Breast-feeding in the human and higher primates unlike the case of most other mammals, is learned rather than instinctive; over a long time it has been shown to be highly labile. Its success appears to depend not only upon the capacity of the mother to lactate, i.e. to produce milk, or on the child's ability to suckle, but perhaps more significantly, on the mother's desire to breast-feed, on the availability of sufficient reference models upon which she can base her own performance and draw upon for psycho-social support during lactation. In modern settings breast-feeding is likely to involve the mother in complex and new role situations, and to become increasingly vulnerable to the social characteristics of the environment in which she operates.
The social infrastructure of rural areas is of particular importance when considering issues of both an economic and social nature. Both production and non-production rural areas necessitate the availability of social facilities. The main purpose of social infrastructure facilities nowadays and in the past of rural and urban areas development is to meet the needs of the population. At the same time, social infrastructure defines the basis for the level and quality of life of civil society. Its condition is an indicator of the territorial development and provides opportunities for innovative development and investment attraction. For many years now, the rural social infrastructure has been in poor condition in Russia. Problems are observed in the living conditions of citizens, in elements of residential properties improvement, undeveloped system of medical and educational services, unavailability of cultural and leisure facilities, and so on. Due to such a negative state of the rural social sphere, problems arise with the demographic situation and the production sphere in terms of the inability to attract highly qualified personnel. The Program for the Sustainable Development of Rural Territories developed by the Government of Russia holds back the general, intensively negative situation, and is fundamentally changing it in some regions of the country. The paper presents the results of the implementation of the main Program directions and gives some recommendations on its further implementation and development of the rural social infrastructure.
A recent report by the Brook Advisory Centres, refers to the fact that in girls under 20, the numbers of illegitimate births and abortions have not shown any decline in the period 1966–77. It is also estimated that half the 40,000 teenage brides who marry each year are pregnant when they do so. It seems appropriate therefore, at this time, to look at the social and emotional factors that contribute to this situation.
Social mobility in traditional China, particularly during the last two dynasties, Ming (1368–1644) and Ch'ing (1644–1911), for which ample data are available, deserves systematic study by both Chinese and Western historians and social scientists. It is remarkable to observe that in a meticulously "regulated" society such as traditional China's, there was probably a greater amount of vertical mobility, both upward and downward, than is usually found in pre-modern and modern societies of the West. What makes this more striking is the fact that it occurred in a society which for twenty-five centuries believed in the inequality of men. For this reason alone the question of social mobility in traditional China should be of more than usual interest to theoretical sociologists with a comparative approach to their subject. Owing to the author's limited knowledge of Western sociology and also because of limitations of space, this article deals mainly with China, although brief comparisons with pre-modern and modern Western societies will be attempted at certain points.
Medieval historians have long maintained that social welfare in the com munities of rural England often involved private systems of support for the elderly. Individuallv arranged pension plans provide a case in point. The best evidence of these pension plans is found in the records of manor courts. To read the records is to learn how pension plans enabled the elderly to adjust their needs to local patterns of production and domestic structure, to law, to expressions of personal autonomy. and the confines of personal dependency. Simply stated, the old ac commodated their needs for support by looking to benefactors to manage their lands and tenements. The subsequent arrangement involved a contractual agree ment designed both to ensure and to supplement familial support, and also, under certain circumstances, to provide a substitute for it. As a result, not even peasants without children or spouses necessarily experienced dislocation. Contracts assured cooperation. They afforded the partners a way to negotiate mutually beneficial bargains wherein the conditional transfer of property was meant to guarantee securitv during retirement.
Professor Rosenblatt's The Chartist Movement was the first serious study of Chartism, using the techniques of modern scholarship, to appear in English. The book comprises a detailed account of the history of the movement, dealing mainly with the period from 1837 until the Chartist riots at Newport, South Wales, in November 1839.As well as describing the political, industrial and social conditions that gave birth to the Chartist movement, this work contains extremely useful statistical tables of the 543 persons who were convicted for offences committed in the furtherance of Chartism between Jan
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Cancelling is considered as a totality of social practices used by the society or its part to force social pressure on an individual, group, community or organisation. The main forms and goals of cancelling in various spheres of society are identified, the need for its interdisciplinary research on the methodological basis is given grounds for. The phenomenon of cancelling is considered in different theoretical frameworks. The conflictological interpretation of cancelling focuses on the actors' struggle for material and non-material resources that unfolds mainly in illegal forms. Due to its great destructive potential cancelling is highlighted as a potential danger to economic and labour relations. The political-discursive interpretation considers the phenomenon from the viewpoint of cultural resistance to structural violence undertaken by the marginal groups when it is difficult to call the representatives of elite groups to account due to their privileged position. Designated are some features of development of the phenomenon of cancelling in a modern society: normative blurring of cancelling practices, lack of innovative potential and ability to radically change social relations in a modern society, low efficiency and imitative nature of cancelling practices, transfer of the normative foundations of the minorities' social practices into a universalist context and establishment of privileges for representatives of certain communities, social selectivity and economic motivation of cancelling with the representatives of elite communities. It is recognised that cancelling expansion into the economic, political and cultural spheres of a modern society results in initiating the processes which can be dangerous for its development. Сancelling practices do not only create opportunities and socio-cultural innovations for an individual, but also cause significant problems and obstacles for his professional and other activities. For the society as a whole, cancelling is becoming a source of conflict processes that, instead of fighting the real causes and factors of social oppression, creates new ideological grounds and mechanisms for discrimination.
