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A thesis submitted to the University of Bedfordshire, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Professional Doctorate in Youth Justice ; 'To require old heads upon young shoulders is inconsistent with the law's compassion to human infirmity' (Lord Diplock in Director of Public Prosecutions v Camplin Appellant [1978] AC 717)'. For young people in England and Wales who offend, diversion from formal proceedings has historically been a principle constituent of youth justice policy and practice, and presently accounts for over a third of all outcomes for detected youth offending (Youth Justice Board for England and Wales, 2015). Although attitudes concerning diversion have often oscillated between favour and criticism, and there has rarely been a period of sustained consensus or constancy of processes (Bernard, 1992; Goldson, 2010), eligibility for an out of court disposal has traditionally been dependent on an admission of some form being made by a young person. This thesis seeks to place the evolution of diversionary measures for young people who commit low level offences or engage in nuisance behaviours into a contextual and historical context, and explore why an admission has become, in the absence of any discernible political, academic or professional considerations, a central tenet of diversionary policies in England and Wales. Potential barriers which may prevent some young people making an admission and unnecessarily losing eligibility for an out of court disposal are considered, as well as the nature and standard of admission expected from young people, and the circumstances in which admissions are usually sought from them. This thesis also explores whether the mandatory admission criterion is compatible with other statutory and international obligations to consider the welfare of a young person when determining a suitable disposal, and whether it sufficiently distinguishes between young people unwilling to make an admission and those who may feel unable to. The thesis seeks to identify the gaps in current academic and professional knowledge concerning whether some young people may unnecessarily forfeit eligibility for a diversionary outcome for the sole reason that they do not make an admission. The research undertaken with relevant professionals' endeavours to fill these gaps by exploring the practical application of the admission criterion, as well considering any suitable alternatives within the existing statutory regime.

Résumé.LaCharte canadienne des droits et libertésenchâsse le droit à l'égalité pour les femmes. De plus, le Canada est signataire de laConvention sur l'élimination de toutes les formes de discrimination à l'égard des femmesdepuis 1981. Les Canadiennes sont donc en mesure de s'attendre à ce que le gouvernement fédéral respecte ses engagements à l'égard de l'égalité des femmes dans ses programmes, ses mesures, ses politiques ou ses lois. Pourtant, tel n'est pas toujours le cas. Comme le démontrent les statistiques récentes, les Canadiennes n'ont pas atteint l'égalité réelle. Une analyse des effets des mesures gouvernementales fédérales sur les femmes est rarement menée, malgré l'existence officielle de programmes d'analyse comparative entre les sexes (ACS) depuis 1995. Les mesures volontaires en matière d'ACS ne mènent pas loin. Comment forcer le gouvernement fédéral à respecter ses propres engagements internationaux et constitutionnels envers l'égalité pour les femmes? Après un rappel du sens à donner aux concepts d'égalité et d'analyse comparative entre les sexes (ACS), nous abordons une des conclusions du Rapport du Groupe d'expertes sur les mécanismes de responsabilisation pour l'égalité entre les sexes,L'égalité pour les femmes : au-delà de l'illusion, soit l'adoption d'une loi portant sur l'égalité pour les femmes et imposant de façon systématique l'ACS dans l'appareil gouvernemental fédéral canadien.Abstract.TheCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedomsprotects women's rights to equality. Canada has also signed theConvention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Womenin 1981. As such, Canadian women have good reason to expect that the federal government will honour its commitments towards women's rights to equality in all its programs, measures, policies and laws. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. As shown by recent statistics, Canadian women have not achieved substantive equality. Gender-based analyses are rarely conducted, in spite of the official existence of the gender-based analysis (GBA) program since 1995. Voluntary measures in GBA do not go far enough. How can the federal government be forced to honour its constitutional and international obligations towards women's equality? After defining the concepts of equality and GBA, this article analyzes one of the recommendations of the Report of the Expert Panel on Accountability Mechanisms for Gender Equality,Equality for Women : Beyond the Illusion, namely the enactment of a law on equality for women, making GBA compulsory in all Canadian federal endeavours.

This report investigates and quantifies Norwegian governmental financial transfers (GFT) to primarily the fish harvesting industry, but also the fish processing and aquaculture industries. Focus is on the period 1990 to 2002. The data sources for this report are mainly public accounts of the Ministry of Fisheries, that channelled the bulk of support measures. We also rely heavily on a set of data on the transfer of funds from the Industrial and Regional Development Fund (SND). Finally, annual reports from the Norwegian Fisheries Bank (NFB) have been employed. For fish harvesting, support has been divided in four categories, according to purpose: revenue enhancement, social measures, capital support and intermediate measures. In addition to these, tax exemptions on fuel oil and provision of general services to the industry is discussed. The support for all four categories have shown a sharp decline, particularly from 1991 to 1993, but the trend has continued in the succeeding years. The main factors behind this development has been international obligations from the agreement on the European Economic Area (EEA), increased profitability and government strategy to make the industry self-sustained. Total support has gone down from about 1,100 million Norwegian kroner (NOK) in 1991 to about 250 million NOK in 2001. In 2002 it again fell sharply to about 140 million NOK. These figures exclude tax exemptions on fuel and the provision of general services. Using the NFB annual reports and the SND database, capital support was investigated further, focusing on which vessel groups have received support for this purpose. The results clearly show the SNDs strategy to prioritize large, multi-purpose coastal vessels. Data restricted the study on processing and aquaculture to the period 1994 to 2002. Support for aquaculture amounts to considerably less at about 47 million NOK in 2002, but has shown the opposite trend compared to fish harvesting. This probably corresponds to the continuous high growth of this sector during this period. Aquaculture support mainly consisted of investment grants, but also partial financing of development projects has been important. Support for fish processing increased from about 76 million NOK in 1994 to about 170 million in 1998. This later fell to about 70 million NOK in 2002.

PurposeWhile women in most European societies still carry the largest burden in caring for the family, there is also an important unrealised learning interest among women. This has an impact on women's labour market and career opportunities. This paper aims at analysing empirically the role of family obligations in women's ability to realise their learning interests and how this differs across societal and institutional contexts across Europe.Design/methodology/approachThe paper makes use of the second wave of Adult Education Survey from 2011, including data from 22 European countries. The article focuses on women aged 25–55 – an age group most affected by parental obligations. Logistic regression models are used to compare the effect that children in the household have on women's learning barriers across country groups of different family policy arrangements.FindingsThe results confirm empirically the situational nature of family barriers to learning as they grow and decline depending on the age of children. However, the level of intensity and the period when family-related barriers remain relevant for women vary across European countries.Originality/valueThis paper provides new insights into how women's caring obligations shape their labour market and career opportunities, focussing on the ability to take up adult learning. Involving data from 22 countries, including Eastern European countries, provides a broad look into the differing contexts shaping women's opportunities across Europe.

In this article, the author asserts that the cowboy myth is an anachronism in American politics. The replacement of cowboys by attorneys as a social force reflects is a metaphor for the tension between realism & institutionalism as frameworks for understanding the international system. In this three part argument for the Bush administration to trade in its cowboy affectation for a more legalist one, the cowboy image is identified as an artifact of international realism, inadequately representing the international system as a balance of powers of loner, individualist & outlaw (rogue) states that in actuality exist in a crowded & interdependent world. The cowboy image of the Bush administration is a sign of ignoring the reality of a world of modern justice that is bound up in rights & obligations, rules & institutions, predictability & interdependence. References. J. Harwell

AbstractThe failure of many developing countries water utilities to provide adequate services to low‐income urban populations stands in marked contrast with calls for universal access to water services, often based on a concept of human rights. Much of the parallel, regulation oriented, 'universal service obligation' rhetoric not only ignores the origins and continuing evolution of the term but equally fails to consider the practical realities of achieving universality of networked urban water supply, particularly in the slums. This paper proposes a 'universal water service dynamic' which allows service obligations to evolve transparently and progressively in line with different consumer groups' preparedness to pay, relative to their perception of the benefits. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Cover -- Half Title -- Series Page -- Title Page -- Copyright Page -- Contents -- Preface -- List of abbreviations -- Introduction -- PART I: A case study: the 2017 Italy-Libya Memorandum of Understanding -- 1 The Italy-Libya Memorandum of Understanding of 2 February 2017 -- 2 Violations of human rights in Libya -- 3 Italy's responsibility for complicity -- 3.1 Article 16 of the International Law Commission Draft Articles on the Responsibility of States (ASR) -- 3.1.1 The mental element -- 3.1.2 The requirement of opposability -- 3.2 Italy's responsibility for complicity -- 4 Italy's responsibility for violation of positive obligations inherent in Article 3 ECHR -- 4.1 Overlap between complicity and positive obligations -- 4.2 Italy's responsibility for violation of positive obligations -- 4.2.1 Jurisdiction under ECHR -- 4.2.2 ECHR case law on positive obligations and jurisdiction -- 5 Closing remarks -- PART II: The 2017 Italy-Libya Memorandum of Understanding as a small part of a broader scenario -- 1 The Externalization of EU migration policies -- 1.1 The external dimension of EU migration and asylum policy in the GAMM and in the Agenda on Migration -- 1.2 The EU-Turkey statement of 18 March 2016 -- 1.2.1 Criticism concerning human rights and refugee law -- 1.2.2 Criticism concerning European Constitutional law -- 1.3 From the European Commission communication of 7 June 2016 establishing a new Partnership Framework with third countries to the European Council conclusions of 28 June and 18 October 2018 -- 2 The attitude of the Luxembourg Court vis-à-vis externalization -- 2.1 The case law concerning the EU-Turkey Statement -- 2.2 The humanitarian visa judgment of 7 March 2017 -- 3 Closing remarks -- Conclusions -- Bibliography -- Index.

В статье рассматриваются Женевские конвенции 1949 г. и Дополнительные протоколы к ним, устанавливающие основные принципы и нормы международного гуманитарного права. Акцентируется специфика правовой природы данных актов, которые воплощают в себе взаимодействие двух основных источников международного права договорного и обычного, причем последнее приобретает особое значение в случаях серьезных нарушений международного права. Автор дает характеристику ст. 1, общей для всех рассматриваемых конвенций, которая закрепляет основное обязательство государств соблюдать нормы гуманитарного права и обеспечивать их уважение другими странами. Это обязательство является базовым принципом международного гуманитарного права, защищающим человеческие ценности в период вооруженных конфликтов, который должен соблюдаться при любых обстоятельствах. Данный основополагающий принцип международного гуманитарного права относится к числу норм jus cogens международного права, т.е. является императивным, и действует erga omnes, распространяясь на всех без исключения участников вооруженных конфликтов как международных, так и внутренних и порождая универсальное обязательство перед всем международным сообществом в целом. Универсальность в данном случае означает, что контроль за выполнением норм гуманитарного права не ограничивается только национальным уровнем. Международная судебная практика также идет по пути признания норм гуманитарного права нормами jus cogens. Особое внимание в статье уделено характеристике правовых средств защиты населения в условиях вооруженных конфликтов; рассмотрено правовое положение различных категорий лиц, находящихся под покровительством международного гуманитарного права в условиях как международных, так и внутренних конфликтов. Поднят вопрос о роли норм международного гуманитарного права в противодействии терроризму. Подчеркивается роль Международного комитета Красного Креста в формировании и функционировании международного гуманитарного права, составлении Свода норм обычного права. Автор показывает, что современное развитие норм международного гуманитарного права призвано противостоять тенденции привыкания к его нарушениям в вооруженных конфликтах. ; The article analyses 1949 Geneva Conventions with additional Protocols, that establish main principles and norms of international humanitarian law. These acts represent combination of two main sources of international law contracts and customs. Customs are of particular importance in cases of serious violations of international law. The author analyses art.1 common to all conventions studied that establishes the main obligation of the states to respect the norms of humanitarian law and ensure such respect by other countries. This undertaking is the main principle of international humanitarian law and belongs to jus cogens part of international law i.e. constitutes an imperative norm, an obligation erga omnes, binding for all parties to a military conflict international or national, creating a universal obligation. This means that control after the enforcement of the norms of the humanitarian law is not limited to national level. International courts practice also acknowledges the norms of humanitarian law as jus cogens. Particular attention in the article is paid to characteristic of legal methods of protection of the population in military conflicts. Legal status of different categories of people protected by international humanitarian law is analyzed. The article discusses the question of the role of international humanitarian law in combating terrorism. International Red Cross plays crucial role in creating international humanitarian law and drafting customary law code. The author shows that current development of international humanitarian law rules shall be a counterforce against the tendency of adjustment to its violations in course of military conflicts.

Provides some figures on the state of sexual harassment in society before suggesting that US society lags far behind on the issue with particular reference to public schools. Considers in turn reason why this may be the case, covering arguments such as biological, society, media and home environment. Suggests that many areas responsible for this position are absolving themselves of responsibility and that society has a moral obligation to end this situation.

Just as a newspaper must separate its reporting from its editorials, legal
scholarship must distinguish between representations of what the law is and what
the author might like it to be. Daniel Bethlehem's proposed principles and his
arguments in support of them are an amalgam of the two that, if actualized under
international law, would reverse more than a century of humanitarian and human
rights progress: they would undermine the general prohibition against the use of
force in international relations as well as the right to life and the scope of a
state's obligation of due process in the deprivation of life.

The first article on this subject in the April number of The American
Journal of International Law (pp. 359–380), dealt with the general
principles upon which these claims have been held by the Court of Claims to
have been in their origin valid international demands against France, and to
have been assumed as obligations of the United States by force of the treaty
of September 30, 1800, the ratifications of which were exchanged July 31,
1801.
The present article will be devoted to a review of some of the rules on
which the Court of Claims proceeded in the details of its
allowances.

The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) has reiterated that states have discretion regarding what means to use to fulfil their positive obligations under the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). Given the "wide range of possible measures" that could be taken to ensure compliance with positive rights, these rights have a disjunctive structure since an omission has no definitive counterpart. This article examines how the ECtHR deals with the disjunctive structure of positive rights and how it addresses alternative protective measures that could have been extended. In order to identify the main points of contention, I first draw on legal-theoretical literature that has grappled with the structure of positive rights. I then examine what the Court actually does when it adjudicates positive obligation cases under qualified and unqualified rights. I analyse how and why the review endorsed in the ECtHR's judgments diverges from or converges with the theoretical model.

States are obliged to protect the right to life by law. This article analyses the way in which states do this in the field of aviation law, maritime law and the law on migrant smuggling. A comparative description of these fields shows that states differentiate in protecting the right to life. Regular travellers benefit from extensive positive obligations to safeguard their right to life, whereas the lives of irregularised travellers are protected first and foremost by combating irregularised migration and, if the worst comes to pass, by search and rescue. The right of states to exclude aliens from their territories leads to exclusion of irregularised travellers from their main positive obligations under the right to life. This situation is analysed through Zygmunt Bauman's notion of 'wasted lives'. The contrast with aviation and maritime law makes clear that this situation is the outcome of human choice, which can be changed.

This article examines whether the principle of party autonomy and prorogation of jurisdiction may be applied in cross-border litigation on family-law matters. Drawing different sources, including scientific works, national legislation of Ukraine, international treaties, instruments on codification of the principles on transnational civil procedure, the paper first gives a brief overview of the history and current situation concerning regulation of prorogation of jurisdiction. Then, the author presents the results of a study of jurisdictional rules provided by Ukrainian internal legal acts and international agreements on jurisdiction in which Ukraine is a party (the Hague Conventions, bilateral and multilateral treaties on legal assistance and legal relations in civil and family relations) and draws conclusions concerning peculiarities of prorogation of jurisdiction for matters arising from family-law relations. Attention is also paid to the comparative overview of the Hague Conventions and Regulations of the European Union (Regulation No 2201/2003/EC of November 27, 2003 Concerning Jurisdiction and the Recognition and Enforcement of Judgments in Matrimonial Matters and the Matters of Parental Responsibility and Regulation No 4/2009/EC of December 18, 2008 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition and Enforcement of Decisions and Cooperation in Matters Relating to Maintenance Obligations). Several opinions of the European Court of Justice on some issues of prorogation of jurisdiction are noted, as well. The most remarkable changes in the prorogation agreements regulation in Ukraine took place by the entry into force in 2005 of the Law of Ukraine on Private International Law. Article 76 of the Law stipulates for the first instance when Ukrainian courts may initiate the proceedings and try cases with a foreign element the instance "if the parties chose the jurisdiction of Ukrainian courts over a case with a foreign element by their agreement". The Hague Conventions on jurisdiction and children protection in which Ukraine is a party (Convention of October 19, 1996 on Jurisdiction, Applicable Law, Recognition, Enforcement and Co-operation in Respect of Parental Responsibility and Measures for the Protection of Children and Convention of 23 November 2007 on the International Recovery of Child Support and Other Forms of Family Maintenance) concretize provisions of p. 1 Art. 76 of the Law of Ukraine on Private International and specify three variants of prorogation of jurisdiction in family-law matters. They are the following ones: (I) the respondent submits to the jurisdiction either expressly or by defending on the merits of the case without objecting to the jurisdiction; (II) jurisdiction based on the agreement in writing by the parties; (III) jurisdiction of the court seized of a divorce (legal separation or marriage annulment) is accepted for the case on parental responsibility expressly or otherwise in an unequivocal manner by the spouses and by the holders of parental responsibility. ; Šiame straipsnyje pristatomi Ukrainos nacionalinė teisės ir šios valstybės sudarytų tarptautinių sutarčių jurisdikcijos nustatymo tyrimo rezultatai. Autorė daugiausia dėmesio skiria Hagos konvencijos dėl vaikų apsaugos taikymui ir prieina prie išvados, kad būtina plėsti jurisdikciją bylose, kylančiose iš šeimos teisinių santykių.