European Union's door for decades. Joining the Union is a long and arduous process-since it involves transforming the laws and economies of the applicant countries. In the case of Turkey, the accession process comes up against insurmountable obstacles like the lack of true democratic deepening or the weak protection of human rights (pluralism, freedom of expression, judicial independence, women's situation etc). However, the economic side is more advanced. Another major obstacle is the Turkey's attitude towards Cyprus. All these aspects hinder the EU's accession of a «torn country», struggling to overcome the conflict between secularism and Islamism.

In the young Turkish Republic which has rather adopted the French system of laicism as a model instead of the English secularism it is now necessary to evaluate the evolution of each of these systems. At the time of the centenary of the French laicism and the law of 2004, covering the ostentatious display of religious symbols at schools, the author looks into the history of laicism and its application in France so as to make it more understandable but also to criticise the system. He further analyses whether this system can be adapted to the Turkish Republic which is preparing to become a Member of the European Union.

This paper analyses the role of the principle of secularism with respect to the consolidation of the democratic 'host' nations which confront themselves with other cultural and religious identities. The aim is pursued by a revisitation of the concept, in the light of the philosophy of ideas. The core of the argumentation is the following: both liberal and liberal-democratic western states are grounded on what contemporary scholars, proving true John Locke, call the subtle art of distinction among spheres and dimensions of individual and collective life. This must be reconsidered nowadays in order to tackle properly the struggle among groups whose specific symbolic internal cohesion is based on forms of religious identity.

Contemporary German anti-Americanism is not a continuation of earlier anticapitalist, antimodern, and often anti-Semitic anti-Americanism. Rather, since the late 1960s a political anti-Americanism, which accepts capitalism and the extensive Americanization of German society, has emerged. It is a response to specific American foreign policies, but its roots lie in the uneven Americanization of twentieth-century Germany. Anti-Americanism has been fostered by Germany's nonliberal variety of capitalism, by its more egalitarian social policies, by its greater secularism, by its more influential environmental movements, and by memories of World War II. Political anti-Americanism is likely to last beyond the current Iraq War crisis.

Published data on Muslim women's participation in sport in 29 predominantly Islamic countries and personal observations in Middle East sport were used. The situation varies from country to country, from rural to urban areas, and depends on impact of Islamic resurgence, secularism, nationalism, Westernization and socialism. Physical education is officially compulsory in schools but, partly due to traditional attitudes and lack of facilities for segregation of the sexes, often neglected in practice. If at all, women are prepared for teaching of rather than for active participation in sport. The original teachings of Islam, actually favoring physical and spiritual development of both sexes, were overshadowed by other restrictive cultural influences. A change is taking place, but very slowly.