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'A map on which you cannot find the land Utopia is not even worth looking at.' Ernst Bloch In the following article, I analyze sociopolitical and economic developments in post-Rose Revolution Georgia in the context of two theories: The first originates from the German school of memory studies and the other represents the most recent breakthrough in the Georgian school of social studies. The analysis of the transformations that followed the Revolution of Roses transgresses sociopolitical and economical dimensions and stretches into much larger extent that is time and historical age; that being the case, I will be also examining the altering understanding of time and history against the backdrop of Aleida Assmann's theory of the Time Regimes and Emzar Khvichia's theory of Relativistic-Quantum Noology.

Problem setting. The relevance of our study is due to the excessive popularity of the concept of «socio-cultural identity» as a scientific term and tool for studying the postmodern world. As a concept of socio-humanitarian knowledge, it remains one of the most uncertain and at the same time actively used in modern research for theoretical and practical analysis and typology of socio-cultural processes. Understanding the specifics of socio-cultural identity and its formation in postmodern conditions is one of the most relevant and acute topics of modern science, which can provide a full understanding of the essence of this world.
Recent research and publications analysis. Representatives of almost all humanities are involved in the discussion about identity. The fundamental development of the concept of sociocultural identity of the postmodern world is contained in the works of J. Habermas, E. Giddens, E. Erickson, A. Etzioni, M. Castells, F. Cassidy, S. Huntington, E. Smith, F. Fukuyama, W. Hesle and etc. Ukrainian researchers have also contributed to understanding the problem of identity. They have a large number of works that are directly or indirectly related to the phenomenon of identity and have such a wide variety of topics that it is not possible to present it exhaustively. A specific feature of their work is the in-depth attention to everything related to the national component of socio-cultural identity. The main result of the accumulation of knowledge about socio-cultural identity by the social sciences and humanities is the understanding that adequate research of this phenomenon is possible only in an interdisciplinary space. The tendency to comprehend identity in science persists and in parallel new directions of research are developing – first of all, it is a study of the social construction of identity in the postmodern era.
Paper objective. The purpose of our study is resource of the peculiarities of the transformation of socio-cultural identity as an object and subject of social construction, which has specific features in the postmodern conditions, which has specifics in Ukrainian society.
Paper main body. The tendency to study identity in a socio-cultural perspective was formed at the end of the XX century, when it began to be positioned as a set of positive signs of combining oneself with a community based on a common historical past and cultural values. Socio-cultural identity has a personal, individual level and social, group and combines different modifications that depend on its basic criteria - civilization, regional, civic, political, ethnic, national and others. An indisputable sign of the times is the active formation of a hybrid, multiple identity (national, regional, civilizational), when different criteria are used for self-identification, as well as mosaic identity, when self-determination criteria are quickly adjusted according to the new life situation.
Postmodern is a historical epoch that begins in the XX cent. and continues to this day, increasingly acquiring such features as dynamism, nonlinearity, ephemerality and conflict-generating development of socio-political processes, exacerbation of territorial, demographic, national, religious, environmental and other problems. Transformational processes of the ending of the XX century led to a weakening of its clarity and the formation of «soft», «fluid» identity, which is associated with the departure into the past of the classical forms of class structure of modern society.
The arena of the struggle for identity is politics, various economic, political and social processes that act as mechanisms for constructing socio-cultural identity. The construction of identity is directly based on the problem of social construction of reality. The transformation of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern is due to the following features of the era: pluralization; continuous dynamism, variability that often destroys, devalues, marginalizes traditional basic spiritual values; bifurcation of cultural space; absolutization of freedom and opportunities for individual choice; high level of tolerance; formalization and virtualization of identity, its blurring. Based on this, we identify the leading features of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern: first, personalization, individualization of identity, which is seen as a personal project that allows the individual full self-expression; secondly, flexibility, plasticity, variability.
Scientists have repeatedly pointed out the lack of a project of postmodern identity acceptable to Ukrainian society, the need to construct a «new» Ukrainian identity, however, understanding this problem in the context of globalization, called for the uniqueness of the Ukrainian nation.
Conclusions of the research. The debate about socio-cultural identity in Ukraine is growing and gaining popularity due to social crises and constant transformations, and, in our opinion, because for a long time (after independence) identity policy was not a priority and the elite did not care about its construction.The Ukrainian elite, trying to build a socio-cultural identity in postmodern society, must use the full potential of cultural space – historical and cultural attractions, language, science (especially the humanities), literature and art, education, museums – to develop a consolidated identification project. The solution to the problem of building a socio-cultural identity in Ukraine can be manifested in two directions – a radical change of identity in accordance with the complete modernization of society in post-Soviet times; – creation of non-conflict (low-conflict) socio-cultural identity on the basis of continuity and preservation of cultural tradition, which could become an effective resource for the development of society

The paper addresses the history of excavations of the largest Roman tomb, the Mausoleum of the Emperor Caesar Augustus. The author focuses on the results of recent archaeological activities and how they have transformed the perception of the monument. The tomb of the fi rst Roman Emperor in the post-classical era underwent various transformations and was repeatedly plundered. As a result, the tomb has preserved in a severely damaged condition. The monument had been used for utilitarian purposes until the 1930s. The mausoleum was used as a quarry, a fortress which has been repeatedly destroyed, a vineyard, a garden, an amphitheater for bullfi ghting, a theater, and a concert hall. The fi rst archaeological excavation in the territory of the monument was carried out in the 16th century. It is them which marked the beginning of the monument's study history. The material obtained during these fi eld works is still of great importance for scholars who engage in the study of the monument. For a long time after the Renaissance era the Mausoleum was studied only periodically due to construction works carried out in its territory. The archaeological study of the monument has intensifi ed since the beginning of the 20th century. Ambitious works were carried out in the 1920s and 1930s. Their implementation was not dictated by scholarly interest: Benito Mussolini sought to use the heritage of Ancient Rome for his propaganda. Nevertheless, as a result of the completed excavations, the mausoleum was not only freed from the post-antique layers, but the obtained results laid the foundation for the modern idea of the monument. New interest in the monument arose only after seventy years. The immediate reason to that was the government's plan for the reconstruction of the mausoleum and the surrounding area. Excavations were carried out by the Department of Cultural Heritage of the Capital of Rome. The obtained archaeological data have greatly changed the modern perception of the monument and make it possible to put an end to the discussion of the issue. ; В статье рассматривается история раскопок крупнейшей римской гробницы, а именно мавзолея императора Цезаря Августа. Основное внимание уделяется результатам недавних археологических работ и тому, как они повлияли на представление о памятнике. Гробница первого римского императора в пост-античную эпоху претерпела различные трансформации и неоднократные грабежи, в результате которых сильно пострадала. Памятнику находили практическое применение вплоть до 1930-х гг. За многовековую историю мавзолей использовали как каменоломню, крепость, которую не раз разрушали, виноградник, сад, амфитеатр для корриды, театр и концертный зал. Первые археологические работы на территории памятника проводились уже в XVI в. Именно с них начинается история исследования монумента и результаты, полученные тогда, до сих пор имеют большое значение для науки. На протяжении длительного времени после эпохи Ренессанса объект изучался только периодически, в связи с какими-либо строительными работами, проводившимися на его территории. Работы на памятнике активизируются с начала XX в. Масштабные раскопки состоялись в 1920-30-е гг. Их проведение диктовалось не научными целями: Бенито Муссолини стремился использовать римское наследие в своей пропаганде. Тем не менее, в результате проведенных работ мавзолей был не только освобожден от пост-античных наслоений, но полученные тогда результаты заложили современное представление о памятнике. Интерес к мавзолею возобновляется только через семьдесят лет. Непосредственным толчком было решение реконструировать мавзолей и площадь вокруг него. В результате раскопок, проведенных департаментом культурного наследия столицы Рима, были получены археологические данные, изменяющие взгляд на внешний облик монумента и позволяющие поставить точку в дискуссии по данному вопросу. Библиографические ссылки Agnoli N., Carnabuci E., Caruso G., Maria Loreti E. Il Mausoleo di Augusto. Recenti scavi e nuove ipotesi ricostruttive // Apoteosi. Da uomini a dei. Il Mausoleo di Adriano, Catalogo della Mostra / Eds. Abbondanza L., Coarelli F., Lo Sardo E. Roma: Munus, Palombi, 2014. P. 214–229. Albers J. Die letzte Ruhestätte des Augustus: Neue Forschungsergebnisse zum Augustusmausoleum // Antike Welt. 2014. №4. P. 16–24. Betti F. Il Mausoleo di Augusto. Metamorfosi di un monument // Mausoleo di Augusto. Demolizioni e scavi. Fotografi e 1928/1941 / Ed. F. Betti. Milano: Electa, 2011. P. 20–41. Borg B. Roman Tombs and the Art of Commemoration: Contextual Approaches to Funerary Customs in the Second Century CE. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019. 368 p. Boschung D. Tumumuls Iuliorum – Mausoleum Augusti // Hefte des Archäologischen Seminars der Universität Bern. 1980. №6. S. 38–41. Buchner E. Ein Kanal für Obelisken vom Mausoleum des Augustus in Rom // Antike Welt. Vol. 27. №3. S. 161–168. Carnabucci E., Agnoli N., Maria Loreti E. Mausoleo di Augusto. 2012. URL: http://www.fastionline.org/excavation/micro_view.php?fst_cd=AIAC_2307&curcol=sea_cd-AIAC_4480. Дата обращения 30.05.2020 Coletti C.M., Naria Loreti E. Piazza Augusto Imperatore, excavations 2007–2011: the late antiquetransformations // MAAR. 2016. № 61. P. 304−325. Collini M. A., Ciglioli G.Q. Relazione della prima campagna di scavo nel Mausoleo di Augusto // BCom.1926. №54. Р. 191−237. Davies P.J.E. Death and the Emperor: Roman Funerary Monuments from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 256 p. Diebner S. Tombs and Funerary Monuments // A Companion to the Archaeology of the Roman Republic / Ed. J. DeRose Evans. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013. P. 67−80. Fugate Brangers S. L. Political Propaganda and Archaeology: The Mausoleum of Augustus in the Fascist Era // International Journal of Humanities and Social Science 2013. № 3. Р. 126–135. Fugate Brangers S. L. The mausoleum of Augustus: expanding meaning from its inception to present day. PhD diss. Louissville, 2007. 220 p. Gatti G. Nuove osservazioni sul Mausoleo di Augusto // L'Urbe 1938. № 3. P. 1–17. Giglioli, G.Q. and A. M. Colini. II Mausoleo d'Augusto. Milan and Rome: Bestetti e Tumminelli, 1930. 51 p. Hase Salto M. A. von «L'augusteo» Das Augustusmausoleum im Wandel der Geschichte // Antike Welt. 1997. № 28. S. 297–308. Hesberg H., Panciera S. Das Mausoleum des Augustus. Der Bau und seine Inschriften. München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1994. 199 p. Johnson M.J. The Mausoleum of Augustus: Etruscan and Other Infl uences on its Design // Etruscan Italy. Etruscan Infl uences on the Civilizations of Italy from Antiquity to the Modern Era / Ed. John F. Hall. Provo, 1996. P. 217–239. La Manna S., G. Caruso, Agnoli N., Carnabucci E., Loreti E., Documento preliminare alla progettazione. 2008 URL: http://sovraintendenzaroma.it/sites/default/fi les/storage/original/application/368fc32a188973a80557f3f49e3409f3.pdf. Дата обращения 28.05.2020. Lanciani R. Storia degli scavi di Roma e notize intorno le collezioni Romane di antichità. Vol. II. Roma: Ermanno Loescher&Co, 1903. 277 p. Lanciani R. The Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome. London: Mac Millan, 1897. 700 p. McFeaters, A. P. The Past Is How We Present It: Nationalism and Archaeology in Italy from Unifi cation to WWII // Nebraska Anthropologist. 2007. №33. P. 49–69. Mirabilia Romae e codicibus vaticanis emendate / G. Parthey (ed.). Berolini: in aedibus Frederici Nicolai, 1869. 85 p. Nash E. Pictorial Dictionary of Ancient Rome. Vol .I. London: A Zimmer Ltd., 1961. 532 p. Ortolani G. Ipotesi sulla struttura architettonica originaria del Mausoleo di Augusto // BCom. 2004. Vol. 105, P. 197–222. Parker J. Politics, Urbanism, and Archaeology in "Roma capitale": A Troubled Past and a Controversial Future // The American Journal of Archaeology. 1989. № 93. P. 137-141. Reeder J.C. Typology and Ideology in the Mausoleum of Augustus: Tumulus and Tholos // Classical Antiquity. 1992. № 11. P. 265–307. Riccomini A.M. La Ruina di si bela cosa. Vicende e transformationi del Mausoleo di Augusto. Milano: Electa, 1996. 202 p. Sovraintendenzaroma.it. URL: http://www.sovraintendenzaroma.it/i_luoghi/roma_antica/monumenti/mausoleo_di_augusto. Дата обращения 01.06.2020 Tittoni M.E. Introduzione // Il Mausoleo di Augusto. Metamorfosi di un monument Mausoleo di Augusto. Demolizioni e scavi. Fotografi e 1928/1941 / Ed. F. Betti. Milano: Electa, 2011. P. 11−14. Urbanistica.comune.roma.it. URL: http://www.urbanistica.comune.roma.it/citta-storica-mausoleoaugusto.html. Дата обращения 25.05.2020. Vögtle S. »ubi saepe sedebat Octavianus« Das Augustusmausoleum – Innen und Aussen eines imperialen Grabbaus // Das Marsfeld in Rom : Beiträge der Berner Tagung vom 23./24. November 2007 / Ed. J. Albers. Bern: Bern Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science, 2008. P. 63-78.

Despite the law has been developing through the span of the history of human civilization, law has been formulated by legal thinkers, theologians, philosophers; constructed with various pretexts and objectives: for legal certainty, utility, justice and order; used to regulate social life in various forms and dimensions: customary law, religious law, state law, international law, the formulation of legal theory, to date, is still an academic debate. It is Brian Z. Tamanaha, a professor of law from America, who also entered the theoretical debate's arena through his academic works. In the contemporary legal discourse, Tamanaha is quite popular among academics and legal activists. Tamanaha is known globally due to his famous works, such as "A General Jurisprudence of Law and Society (2001)", which received Herbert Jacob Bookrize awards, and "On the Rule of Law: History, Politics and Theory (2004)", which have been translated into 6 languages. His position as an important legal thinker in the 21st century gained his legitimacy in 2013. Through a poll, which involved 300 deans and professors from various universities in America, Tamanaha was regarded as the most influential legal educator. Tamanaha is often cited by many legal thinkers in Indonesia, among others, by Satjipto Rahardjo, especially regarding Tamanaha's concept known as the mirror thesis. Through this notion, Tamanaha argues that law is only a reflection of certain ideas, values, cultures and traditions of society. Because law is always particular, referring to certain societies in particular temporal circumstances, then, legal transplantation from and/or to other communities is not realistic if not impossible. His thinking, inevitably influenced by the Anglo Saxon legal tradition that grows and practiced in his homeland America, which tends to be more dynamic and reliant on jurisprudence. On April 24, 2017, Cambridge University Press published Tamanaha's latest book entitled "A Realistic Theory of Law". Examining the composition of the book's contents: contained a debate regarding law's definition, the schools of law, genealogy of law, while questioning the truth and the universality of law, presumably implying that Tamanaha was constructing his own legal theory as reflected in the book's title ("Theory of Law"). Based on this description, the author is interested in exploring Tamanaha's legal thinking; outlining his opinions on the essence of law, through his newest book which numbered 202 pages. The first part of the book discusses three most prominent theories or legal philosophies (Jurisprudence) in various legal discourses: The School of analytical law (legal positivism), philosophical/ethical (natural law) and historical (historical schools). Throughout history, from medieval times to renaissance, the conflict between these schools of jurisprudence was reviewed through its exponents thinkers. Then, Tamanaha entered the arena using the socio-legal framework's, in order to overcome the gap between these schools of law. In the second chapter, Tamanaha reviews the classical debate on law, namely questioning the legal definition in a sub-title "what is law?". The three branch of jurisprudence, as mentioned previously, are joined to disscuss the problematic definition of law. Then, Tamanaha not only criticizes the proposed law definitions, elucidating the shortcomings and failures of established legal definitions, but also tries to reconstruct it. Chapter three contains description with regard to the claim of law's universality. Here, Tamanaha critically discusses the basic assumptions of law and the implicit legal features from the mainstream law's perspective. Differentiation between laws as social construction, which varies in each society due to the variety of cultures, environments, etc. (a posteriori), is faced diametrically with the identification of idealized laws, which can be applied universally (a priori). The discussion raises a debate on the universality of the nature of law (universal truth); identification of legal characteristics, and the possibility of its implementation in a universal way. Tamanaha, in the fourth part, uses genealogical approach of law; tracing the relationship between law and non-law elements, such as: economic, social, political, environmental, technological, cultural, in a diverse historical contexts. On the one hand, Tamanaha is concerned with historical developments related to legal structures; how law is formed and what elements have influenced law, by citing historians, sociologists, anthropologists viewpoint, etc. On the other hand, Tamanaha scrutinize analytical law's arguments, especially the positivist school; suing the basic assumptions of state law which has been hegemonic as the standard, in determining entity referred to as law. The fifth part of the book is entitled "Law in the Age of Organizations". Tamanaha begins this chapter by claiming that legal theories have failed in calculating fundamental changes in law and society, which are marked by the rise of formal legal instruments. Tamanaha claims that his legal theory is more suited to modernity. Tamanaha distinguishes between law as the core regulation for social interaction and the use of law by the state. Furthermore Tamanaha explained how the interaction between the two categories affected the creation of legal structures in the community. Before arriving at conclusions, Tamanaha ends the discussion in this book through the last part entitled "What is International Law". Tamanaha claims that international legal theories have a problem due to the confusions of concepts and ideological views constructed in international legal discourse. Conceptual barriers trigerred by Jeremy Bentham's theoretical paradigm in which he created a gap between domestic law and international law as separate entities. While ideological barriers stem from normative tendencies or commitments among international law experts in establishing a universal legal system; thus creating a false vision related to the locus of international law and its relation with national law. By outlining these confusion, Tamanaha believes he can provide a more comprehensive understanding of international law.

Problem setting. The relevance of our study is due to the excessive popularity of the concept of «socio-cultural identity» as a scientific term and tool for studying the postmodern world. As a concept of socio-humanitarian knowledge, it remains one of the most uncertain and at the same time actively used in modern research for theoretical and practical analysis and typology of socio-cultural processes. Understanding the specifics of socio-cultural identity and its formation in postmodern conditions is one of the most relevant and acute topics of modern science, which can provide a full understanding of the essence of this world. Recent research and publications analysis. Representatives of almost all humanities are involved in the discussion about identity. The fundamental development of the concept of sociocultural identity of the postmodern world is contained in the works of J. Habermas, E. Giddens, E. Erickson, A. Etzioni, M. Castells, F. Cassidy, S. Huntington, E. Smith, F. Fukuyama, W.Hesle and etc. Ukrainian researchers have also contributed to understanding the problem of identity. They have a large number of works that are directly or indirectly related to the phenomenon of identity and have such a wide variety of topics that it is not possible to present it exhaustively. A specific feature of their work is the in-depth attention to everything related to the national component of socio-cultural identity. The main result of the accumulation of knowledge about socio-cultural identity by the social sciences and humanities is the understanding that adequate research of this phenomenon is possible only in an interdisciplinary space. The tendency to comprehend identity in science persists and in parallel new directions of research are developing – first of all, it is a study of the social construction of identity in the postmodern era. Paper objective. The purpose of our study is resource of the peculiarities of the transformation of socio-cultural identity as an object and subject of social construction, which has specific features in the postmodern conditions, which has specifics in Ukrainian society. Paper main body. The tendency to study identity in a socio-cultural perspective was formed at the end of the XX century, when it began to be positioned as a set of positive signs of combining oneself with a community based on a common historical past and cultural values. Socio-cultural identity has a personal, individual level and social, group and combines different modifications that depend on its basic criteria - civilization, regional, civic, political, ethnic, national and others. An indisputable sign of the times is the active formation of a hybrid, multiple identity (national, regional, civilizational), when different criteria are used for self-identification, as well as mosaic identity, when self-determination criteria are quickly adjusted according to the new life situation. Postmodern is a historical epoch that begins in the XX cent. and continues to this day, increasingly acquiring such features as dynamism, nonlinearity, ephemerality and conflict-generating development of socio-political processes, exacerbation of territorial, demographic, national, religious, environmental and other problems. Transformational processes of the ending of the XX century led to a weakening of its clarity and the formation of «soft», «fluid» identity, which is associated with the departure into the past of the classical forms of class structure of modern society. The arena of the struggle for identity is politics, various economic, political and social processes that act as mechanisms for constructing socio-cultural identity. The construction of identity is directly based on the problem of social construction of reality. The transformation of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern is due to the following features of the era: pluralization; continuous dynamism, variability that often destroys, devalues, marginalizes traditional basic spiritual values; bifurcation of cultural space; absolutization of freedom and opportunities for individual choice; high level of tolerance; formalization and virtualization of identity, its blurring. Based on this, we identify the leading features of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern: first, personalization, individualization of identity, which is seen as a personal project that allows the individual full self-expression; secondly, flexibility, plasticity, variability. Scientists have repeatedly pointed out the lack of a project of postmodern identity acceptable to Ukrainian society, the need to construct a «new» Ukrainian identity, however, understanding this problem in the context of globalization, called for the uniqueness of the Ukrainian nation. Conclusions of the research. The debate about socio-cultural identity in Ukraine is growing and gaining popularity due to social crises and constant transformations, and, in our opinion, because for a long time (after independence) identity policy was not a priority and the elite did not care about its construction.The Ukrainian elite, trying to build a socio-cultural identity in postmodern society, must use the full potential of cultural space – historical and cultural attractions, language, science (especially the humanities), literature and art, education, museums – to develop a consolidated identification project. The solution to the problem of building a socio-cultural identity in Ukraine can be manifested in two directions – a radical change of identity in accordance with the complete modernization of society in post-Soviet times; – creation of non-conflict (low-conflict) socio-cultural identity on the basis of continuity and preservation of cultural tradition, which could become an effective resource for the development of society ; Специфичность эпохи постмодерна определяет и одновременно отражает одну из наиболее острых проблем современного общества – размывание социокультурной идентичности, поэтому проявилась необходимость конструирования более или менее устойчивой модели идентичности. Сугубо украинская ситуация идентификационных противоречий эпохи постмодерна совпала по времени с масштабным кризисом идентичности и вызвала ответную реакцию – активный поиск и конструирование новой социокультурной идентичности украинского общества. ; Автор звертається до осмислення соціокультурної ідентичності як результату виявів характеристик постмодерну: специфічність епохи постмодерну визначає і одночасно відображує одну з найбільш гострих проблем сучасного суспільства – розмивання соціокультурної ідентичності та необхідності конструювання більш-менш стійкої моделі ідентичності. Суто українська ситуація ідентифікаційних суперечностей постмодерної епохи збіглася в часі з масштабною кризою ідентичності та викликала відповідну реакцію – активний пошук й конструювання нової соціокультурної ідентичності суспільства.

Problem setting. The relevance of our study is due to the excessive popularity of the concept of «socio-cultural identity» as a scientific term and tool for studying the postmodern world. As a concept of socio-humanitarian knowledge, it remains one of the most uncertain and at the same time actively used in modern research for theoretical and practical analysis and typology of socio-cultural processes. Understanding the specifics of socio-cultural identity and its formation in postmodern conditions is one of the most relevant and acute topics of modern science, which can provide a full understanding of the essence of this world. Recent research and publications analysis. Representatives of almost all humanities are involved in the discussion about identity. The fundamental development of the concept of sociocultural identity of the postmodern world is contained in the works of J. Habermas, E. Giddens, E. Erickson, A. Etzioni, M. Castells, F. Cassidy, S. Huntington, E. Smith, F. Fukuyama, W.Hesle and etc. Ukrainian researchers have also contributed to understanding the problem of identity. They have a large number of works that are directly or indirectly related to the phenomenon of identity and have such a wide variety of topics that it is not possible to present it exhaustively. A specific feature of their work is the in-depth attention to everything related to the national component of socio-cultural identity. The main result of the accumulation of knowledge about socio-cultural identity by the social sciences and humanities is the understanding that adequate research of this phenomenon is possible only in an interdisciplinary space. The tendency to comprehend identity in science persists and in parallel new directions of research are developing – first of all, it is a study of the social construction of identity in the postmodern era. Paper objective. The purpose of our study is resource of the peculiarities of the transformation of socio-cultural identity as an object and subject of social construction, which has specific features in the postmodern conditions, which has specifics in Ukrainian society. Paper main body. The tendency to study identity in a socio-cultural perspective was formed at the end of the XX century, when it began to be positioned as a set of positive signs of combining oneself with a community based on a common historical past and cultural values. Socio-cultural identity has a personal, individual level and social, group and combines different modifications that depend on its basic criteria - civilization, regional, civic, political, ethnic, national and others. An indisputable sign of the times is the active formation of a hybrid, multiple identity (national, regional, civilizational), when different criteria are used for self-identification, as well as mosaic identity, when self-determination criteria are quickly adjusted according to the new life situation. Postmodern is a historical epoch that begins in the XX cent. and continues to this day, increasingly acquiring such features as dynamism, nonlinearity, ephemerality and conflict-generating development of socio-political processes, exacerbation of territorial, demographic, national, religious, environmental and other problems. Transformational processes of the ending of the XX century led to a weakening of its clarity and the formation of «soft», «fluid» identity, which is associated with the departure into the past of the classical forms of class structure of modern society. The arena of the struggle for identity is politics, various economic, political and social processes that act as mechanisms for constructing socio-cultural identity. The construction of identity is directly based on the problem of social construction of reality. The transformation of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern is due to the following features of the era: pluralization; continuous dynamism, variability that often destroys, devalues, marginalizes traditional basic spiritual values; bifurcation of cultural space; absolutization of freedom and opportunities for individual choice; high level of tolerance; formalization and virtualization of identity, its blurring. Based on this, we identify the leading features of socio-cultural identity of the postmodern: first, personalization, individualization of identity, which is seen as a personal project that allows the individual full self-expression; secondly, flexibility, plasticity, variability. Scientists have repeatedly pointed out the lack of a project of postmodern identity acceptable to Ukrainian society, the need to construct a «new» Ukrainian identity, however, understanding this problem in the context of globalization, called for the uniqueness of the Ukrainian nation. Conclusions of the research. The debate about socio-cultural identity in Ukraine is growing and gaining popularity due to social crises and constant transformations, and, in our opinion, because for a long time (after independence) identity policy was not a priority and the elite did not care about its construction.The Ukrainian elite, trying to build a socio-cultural identity in postmodern society, must use the full potential of cultural space – historical and cultural attractions, language, science (especially the humanities), literature and art, education, museums – to develop a consolidated identification project. The solution to the problem of building a socio-cultural identity in Ukraine can be manifested in two directions – a radical change of identity in accordance with the complete modernization of society in post-Soviet times; – creation of non-conflict (low-conflict) socio-cultural identity on the basis of continuity and preservation of cultural tradition, which could become an effective resource for the development of society ; Специфичность эпохи постмодерна определяет и одновременно отражает одну из наиболее острых проблем современного общества – размывание социокультурной идентичности, поэтому проявилась необходимость конструирования более или менее устойчивой модели идентичности. Сугубо украинская ситуация идентификационных противоречий эпохи постмодерна совпала по времени с масштабным кризисом идентичности и вызвала ответную реакцию – активный поиск и конструирование новой социокультурной идентичности украинского общества. ; Автор звертається до осмислення соціокультурної ідентичності як результату виявів характеристик постмодерну: специфічність епохи постмодерну визначає і одночасно відображує одну з найбільш гострих проблем сучасного суспільства – розмивання соціокультурної ідентичності та необхідності конструювання більш-менш стійкої моделі ідентичності. Суто українська ситуація ідентифікаційних суперечностей постмодерної епохи збіглася в часі з масштабною кризою ідентичності та викликала відповідну реакцію – активний пошук й конструювання нової соціокультурної ідентичності суспільства.

Problem statement. The modern stage in the development of science implies radical institutional changes in its social status and structure. The main differences from the classical stage are: first, the rejection of the principle of ethical neutrality of scientific knowledge and, second, the real revision of the content of the category "paradigm" as the central element of the organization of theoretical knowledge; its replacement by much more complex formations consisting of several heterogeneous components. There is an interpenetration of the public-axiological and descriptive-scientific forms of discourse, which create an inseparable unity in the content of the theoretical structure. Our research is devoted to the analysis of these two aspects of theoretical techno-science. According to the specifics of the subject, methods of quantitative discourse analysis and conceptual analysis of meta-theoretical and ontological knowledge, respectively, have been applied. There is a super-aim in our research, which is to determine the basic scheme of the relationship between the organization of the transdisciplinary matrix and the ontological level of theoretical techno-knowledge. In the ontological aspect, technoscience (postacademic science) is a theoretical and technological tools for managing the course of biological and sociocultural evolution. In the epistemological aspect, modern theories with a human dimension have a specific (trans)disciplinary matrix, which has not one but two paradigmatic cores: scientific-descriptive and humanitarian-axiological. According to our model, the principles of bioethics represent a social institution for regulating and controlling technological (biological and social) risk.Applied technological developments are represented by (1) genetic engineering as management tools of biological evolution and (2) socio-economic engineering as management tools of civilizational and socio-cultural development. This binary structure logically follows from the postulated three-module organization of the sustainable evolutionary strategy of the sentient human being. Naturphilosophy once again acquires the status of the basis of the theory of evolution in an explicit way. There is a system of metaphysical postulates and ontological categories derived from the anthropic principle of participation. For modern neoliberal political democracy, bio-power and biopolitics look like the most effective technology for stabilizing the scenarios and trends of the global evolutionary process that are optimal within this ideological system. Conclusions. Transbipolitics in our understanding is a political problematic related to the rationalization of the global evolutionary process. In the coming decades transbipolitics will become the carrier element of the global process of evolution of the noosphere with the consequent complication and increase of cohesion between the individual socio-cultural types that are part of the system of modern globalizing civilization. ; Постановка проблемы. Современный этап развития науки подразумевает радикальные институциональные изменения в ее социальном статусе и структуре. Основными отличиями от классического этапа являются: во-первых, отказ от принципа этической нейтральности научного знания и, во-вторых, реальный пересмотр содержания категории «парадигма» как центрального элемента организации теоретических знаний; ее замена значительно более сложными образованиями, состоящими из нескольких гетерогенных компонентов. Происходит взаимопроникновение публично-аксиологической и описательно-научной форм дискурса, создающих неразрывное единство в содержании теоретической структуры. Наша публикация посвящена анализу этих двух аспектов теоретической технонауки. В соответствии со спецификой предмета были применены методы количественного дискурсивного и концептуального анализа метатеоретических и онтологических знаний соответственно. В нашем исследовании есть супер-цель, которая заключается в определении базовой схемы взаимосвязи между организацией трансдисциплинарной матрицы и онтологическим уровнем теоретического технознания. В онтологическом аспекте технонаука (постакадемическая наука) представляет собой теоретический и технологический инструментарий для управления течением биологической и социокультурной эволюции. В эпистемологическом аспекте в современных теориях, имеющих человеческое измерение, есть специфическая (транс)дисциплинарная матрица, которая имеет не одно, а два парадигмальных ядра: научно-дескриптивное и гуманитарно-аксиологическое. Согласно нашей модели, принципы биоэтики представляют собой социальный институт регулирования и контроля технологического (биологического и социального) риска. Прикладные технологические разработки представлены (1) генной инженерией как инструментами управления биологической эволюцией и (2) социально-экономической инженерией как инструментами управления цивилизационным и социокультурным развитием. Эта бинарная структура логически вытекает из постулируемой нами трехмодульной организации устойчивой эволюционной стратегии человека разумного. Натурфилософия вновь приобретает статус основы теории эволюции в явном виде. Существует система метафизических постулатов и онтологических категорий, вытекающая из антропного принципа участия. Для современной неолиберальной политической демократии биовласть и биополитика выглядят наиболее эффективной технологией стабилизации сценариев и тенденций глобального эволюционного процесса, оптимальных в рамках этой идеологической системы. Выводы. Трансбиополитика в нашем понимании есть политическая проблематика, связанная с рационализацией глобального эволюционного процесса. В ближайшие десятилетия трансбиополитика станет несущим элементом глобального процесса эволюции ноосферы с последующим усложнением и увеличением когезии между отдельными социокультурными типами, входящими в систему современной глобализирующейся цивилизации. ; Постановка проблеми. Сучасний етап розвитку науки визначається радикальними інституційними змінами в її соціальному статусі та структурі. Основні відмінності від класичного етапу зводяться до: по-перше, відмови від принципу етичної нейтральності наукового знання і, по-друге, реального перегляду змісту категорії «парадигма» як центрального елементу організації теоретичних знань. Її замінюють значно більш складними конструкціями, що складаються з кількох гетерогенних компонентів. Відбувається взаємне проникнення публічно-аксіологічної та описово-наукової форм дискурсу, що створює нерозривну єдність щодо змісту теоретичної структури. Публікацію присвячено аналізу цих обидвох аспектів теоретичної технонауки. У відповідності до специфічності предмету дослідження було застосовано методи квантифікаційного дискурсивного та концептуального аналізу метатеоретичних і онтологічних знань відповідно. Надметою є визначення базової схеми взаємодії між організацією трансдисциплінарної матриці та онтологічним рівнем теоретичного технознання. У онтологічному аспекті технонаука (постакадемічна наука) є теоретичним і технологічним інструментарієм щодо управління напрямком біологічної та соціокультурної еволюції. У епістемологічному аспекті сучасні теорії, що мають людський вимір, містять специфічну (транс)дисциплінарну матрицю, що складається не з одного, а двох парадигмальних ядер: науково-дескриптивного та гуманітарно-аксіологічного. Згідно з нашою моделлю, принципи біоетики є соціальним інститутом регулювання та контролю технологічного (біологічного та соціального) ризику. Прикладні технологічні розробки представлені (1) генною інженерією як інструментом управління біологічною еволюцією та (2) соціально-економічною інженерією як засобом управління цивілізаційним і соціокультурним розвитком. Ця бінарна структура логічно походить з постульованої нами трьохмодульної організації стабільної еволюційної стратегії людини розумної. Натурфілософія знову набуває статусу основної теорії еволюції в експліцитному вигляді. Існує система метафізичних постулатів і онтологічних категорій, що походить з антропного принципу участі. Для сучасної неоліберальної політичної демократії біовлада та біополітика є найбільш ефективною технологією стабілізації сценаріїв і тенденцій глобального еволюційного процесу, оптимальними щодо цієї ідеологічної системи. Висновки. Трансбіополітика у нашому розумінні постає як політична проблематика, пов'язана з раціоналізацією глобального еволюційного процесу. Найближчими десятиліттями трансбіополітика стане несучим елементом глобального процесу еволюції ноосфери з подальшим ускладненням і збільшенням когезії між окремими соціокультурними типами, що входять до системи сучасної глобальної цивілізації.

Беневич Г. И. Логос Мелхиседека. Экзегеза и парадигма обожения у прп. Максима Исповедника В этой статье рассматривается один из сложнейших вопросов библейской экзегетики образ Мелхиседека и его связь с образом Христа. На материале ряда сочинений прп. Максима Исповедника показывается значение этого вопроса для восточного богословия VII в. Ключевые слова: Максим Исповедник, Мелхиседек, Христос, экзегетика. Benevich G. I. Logos of Melchizedek. The Учупуышы and Paradigm of Deification in the Works of Maximus the Confessor In the article, there is regarded one of the most complex matters of the Bible exegesis, i. e. image of Melchizedek and its relation to the image of Christ. The meaning of the matter for Eastern Theology of the VII century is shown through a set of writings of St. Maximus the Confessor. Key words: Maximus the Confessor, Melchizedek, Christ, exegesis. Бирюков Д. С. Николай Мефонский и его полемика с учением Прокла в контексте византийского проклренессанса Статья посвящена особенностям полемики византийского церковного писателя XII в. Николая Мефонского с учением Прокла. Указано на платонизирующих византийских авторов современной Николаю эпохи, с которыми он мог неявно полемизировать. На примере преломления Николаем платонического учения об иерархии причин сущего и учения об универсалиях показано, что Николай склонялся к номинализму и расходился в этом как с неортодоксальными, так и с некоторыми ортодоксальными авторами, а также с распространенной в Византии позицией, характерной для Александрийской школы Аммония, предполагающей троякий способ существования универсалий. Ключевые слова: византийская философия, проблема универсалий, платонизм, Александрийская школа философии, византийский проклренессанс. Birjukov D. S Nicholas of Methone and His Polemics Against Proclus in the Context of the Byzantine Proclosrenaissance The article is concerned on the features in polemics of the Byzantine Church author Nicholas of Methone with the authorities who kept the doctrine of Proclus in XII century. We have suggested the names of the authors in Nicholas' epoch, with whom he could maintain his latent dialogue in his writings. On the example of interpreting the Platonian notion concerning the hierarchy of causes of Being and the notion of Universals we show that Nicholas whose more inclined to Nominalism, fallen into divergence both with Non-orthodox and same Orthodox authors on that point. So that the analysis of his writings reveals the difference with the widespread position in Byzantium, characteristic to the Alexandrian school of Ammonius, which supported the Doctrine of Universals' existing in three modes. Key words: Byzantine philosophy, the problem of universals, Platonism, Alexandrian school, Proklosrenaissance. Бурановская Н. А. Сакрализация камня в культуре Средневековой Индии Сакрализация камня как наиболее долговечного материала, способного запечатлеть ценностные доминанты и духовные смыслы культуры, характерна для большинства цивилизаций Востока. В данной статье рассматривается космологическая символика индуистских храмов, являвшихся в своей исторической эволюции развитием идеи жертвенного алтаря. Ключевые слова: Индия, индуизм, каменное храмовое зодчество, сакрализация камня. Buranovsky N. A. Stone Sacralization in Culture of Medieval India The stone sacralization as the most durable material, capable to embody valuable dominants and spiritual senses of culture, is characteristic for the majority of civilisations of the East. In given article the cosmological symbolism of Hindu temples which were development of idea of a sacrificial altar in the historical evolution. Key words: India, Hindu, stone temple architecture, a stone sacralization. Бурмистров С. Л. Эстетика неоведантизма и принцип dhvani В статье на примере философии искусства С. Дасгупты рассматриваются некоторые особенности неоведантистской эстетики и ее связи с эстетическими представлениям древней Индии и с западной эстетической мыслью (Г. В. Ф. Гегель). Анализируется роль понятия dhvani (намек, скрытый смысл) в индийской эстетике и особенности восприятия неоведантистами гегелевского учения об искусстве как образном воплощении идеи. Ключевые слова: эстетика, прекрасное, неоведантизм, Гегель, dhvani. Burmistrov S. L. Esthetics of Neo-Vedantism and the Dhvani Principle In the paper specific features of neo-vedāntist aesthetics (S. Dasgupta's philosophy of art) are considered and its relations with aesthetic theories of ancient India and with Western aesthetic thought (G. W. F. Hegel) are examined. The main topic of the paper are the role of the concept dhvani (hint) in Indian aesthetics and specific features of neo-vedāntist reception of Hegel's theory of art as an embodiment of an idea. Keywords: Aesthetics, beauty, neo-vedāntism, Hegel, dhvani. Гольцев Д. В. Образ Храма в истории и современной культуре евреев Единство языка, традиций, культуры, которые еврейский народ сохраняет на протяжении более четырех тысяч лет покоятся на религиозном фундаменте иудаизма. Желание иудеев жить в чистом и святом мире, который был утерян прародителями после грехопадения, воплотилось в Храме. Идея Храма укоренена в самих истоках истории еврейского народа. И вся история евреев по сей день неразрывно связана с Храмом. Ключевые слова: культура, религиозное сознание, Храм, синагога. Goltsev D. V. Image of the Temple in the History and Contemporary Culrure of Jews The unity of language, traditions, and culture preserving by the Jewish people throughout more than four thousands years base on the religious foundation of Judaism. The desire of Jews to live in the clear and holy world lost by progenitors after the Fall had been embodied in Temple. The idea of the Temple is grounded in the very origins of Jewish history. And the whole history of Jews is intimately connected with the Temple to the present time. Key words: culture, religious consciousness, the Temple, synagogue. Воробьева-Десятовская М. И. Мечников Л. И. и русская цивилизация XIX в. Статья посвящена страницам биографии Л. И. Мечникова. Автор анализирует его жизненный путь, чтобы выяснить, когда ученый задался вопросом о причинах зарождения цивилизаций. Он считал ошибочным усматривать причину зарождения древних цивилизаций в благоприятных климатических условиях, поскольку климатические условия, в которых зарождались цивилизации, не были идентичны. Л. И. Мечников первым в русской науке сделал шаг к выявлению роли географического фактора в историко-цивилизационном процессе. Ключевые слова: первобытная культура, географический фактор, изменения климатических условий Vorob'yova-Desyatovskaya M. I. L. I. Mechnikov and the Russian Civilization of the XIX Century. This article is devoted to crucial points of L. I. Mechnikov's biography. The author analyzed his life story in order to explain how he conceived the idea of civilizations' origin. Mechnikov rejected auspicious climatic conditions as the main cause of the ancient civilizations' arising. He proved the exceptional role of geographical factor of historical-civilizational process. Mechnikov was the first Russian scientist who represented this mode of thinking. Key words: primitive culture, the geographical factor, changes of environmental conditions. Джибраев А. Ю. Судан-2011: грядущая религиозно-иделогическая реструктуризация До референдума 2011 г. о разделении Судана на южное и северное государства осталось менее года. В контексте столкновения западного, американского образца, и исламского проектов глобализации актуальным представляется и обсуждение, и прогнозирование геополитических последствий референдума. Cтатья посвящена анализу суданского узла пересечения интересов Запада и стран исламского мира: социально-политической и экономической ангажированность Судана, внутрисуданских политических противоречий, позиций Евросоюза и США в разделении Республики Судан. Ключевые слова: геополитика, суданский референдум, исламистские национальные движения Dzhibraev A. Y. Sudan-2011: Сoming Religious & Ideological Restructurization Less than one year has been left prior to the Referendum-2011, targeted to divide Sudan on the South and North states. In the context of clash of the Western, American and Islamic Globalization Projects, to discuss and forecast the geopolitical implication of the Referendum seem to be actual. This article is designated for analyzing the Sudanese intersection node of the Western and Islamic countries' interests and meaning the social & political involvement and commitment of Sudan, internal Sudanese political contradictions, and the EU & EC positions on division matters of the Republic of Sudan. The attention is focused to discussing the forthcoming reaction to the Referendum results in the conditions of a potential local East Africa's conflict transplantation into the ideological fields of challenge for various Globalization Projects and with the view of preventing the negative consequences for the neighboring regions regarding formation of two independent states. Key words: geopolitics, Sudanese Referendum, islamist national movements. Ермакова Т. В. Вклад монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры Статья посвящена анализу вклада монголоведа А. М. Позднеева в исследование буддийской культуры. Проанализированы результаты двух его поездок в Монголию (1876, 1892): описание буддийских монастырей в аспекте управления, религиозных практик, архитектуры и повседневной жизни, восстановлена его концепция историко-культурной уникальности центральноазиатской региональной формы буддийской культуры. Ключевые слова: буддизм, Монголия, российские экспедиции. Ermakova T. V. Personal contribution of mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research This article is devoted to the evaluation of the personal contribution of the Russian mongolist A. M. Pozdneev into Buddhist culture research. Notable results of his two expeditions into Mongolian region were analyzed: complex description of the Mongol Buddhist monasteries in various aspects: management, religious practices, architecture and everyday life. Pozdneev's conceptualization of Mongol regional form of Buddhist culture was analyzed. Key words: Buddhism, Mongolia, the Russian expeditions. Касаткина З. А. Дирижерско-хоровая педагогика и образование в России на современном этапе Статья посвящена проблемам теории хорового дирижирования, методике преподавания дирижирования, а также вопросам полифункциональности данной профессии. Рассматривается проблема качественной подготовки и воспитания хорового дирижера высокой квалификации, выявление специфических дирижерских способностей, раскрытие понятия дирижерско-хоровая школа, определение основных методологических и теоретических аспектов основ системы хорового образования и исполнительства. Ключевые слова: теория хорового дирижирования, дирижерско-хоровое образование, педагог, музыкант, дирижерско-хоровая школа. Kasatkina Z. A. Choir Conducting Pedagogy and Education in Russia at Present Days The article is dedicated to theoretical questions of choir conducting, choir conducting teaching methodology as well as to questions related to multifunction of this profession. The author contemplates such issues as: education of highly qualified choir conductor, revelation of specific conductor skills, academic detailing of meaning for choir conducting school, determination of basic methodological and theoretical aspects of choir and performance educational system and its basis. Key words: theory of choir conducting, choir conducting education, pedagogue, musician, choir conducting school. Климов В. Ю. Светские власти, Рэннё, восьмой иерарх буддийской школы истинной веры Чистой Земли, и ее адепты в средневековой Японии В XVI в. крупные феодалы сэнгоку-даймё законодательными мерами стремились запретить деятельность адептов буддийской школы дзёдо синсю. Школа была основана Святым Синраном (1173-1263). Рэннё (1415-1499) в XV в. сумел создать мощную религиозную организацию. Он отстаивал основные положения Учения школы, борясь с искажениями и ересями. Ключевые слова: религиозное движение икко-икки, буддистская школа дзёдо синсю, Синран, Рэннё, буддистский храм Хонгандзи. Klimov V. J. In the XVI-th century feudal lords sengoku daimyo tried to prohibit the activities of religious followers of Buddhist school jodo shinshu by law The Buddhist school was founded by Saint Shinran (1173-1263). In the XV-th century Rennyo (1415-1499) managed to create a powerful religious organization. He was supporting main statements of the religious doctrine, and was fighting against its misinterpretations and heresies. Key words: Religious movement ikko-ikki, Buddhist school jodo shinshu, Shinran, Rennyo, Buddhist temple Honganji. Ларионова Д. Г. Лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина Статья посвящена формированию концепта родина на фоне американской лингвокультуры. Анализируются типологические особенности русской и американской культур, обусловившие различия в значимости концепта для языкового сознания русских и американцев. Исследуются лингвокультурные предпосылки формирования концепта родина как базового концепта русской культуры. Сопоставляются переводные соответствия концепта в русском языке и американском варианте английского языка. Ключевые слова: родина, концепт, русская культура, американская культура, лингвокультура, Larionov D. G. Lingual-Cultural Premises of Formation of the Motherland Concept The article is dedicated to the formation of the motherland concept against the background of the American lingual culture. The typological features of the Russian and American cultures that cause different meaning of the concept in the lingual consciousness of the Russian and American people are analyzed. The lingual cultural premises of formation of the motherland concept as a basic concept of the Russian culture are considered. The translated equivalents of the concept in the Russian and American English are compared. Key words: motherland, concept, Russian culture, American culture, lingual culture. Марахонова С. И. Выдающийся исследователь японской художественной культуры Сергей Елисеев и его петроградское окружение Статья посвящена деятельности С. Елисеева в области искусств, которое было его центральным интересом, что дает повод историкам считать его, прежде всего, специалистом в области дальневосточной культуры и искусств. Елисеев начал свои исследовательские изыскания, обучаясь в Японии. Позже, в 1915-1920 в Петрограде он подготовил лекции по дальневосточному искусству для Государственного университета и других институтов. Елисеев прожил первое десятилетие в эмиграции в Париже, где он работал как хранитель японской коллекции в музее Гиме. Парижский период был самым плодотворным для научной деятельности. С 1934 по 1958 С. Елисеев профессор Гарвардского университета США и директор Института Гарварда. Ключевые слова: востоковедение, Сергей Елисеев, дальневосточное искусство, культура Японии и Китая. Marakhonova S. I. The Outstanding Far Easten Fine Arts'scholar Serge Elisseeff and His Petrograd Environment The article deals with Serge Elisseeff 's activities in the field of fine arts. This was one of his most great interests and he is considered by some people the history of Far Eastern culture and fine arts scholar first of all. Elisseeff began his fine arts studies when a student in Japan. Later in 1915-1920 in Petrograd he prepared a lot of lectures on Far Eastern fine arts at the state university and some other institutes. Elisseeff spent the first decade of his emigration from Russia in Paris where he worked as the Japanese collection keeper in the Guimet museum. The Paris period was the most productive for Elisseeff 's scientific publications most part of which belonged to fine arts' problems. From 1934 to 1958 Serge Elisseeff spent in the USA as the Harvard University professor and director of the Harvard-Yenching Institute. Key words: Oriental studies, Sergey Yeliseyev, Far East arts, culture of Japan and China. Матюшкина Е. Н. Тип героя в исторических романах Б. Окуджавы В статье делается попытка создания типологии героя в исторической прозе Б. Окуджавы. Для этого рассмотрены произведения Бедный Авросимов, Похождения Шипова или Старинный водевиль, Свидание с Бонапартом, Путешествие дилетантов. В романах Окуджавы происходит трансформация героя середины XX века, наблюдается своеобразная модификация образов маленького человека (Авросимов, Шипов, Опочинин), лишнего человека (Мятлев). Ключевые слова: историческая проза, типология героя, маленький человек, лишний человек. Matyshkina E. N. Type the Hero in Historical Novels B. Okudzhava The seeks to make a typology of the hero in historical prose B. Okudzhava. To do this, consider the product Poor Avrosimov, The Adventures Shipova or old vaudeville, Rendezvous with Bonaparte, Journey dilettantes. In the novels there is a transformation of the hero Okudzhava mid XX century, there has been a kind of modification of images of the little man (Avrosimov, Shipov, Opochinin), superfluous man (Myatlev). Key words: historical prose, the typology of the hero, little man, superfluous man. Махлина С. Т. Значение Эдварда Саида в современной культуре и культурологи Доминантным аспектом современной культуры является глобализация. Конечно, это явление имеет черты двойственности. Основные особенности глобализации очень ярко воплотились в судьбе и творчестве Эдварда Вади Саида (1 ноября 1935 г. 25 сентября 2003 г.). И жизнь, и творчество, и политическая, и общественная деятельность его настолько двойственны, что отражают все противоречия глобализации. Фигура Эдварда Саида весьма 320 показательна для современной эпохи и, несомненно, значима для современной культуры и культурологии. Ключевые слова: глобализация, культура, культурология, Запад, Восток, ислам. Mahlina S. T. Edward Said's Value in Modern Culture and Cultural Science Globalisation is a dominant aspect of modern culture. This phenomenon is surely of dual nature. Main features of globalization are embodied in the art and life of Edward Wadie Said (1.11.1935-25.09.2003). His art and life, his political and social activity, are so ambiguous that reflect all controversies of globalization. Edward Said is a representative figure of the modern times and is definitely significant for the modern culture and culture studies. Key words: globalization, culture, culture studies, West, East, Islam. Микитюк Ю. М. Категории органической теории в идеологии почвенников В статье рассматриваются основные положения органической теории, раскрывается ее место в идеологии почвенничества. Анализ таких понятий, как народность, нация позволяет раскрыть решение почвенниками проблемы соотношения национального и общечеловеческого. Ключевые слова: органическая теория, нация, народ, почва, Григорьев, Страхов, Достоевский. Mikityuk Y. M. The Organic Theory in Ideology of Pochvenniks This article discusses the basic statements of the ''organic theory', it also reveals its place in the ideology of Pochvennichestvo. The analysis of such concepts as nation, nationality, nation may allow to solve the problem of the relationship between national and universal by representatives of this ideology. Key words: the organic theory, nation, people, national, soil, Grigoriev, Strahov, Dostoevsky. Михайлова М. В. Классический текст как личное бытие Классический текст рассматривается с позиций онтологической эстетики как один из видов личного бытия. Метафизическая потребность, лежащая в основе искусства, особенным образом реализуется в литературе. Благодаря совершенному тексту, гармонично соединяющему стратегии значения и присутствия, становится возможным эстетическое событие встречи автора, читателя и языка, имеющее важнейшим своим следствием перенастройку личности в согласии человека и мира. Ключевые слова: классика, текст, бытие, язык, автор, читатель. Mikhailova M. V. Classical Text as a Personal Being The article deals with the problem of classical text considered from the point of view of ontological esthetics as a kind of personal existence. The metaphysical requirement underlying art, is realized in literature in a special way. Thanks to the perfect text harmoniously connecting meaning and presence strategies, an esthetic event of a meeting of the author, the reader and the language become possible. Key words: classics, text, being, language, author, reader. Муравьев К. В. Два модуса триадологии А. Ф. Лосева В статье рассматривается триадология известного русского философа Алексея Федоровича Лосева, которая соединяет в себе диалектические начала античной философии и христианское православное богословие. Ключевые слова: триадология, ипостась, онтология, неоплатонизм, диалектика. Muravyev K. V. Two Modi of A. F. Losew's Triadology In the article triadology of noted Russian philosopher Alexey Losew which unites the dialectic principles of an ancient philosophy and Christian orthodox divinity is considered. Key words: triadology, hipostasis, ontology, Neo-platonism, dialectics. Островская Е. А. Теория традиционных религиозных идеологий: методологические возможности и горизонты применимости Статья посвящена презентации принципиально нового подхода к социологическому исследованию процессов институционализации религиозных систем. Методологическое ядро разработанного автором подхода составляет теория традиционных религиозных идеологий, содержащая в себе концептуальный инструментарий для изучения религиозных идеологий Запада и Востока. Авторское рассмотрение сфокусировано на теоретико-методологическом разъяснении таких ключевых концепций этой теории, как традиционные религии, религиозная модель общества, аналитическая схема институционализации религиозных систем. Особый интерес представляет предложенная в статье демонстрация методологических возможностей теории в аспекте преодоления эпистемологической ограниченности постхристианских академических моделей изучения религий. Ключевые слова: религиозные идеологии, социология религии, эпистемологические основания научного изучения религий Ostrowskaya E. A. Theory of Traditional Religious Ideologies: Methodological Capabilities and Horizons of Applicability The article presents a new approach to sociological study of religious systems institutionalization processes. In the core of this approach there is a theory of traditional religious ideologies, as providing a methodological tool for analysis of religious ideologies in the context of Western and Asian societies. The focus is brought to the theoretical and methodological clarifications to three key concepts of the theory that are traditional religions, religious model of society and analytical scheme of religious systems institutionalization. The demonstration of their methodological applicability is of great importance for comprehending epistemological limits of post-Christian scientific models for studies of religion. Key words: religious ideologies, sociology of religion, epistemology of scientific studies of religion. Островский А. Б. Категория замирщение в нормативных документах беспоповцев XIX начала XX в. Термин замирщение, употребленный впервые в конце XVII в. федосеевцами, в течение двух столетий прошел эволюцию: первоначально он выражал противостояние христиане (федосеевцы) / (отлученные, новожены, мирские), а во второй половине XIX в. уже служил мерой для оценки степени утраты благочестия конкретным членом беспоповской общины ввиду недозволенных контактов с иноверными в трапезе, совместной помывке в бане и др. ситуациях общения. Ключевые слова: старообрядцы, межконфессиональные отношения, федосеевцы, поморцы, замирщение. Ostrovsky A. B. The Category of Zamirshenie in Bespopovtsian (a Priestless Sect of Russian Old Believers) Regulations of the 19thand Early 20th Century The evolution of the term zamirshenie first used by the Fedoseetsy in the late 17th century: originally representing the opposition between Christians (Fedoseevtsy) and excommunicates, Novojeny (unionists recognizing marriage), and laity, and in the second part of the 19th century censuring imperfect piousness of individual members of priestless community found guilty of inadmissible contacts with adherents of different creed at meals, in a bathhouse or in other communicative situations. Key words: old believers, inter-confessional relations, fedoseevtsy, pomortsy, zamirshenie. Плебанек О. В. Цивилизационная матрица как категория геополитики Современные направления научных исследований глобалистика, геополитика потребовали и нового категориального аппарата. Традиционные понятия, такие как цивилизация, наполняются новым смыслом, на их базе возникают новые категории, такие как геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики и др. Использование новых и относительно новых понятий в новом контексте требует научного обоснования. Нестрогое, многозначное понимание научных категорий снижает их методологическое значение. Ключевые слова: глобалистика, геополитика, цивилизация, геоцивилизация, цивилизационная матрица, алгоритмы цивилизационной динамики. Plebanek O. V. Civilizational Matrix as the category of geopolitics Modern directions of scientific researches global studies, geopolitics have demanded also new categorial the language. Traditional concepts, such as a civilization, are filled with new sense, on their base there are new categories, such as a geocivilization, civilizational a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics, etc. Use new and concerning new concepts of a new context demands a scientific substantiation. Not strict, multiple-valued understanding of scientific categories reduces their methodological value. Key words: global studies, geopolitics, a civilisation, a geocivilization, civilization a matrix, algorithms civilizational dynamics. Прокуденкова О. В. Роль географического фактора в культурологической концепции Л. И. Мечникова В статье рассматривается культурологическая концепция выдающегося русского ученого Л. И. Мечникова. Отмечается особое внимание к проблеме географического детерминизма и роли природных условий в генезисе и развитии цивилизаций. Показано, что Мечников обосновывал своеобразие историко-культурного развития географическим фактором, главным из которых была гидросфера водное пространство, ставшее общим объединяющим признаком классификации мировых цивилизаций: речные, морские и океанические. Ключевые слова: географический фактор, гидросфера, цивилизация, географический детерминизм, культурогенез. Prokudenkova O. V. Role of Geographical Factor in the L. I. Mechnikov's Culturological Concept In the article, the culturological concept of outstanding Russian scientist L. I. Mechnikov is considered. Special attention to the problem of geographical determinism and role of environment in genesis and development of civilizations is paid. It is shown that Mechnikov saw the reason of originality of historical and cultural development in geographical factor, mainly, in hydrosphere, as water space is general uniting sign of classification of world civilizations: those of river, sea, and ocean. Key words: geographical factor, hydrosphere, civilization, geographical determinism, genesis of culture. Регинская Н. В. Александр Невский как символ национальной идентичности в современном искусстве Повышенное внимание, уделяемое Александру Невскому сегодня, связано как с незаурядной личностью Благоверного князя, так и с потребностью восстановления национальных символов новой России. Святому Александру Невскому принадлежит роль выдающегося русского героя. Закономерно обращение современного искусства к героике Благоверного князя Александра Невского, изображение которого своеобразно своей двойственностью: сакральноиконографичным содержанием и экспериментально-светской манерой исполнения. Ключевые слова: иконография, традиция, экспериментальное искусство, духовноиконологическое течение, иконная драматургия Reginsky N. V. Alexander Nevsky as a Symbol of National Identity in the Modern Art An increased attention is paid nowadays to Alexander Nevsky owing to the remarkable individuality of the Blessed Knyazh as well as to the need of renewal of New Russia's national symbols. Saint Alexander Nevsky has a role of an outstanding Russian hero. Modern Art logically addresses the heroic stories of the Blessed Knyazh Alexander Nevsky, whose image is peculiar due to its ambivalence: its sacral-iconographic content and experimentally secular manner of fulfillment. Key words: Iconography, Tradition, Experimental Art, Spiritually-Iconological Trend, Iconic Drama. Рысаков А. С. Основные тенденции в конфуцианстве эпохи Цин Статья посвящена аналитическому рассмотрению истории конфуцианского учения в XVII-XIX вв. Рассматриваются различные аспекты трансформации конфуцианства каноноведение, психотехника, доктрина, ритуальные практики. Восстанавливается политический контекст функционирования конфуцианских школ и направлений. Исследуются доктринальные позиции наиболее значимых конфуцианских ученых цинского времени. Ключевые слова: китайская философия, история конфуцианства, история Китая Нового времени. Rysakov A. S. Major Trends in the Qing Dynasty Confucianism The article is devoted to analytical consideration of the history of Confucian teachings in XVII-XIX centuries. Various aspects of the transformation of Confucianism: canon studies, psychotechnique, doctrine, ritual practice are considered. The political context of functioning of Confucian schools and directions is analyzed, as well as the doctrinal position of the most important Qing time Confucian scholars. Key words: Chinese philosophy, the history of Confucianism, Chinese History. 324 Рысакова П. И. Социокультурная специфика женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе Настоящая статья посвящена выявлению социокультурной специфики женского образования в традиционном китайском обществе. Основное внимание уделено анализу конфуцианских доктринальных предписаний, в соответствии с которыми выстраивались ценностно-нормативные представления о социальном статусе и роли женщины в китайском обществе. Рассматривается педагогический идеал традиционного женского образования. Ключевые слова: конфуцианство, женское образование, четыре женские добродетели, талант. Rysakova P. I. Socio-Cultural Specifics of Women Education in Traditional Chinese Society The article deals with the problem of specific features of female education in Chinese traditional society. It primarily focuses on analysis of the doctrine of Confucianism which regulated the normative expectations of women's social status and role in Chinese society. The aim of women's traditional education is considered. Key words: Confucianism, female education, four women's virtues, talent. Свиридова Л. О. Олицетворение ада в Чине погребению священническому В статье изложены результаты наблюдений над постканоническими восточнохристианскими гимнографическими памятниками на церковно-славянском языке. В центре рассмотрения отличительная черта гимнографической образности: олицетворение не только ада, но и рая, космологических уровней, природных объектов и стихий. В образной системе гимнографического текста выявляются космологический и антропоморфический семиотические коды. Ключевые слова: гимнография, книги церковного обихода кирилловской печати, Потребник, семиотические коды, космологические представления. Sviridova L. O. Embodiment of Hell in theOrder of Priestly Burial The results of observation of Eastern Christian post-canonical hymnographic memorials in the Old Church Slavonic language are given in the article. The central idea of the research is the main feature of the hymnographic imagery the embodiment not only of Hell, but of Heaven, cosmological levels, natural objects and elements. In the system of hymnographic texts cosmological and antropomorphic semiotic codes are presented. Key words: hymnography, church books of Cyril print, Potrebnik, semiotic codes, cosmological views. Селивановский В. В. Сциентистские элементы вероучения Движения Веры Сциентизм в теистической религии парадоксален. Этот феномен вероучения неопятидесятнического Движения Веры побуждает обратиться к анализу его генеалогических корней, теологии и эпистемологии. Крайний фидеизм и далёкое от научной рациональности отрицание чувственного опыта позволяет говорить не о сциентистской ориентации сознания, а о квазинаучном флёре, прикрывающем магический характер практики. Ключевые слова: сциентизм, Движение Веры, метафизическое движение, Новое Мышление, закон веры. Selivanovskiy V. V. Scientistic elements of the Word-Faith Movement's doctrine A claim for scientism in theistic religion is paradoxical. This doctrinal phenomenon of the neo-Pentecostal Word-Faith Movement encourages analysis of its genealogical beginnings, theology and epistemology. Extreme forms of fideism and rejection of the sentient experience, which is foreign to the scientific rationality, do not reveal a scientistic orientation of consciousness but rather a quasi-scientific fleur, employed to disguise the magical nature of the movement's practices. Key words: scientism, Word-Faith Movement, metaphysical movement, New Thought, law of faith. Скоморох Олег А., протоиерей. История тюремного служения христианской церкви в связи с пенитенциарными реформами XVIII-XIX вв. Статья касается вопросов, относящихся к истории тюремного служения христианской Церкви в период пенитенциарных реформ США, Великобритании и России XVIII-XIX веков, когда определялась позиция государств и общества, направленная на христианизацию и гуманизацию тюремного заключения вообще и нравственного исправления заключенных, в частности. Цель статьи ознакомить миссионеров Христианской Церкви, совершающих тюремное служение, с развитием и становлением тюремной миссии, как части государственных систем исполнения наказания. Ключевые слова: тюремное служение, миссия, пенитенциарные реформы, капелланство, Церковь и общество. Skomorokh Oleg A. History of Prison Service of Christian Church in Connection with Penitential Reforms during XVIII-XIX Cent. The article touches upon some questions concerning the history of prison ministry of the Christian Church during penitential reforms in the USA, the Great Britain and Russia in the course of XVIII-XIX centuries, when humanizing and Christianizing position towards the Penal Executive System in general and moral correcting of prisoners in details was taking its shape in those states and societies. The objective of the article is to acquaint the Christian Church's missionaries, carrying out prison ministry, with the progress and development of prison mission, as parts of state Penal Executive Systems. Key words: prison ministry, mission, penitential reforms, chaplaincy, Church and society. Фадеева Т. Ф. Повседневные элементы духовной средневековой культуры. Искусство квадрвиума: Музыка В статье предполагается предварительный обзор культурологических аспектов средневековой системы образования. Автор рассматривает некоторые аспекты формирования хоральной культуры как многоступенчатой духовно-музыкальной системы. Ключевые слова: Средние века, образование, музыка, церковная культура, искусство. Fadeeva T. F. The Everyday Elements of the Spiritual Medieval Culture. Art of Quadrivium: Music The article assumes a tentative review of the culturological aspects of the medieval educational system. The author distinguishes some aspects of forming of choral culture as many-staged spiritual-music system. Key words: Middle Ages, education, music, church culture, art. Федорова М. В. Семиотика свадебных украшений бурят В статье рассматриваются украшения бурят как предметный код свадебного ритуала, на широком этнографическом материале анализируется синкретичная структура их семиотических функций. Свадебные украшения несли в себе продуцирующую, апотропейную символику, были связаны с представлениями о жизненной силе, являлись маркерами обретения невестой нового социально-возрастного статуса. В качестве основных источников использованы вещевые коллекции Российского этнографического музея, Музея антропологии и этнографии им. Петра Великого РАН, научные публикации. Ключевые слова: украшения, свадебный наряд, семиотический, символ. Fedorova M. V. Semiotics of Buryats'wedding jewelry The subject of the report is the jewelry as an objective code of the wedding ritual. The author analyses the syncretic structure of their semiotic functions on a broad ethnographic material. The wedding jewelry have productive, protective symbolism, were associated with notions of vitality, and were the markers of a bride new-age social status. As the main sources, the author used the collections of objects of the Russian Museum of Ethnography, the Peter the Great's Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera), and scientific publications. Key words: jewelry, wedding dress, semiotic, symbol. Филиппова Ю. В. Мифологические аспекты в понятии сознания В статье рассматриваются мифологические аспекты сознания, их влияние на возникновение новой формы познания философии, онтологические предпосылки структур времени и памяти, а также сновидение как компонент мофопоэтического сознания и постепенный переход к рефлексии. Ключевые слова: сознание, миф, рефлексия, время, память, реальность, сновидение. Philippova J. V. Mythological Aspects of the Notion of Consciousness The article deals with mythological aspects of consciousness, their influence on genesis of a new form of cognition philosophy, also ontological suppositions of temporal and memorable structures, and dreaming as an element of mythopoetical consciousness and gradual conversion to reflection. Key words: consciousness, myth, reflection, time, memory reality, dream. Чистякова Э. Э. Скандинавское влияние в русской художественной культуре XIX-XX веков Переломная эпоха XIX-XX веков изменила представление о взаимодействии русского и западноевропейского искусства. Для преодоления изоляции русской культуры было необходимо познакомить русских художников и общество с состоянием искусства за рубежом. Выставки скандинавских художников, организованные в конце XIX века, открыли национально-романтическое искусство северных соседей России и дали пример вступления на общеевропейский путь развития без утраты национальных особенностей. Скандинавское влияние оставило заметный след на русской архитектуре рубежа веков, особенно в северной столице. Знакомство с достижениями скандинавского искусства расширило творческие возможности и позволило русским художникам оказаться причастными к наиболее значительным событиям художественной жизни рубежа веков. Ключевые слова: скандинавское влияние, русские художники, северный модерн, С. П. Дягилев, А. Галлен-Каллела, А. Эдельфельт, Мир искусства. Chistjakova E. E. Scandinavian Influence in the Russian Artistic Culture of XIX-XX Centuries The turning age of the XIX-XX centuries changed the idea about Russian and West European Art interaction. To bridge the Russian culture isolation it was necessary to introduce the status of the foreign culture to Russian artists and the society. The exhibitions of Scandinavian painters arranged at the end of the XIX century showed National Romanticism of Nordic neighbours to Russia and gave an example of entering European way of development with no national peculiarities losses. Scandinavian Influence had a visible affect on Russian architecture at the turn of the century especially in the North Capital of Russia. Making the acquaintance with Scandinavian Art achievements enhanced creative opportunities and made Russian artists participate in more significant artistic life events of the turn of the century. Key words: Scandinavian influence, Russian artists, Nordic Art Nouveau, Sergey P. Diaghilev, Akseli Gallen-Kallela, Albert G. Edelfelt, The Art World. Шомахмадов С. Х. Космография Южной Азии в письменных памятниках вишнуитской и буддийской традиций В статье дан сравнительный анализ вишнуитской и буддийской космологических систем. Отмечается, что радиально-кольцевая морфология земной поверхности характерна как для буддийской, так и для вишнуитской традиции. Числовая семантика материков, представленная в космографии Южной Азии, демонстрирует, что ойкумена осмыслялась как совершенная, идеологически отражающая непрерывность двух традиций. Общим для обеих традиций является признание человеческой формы рождения как единственно благой, дающей возможность достижения окончательного освобождения (мокша, нирвана). Ключевые слова: космография, буддизм, индуизм, Индия, сакральные центры Shomakhmadov S. H. The South Asia's Cosmography in the Texts of Vaishnavist and Buddhist Traditions The comparative analysis of the Vaishnavist and Buddhist cosmological systems is given in this article. It is noticed that the radially-ring morphology of a terrestrial surface is characteristic both for Buddhist, and for Vaishnavist traditions. The numerical semantics of continents presented in the Southern Asia's cosmography shows that ecumena was comprehended as the perfect, ideologically reflecting continuity of two traditions. The general for both traditions is the acceptance of the human birth form as a unique good, giving the chance for achievements of definitive clearing (moksha, nirvana). Key words: cosmography, Buddhism, Hinduism, India, sacral centers.

Japan nimmt eine besondere Stellung in der Weltgeschichte ein, indem es als einzige nicht-westliche Macht unter den Großmächten die Geschicke der Weltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert mitbestimmte. Als solche spielte es auch eine bedeutende Rolle in der Entwicklung der modernen Völkerrechtsordnung. Innerhalb weniger Dekaden stieg Japan von der Position einer peripheren Nation im Schatten Chinas zur Hegemonialmacht in Ostasien auf und wurde – zumindest formal – gleichberechtigt in die Gemeinschaft der Nationen aufgenommen. Dieser Aufstieg zeigte überdeutlich, dass der souveräne Gebrauch von Völkerrecht nun nicht mehr nur eine Domäne der westlichen Mächte war und dass das Völkerrecht damit endgültig die Grenzen eines ius publicum europaeum hin zu einem "Weltrecht" überschritten hatte. Untersuchungen der Rezeption des westlichen Völkerrechts konzentrieren sich im Wesentlichen auf dieses frühe Kapitel der Rezeptionsgeschichte, sind jedoch bei aller Anerkenntnis der Erfolge Japans erstaunlich verhalten in der Bewertung der Rezeption selbst. So wird diese von vielen als zu passiv, eurozentrisch, "positivistisch" (ein Merkmal mit eher negativer Konnotation in Japan) und epigonal kritisiert. Ein alternativer Interpretationsentwurf sieht Japans Völkerrechtsrezeption zwischen 1905 und 1945 als Vorläufer einer revisionistischen Bewegung, die die normative Vormachtstellung des Westens in Frage stellt und eigene Ordnungsvorstellungen verfolgt. Dieser Diskurs steht in Zusammenhang mit der jüngeren Debatte um sogenannte "Asiatische Werte" und der postkolonialen Kritik an Völkerrecht in jüngster Zeit. Beide Argumentationsstränge sind jedoch, wie ihre innere Widersprüchlichkeit zeigt, irreführend hinsichtlich der Rolle, die das Völkerrecht in den Außenbeziehungen Japans spielte. Dieser Aufsatz möchte daher ein umfassenderes und zutreffenderes Verständnis dieser Rolle ermöglichen, indem es die Geschichte der Rezeption und Anwendung von Völkerrecht in Japan seit Anbeginn im Jahre 1853 bis zum Ende Japans als Imperialmacht im Jahre 1945 nachzeichnet und noch einmal die Frage nach ihrem kritischen bzw. konstruktiven Potential für die allgemeine Völkerrechtsentwicklung stellt. Zusammenfassend zeigt sich, dass das Völkerrecht in Japan anfangs eine rein funktionale Rolle innehatte, insofern seine Observanz gegenüber den westlichen Mächten einen hohen Grad an "Zivilisiertheit" signalisieren sollte und gegenüber den ostasiatischen Nachbarn als argumentative Waffe einer aggressiven Imperialpolitik diente. Japan hatte mit dieser Strategie auch Erfolg und konnte die verhassten "ungleichen Verträge" bereits 25 Jahre nach Abschluss des letzten Vertrages revidieren und sich nach 1905 als Hegemonialmacht in Ostasien etablieren. In Anbetracht dieser Funktion ist es daher kaum verwunderlich, dass japanische Völkerrechtler und Politiker eine eher passive, eurozentrische und "positivistische" Haltung gegenüber dem Recht einnahmen. Eine offene Kritik an der Völkerrechtspraxis vor 1919 hätten Japans Ziele eher gefährdet und wäre, selbst wenn ein solcher Wille dazu bestanden hätte, angesichts der Machtverhältnisse auch weitgehend wirkungslos geblieben. Aus den gleichen Gründen betrachteten japanische Politiker jedoch die liberalen Entwicklungen des Völkerrechts in der Zwischenkriegszeit eher als Bedrohung der japanischen Sonderstellung in Ostasien und schlossen sich dieser nur mit äußersten inneren Vorbehalten an. Dies gilt für den Völkerbund ebenso wie für das Verbot des Angriffskrieges durch den Briand-Kellogg-Pakt, und nur äußeres Prestige und die Furcht vor Isolation bewegten Japan, diesen beizutreten. Zudem wäre es irreführend, den "Positivismus" japanischer Völkerrechtler als Ausdruck eines Mangels an Kritik schlechthin zu verstehen. Kritik und Reserviertheit gegenüber dem westlichen Völkerrecht existierten seit Beginn seiner Rezeption und nahmen mit jeder subjektiv empfundenen Zurücksetzung Japans in der Weltpolitik noch zu. Diese Entfremdung brachte eine Tradition der "kritischen" Völkerrechtswissenschaft in Japan hervor, die insbesondere die politische, wirtschaftliche, soziale und historische Bedingtheit des angeblich "universalen" Völkerrechts in Augenschein nahm. Seine Hochzeit hatte dieser Ansatz in den Kriegsjahren von 1931 bis 1945, als Japan aktiv den status quo der internationalen Ordnung herausforderte und eine eigene normative Ordnung in Ostasien zu begründen suchte. Allerdings waren japanische Völkerrechtler wider Erwarten, auch wenn sie die kontinentale Expansion argumentativ unterstützen, nicht deren glühendsten Befürworter, sondern argumentierten aus einer defensiven Stellung heraus. Angesichts der Herausforderung, ein "Ostasiatisches Völkerrecht" erfinden zu müssen, warnten sie eher vor einer radikalen und irrationalen Abkehr vom normativen status quo und traten für eine graduelle Entwicklung neuer völkerrechtlicher Konzepte auf Grundlage des kritischen Studiums klassischen Völkerrechts ein. Sie suchten damit ihr Gebiet und ihre Profession gegen die zunehmenden Angriffe und Spott in der japanischen Öffentlichkeit zu verteidigen, allerdings mit geringem Erfolg. Die häufigen Verletzungen humanitären Rechts in den Schauplätzen des Krieges zeugen von der zersetzenden Kraft des "totalen Krieges", der ihre Argumente zunichte machte und sie selbst überrollte hätte, wenn nicht die Kapitulation im Jahre 1945 dieser Entwicklung Einhalt geboten hätte. Aus diesem Grund jedoch dient die Völkerrechtsrezeption Japans auch nicht als historisches Beispiel für eine "Herausforderung der normativen Hegemonie des Westens", sondern eher als warnendes Beispiel für die Notwendigkeit eines rationalen und konstruktiven Diskurses um normative Konzepte internationaler Ordnung heute. ; Japan takes a special place in global history as the only non-western power among the great powers which shaped the course of world politics during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Within less than half a century, Japan rose from a peripheral power in the shadow of China to the hegemonic power in Northeast Asia and was accepted as equal power (at least on the formal level) into the hitherto all-European family of nations. As such, it also played a significant role in the development of the modern international legal order as it is today. Japan's accession to the hitherto all-European concert of powers in 1905 demonstrated that the competent use of international law was not the exclusive domain of western powers anymore and that international law had shed its last vestiges of being a merely "European public law" and become a truly universally applied law. And yet, studies of the reception of international law in Japan, which largely focus on the early period between 1853 and 1905, often conclude their analysis with a mixed appraisal of the process, as they characterize it as being overly passive, Euro-centric and "positivistic" (a word of negative connotation in the Japanese context) and therefore merely derivative. An alternative interpretation, however, places Japan at the vanguard of a revisionist movement that challenged the hegemony of western international legal discourse and sought to establish an autonomous order in East Asia in the second phase of its engagement with international law between 1905 and 1945. This discourse ties in with the so-called "Asian values" debate and postmodernist criticism of international law in recent times. However, both narratives, as the inherent contradiction indicates, are misleading in their representation and analysis of the role which international law played in modern Japanese internationalist relations. This article aims to present a more coherent and consistent picture of international law in Japan by pursuing the whole trajectory of its reception and application in Japan's foreign politics, from the opening up of the country in 1854 until the final demise of Japan's imperial project in 1945. It argues that western international law during the initial phase of its reception had a purely functional role, as a signal of "civilization" and co-operation towards the western power, and as an argumentative weapon of expansion towards its East Asian neighbours. As such, it served its overall purpose well, as Japan managed to renegotiate the odious "unequal treaties" twenty-five years after the last was concluded and by 1905 had established itself as the hegemonic power in Northeast Asia. Considering this functional role, it is therefore not surprising that Japanese experts and politicians took a passive, Euro-centric and "positivistic" attitude towards the law. It did not serve Japan's interests to criticize international legal practice until 1919, nor would it be realistic to expect that Japan had the power to change it, even if it wanted to. However, it is also for the same reasons that Japan was inwardly reluctant to go along with the "Wilsonian" changes of international law in the 1920s, as multilateral institutions and the outlawry of war served Japan's purposes less than the classical law. It is merely for reasons of prestige and fear of abandonment that Japan would go along with these developments until 1933. Moreover, it would be erroneous to confuse Japan's apparent "positivism" with a lack of criticism in general. Feelings of estrangement and inner reservations co-existed with the apparent compliance right from the start and were carefully nurtured by successively felt slights and discriminations on the political side, whatever their claims to reality. This estrangement engendered a tradition of critical studies of international law in Japan which specifically addressed the political, economic, social and historical contingency and particularity of "universal" international law. This approach had its heyday during the war years between 1931 and 1945, when Japan actively challenged the political status quo of the international order and tried to carve out its own autonomous sphere in East Asia. However, contrary to expectations, international lawyers, although advising the Japanese authorities and justifying Japan's aggressive policy with their arguments, were not its most ardent supporters, but argued from a defensive and losing position. Faced with the challenge of inventing an "East Asian International Law", they warned against an irrational iconoclasm that would uncritically destroy the normative status quo and argued for a gradual evolvement of normative concepts on the basis of the existing order. Thus they tried to defend the law and their profession against a rising tide of criticism and contempt of international law in the public, with diminishing success. The frequent violations of international law in the theatres of war gave testimony to the eroding forces of "total war" that undermined their position and would have swept them away if surrender had not intervened in 1945. However, it is also for this reason that Japan's reception of international law does not serve as an historical example of "challenging the normative hegemony of the West", as more recent commentators would have it with a view to other rising powers, but rather as a warning reminder of the necessity of rational and constructive negotiation of concepts of normative order today.

OCTOBER, J899 ooTheoo Gettysburg CONTENTS. The Character of Macbeth 1S3 Success in Business 160 A Mirror's Reflections 161 Pen Sketches from Nature 163 Editor's Desk, 168 College Y. M. C. A 169 Two Mischievous Fallacies in Education 172 Why we should be True and Honest 17S The Relation of Commerce to Missions 176 The United States as a Coloniz-ing Nation 179 Advantage of Studying the Classics 182 Athletics 186 G'SURG C. LIB. DUPLICATE FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. For Fine. Printing go to e Jo I. Wi M Hovf CARLISLE ST. GETTYSBURG, PA. C. B. Kitzmiller Dealer in Hats, Caps, Boots and Douglas Shoes GETTYSBURG, PA. J. H. Myers Fashionable Tailor, Clothier and Gents' Furnisher. The best place in town to have your Cloth-ing- made to order. All workmanship and Trimmings guaranteed. No charge for re-pairs and pressing for one year. Dyeing and Repairing a specialty. Ready-made Clothing the largest stock in town. Up-to-date styles. Bicycle Suits and Breeches Headquarters. 11 Baltimore St., Gettysburg, Pa. EDGAR 5. MARTIN, F^CIGARS AND SMOKERS' ARTICLES. Chambersburg St., Gettysburg. translations Literal—Interlinear—135 Volume* Dictionaries German, French, Italian, Spanish Latin, Greek tutorial Series JOO vnls. specially designed for coaching i^i exams, in all college studies Binds & noble Sehoolbooks of all Publishers 4 Cooper Institute, NewYork City 1 R. A. WONDERS, Corner Cigar Parlors. A full line of Cigars, Tobacco, Pipes, Etc. Scott's Corner, Opp. Eagle Hotel. GETTYSBURG, PA. JOHN M. MINNIGH, Confectionery, lee, • andIee Create Oysters Stewed and Fried. No. 17 BALTIMORE ST. .THE. GETTYSBURG MERCURY Entered at the Postojjice at Gettysburg as second-class matter. Vol. VIII. GETTYSBURG, PA., OCTOBER, 1899. No. S Alumni Editor. REV. F. D. GARLAND. Editor-in-Chief. J. FRANK HEILMAN, '00. Assistant Editors. LDTHEK A. WEIGLE, '00. S. A. VAN ORMER, '01. Business Manager, Assistant Business Manager. JOHN K. HAMACHER, '00. CLARENCE MOORE, '02. Advisory Board. PROK. J. A. HIMES, LIT. D. PROF. G. D. STAHLEY, M. D. PROF. J. W. RICHARD, D. D. Published monthly by the students of Pennsylvania (Gettysburg) College. Subscription price One Dollar a year in advance, single copies Fifteen Cents. Students, Professors and Alumni are cordially invited to contribute. All subscriptions and business matter should be addressed to the Business manager. Articles for publication should be addressed to the Editor. Address THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY, GETTYSBURG, PA. THE CHARACTER OF MACBETH. [FIRST GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] SHAKESPEARE was not only the greatest po.et and drama-tist that the world has known, but also a psychologist in every phase of human thought and action. Character has been nowhere more perfectly depicted than in many of his plays, and his art is most clearly seen in the painting of a man's soul through his words. This is especially exemplified in many of his tragedies. There is a wealth of psychological study in the char-acters of Hamlet, the brilliant student and noble prince whose life is wrecked by revenge; of Othello, the high-minded warrior whose soul is racked by jealousy; of Macbeth, the brave general who attained a throne, "In blood Stepp'd in so far, that, should I wade no more, Returning were as tedious as go o'er." 154 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. Hitherto Macbeth has been thought of as a man of weak reso-lution who was led astray by the dominant will of a wicked wife. This opinion has been mainly due to the fact that for years the only powerful rendering of the part of Lady Macbeth was that of Mrs. Siddons, whose strong personality easily lent itself to such an interpretation, while the only objections were raised now and then in a scholarly treatise which never reached the public. But several years ago Sir Henry Irving and Miss Ellen Terry pre-sented the play before American audiences in an entirely new in-terpretation, which at first surprised the theatre-going world, but eventually won its approbation. Under their treatment, Macbeth became, next to Iago, the worst of Shakespeare's villains, a man who brought about not only his own but his wife's moral down-fall. An impartial investigation of the text of the play will clearly show which of these views is correct. It may be well to begin, as the play does, with the objective element in Macbeth's soul, for it will show more distinctly the characteristics of the subjective. Macbeth is at first seen as the brave general. "Bellona's bridegroom lapp'd in proof," who successfully fought his country's enemies, winning glory for himself and his king. This quality of physical courage is in truth one which is part of Macbeth's real character. His por-trait does not lack in valor, from the first, when "brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name) Disdaining fortune, with his brandish'd steel, Which smoked with bloody execution, Like valour's minion, carv'd out his passage, Till he fac'd the slave ; Which ne'er shook hands, nor bade farewell to him, Till he unseam'd him from the nave to the chaps, And fix'd his head upon our battlements," till the last, when, betrayed by every portent which the witches had given him, he sees the end to be inevitable, yet plunges into battle with Macduff. "I will not yield. ***** Though Birnam wood be come to Dunsinane And thou oppos'd, be of no woman born, Yet I will try the last. Before my body I throw my warlike shield : lay on, Macduff, And damn'd be he that first cries, 'Hold, enough.' " THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 155 Another objective view of his character is that of his wife her-self: "Yet do I fear thy nature ; It is too full o' the milk of human kindness, To catch the nearest way." Bearing these two views of his character in mind, the student is prepared to pass unbiased judgment on the subjective, the real ele-ments of Macbeth's soul, as seen in the text itself. The first fact which may be established is that he had thought of murdering Duncan before meeting with the witches. Macbeth is not a good man fallen under the spell of witch-craft, which im-pels him to his bloody deeds. The first suggestion of murder comes from him soon after the approach of Ross and Angus: "Why do I yield to that suggestion Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair * * * * My thought, whose murder yet is but fantastical." Murder had been mentioned by no one—not even the witches— up to this time, and the prophecies of the witches were not such as to encourage or arouse the thought. They addressed him as Glamis, Cawdor, and "King that shalt be." The first he was by his father Sinel's death. With regard to the second: he was returning from a victory over the traitorous Thane of Cawdor, and it was in accordance with the customs of the time that the forfeited estates and title should be bestowed upon the victor. With regard to the last: Macbeth was next in succession to Dun-can, being his fiist cousin, and next of kin who was of age, as Malcolm and Donalbain were minors. His chance of becoming king was so apparent that the prophecy did not surprise the loyal and honest Banquo: "Good sir, why do you start and seem to fear Things that do sound so fair?" It was but natural for Macbeth to dream of kingship, but there was no need of crime to attain it. But one reason can be as-signed for the tumult which the witches aroused in Macbeth's mind—his former thought of murder. But we may go further: it is clearly stated that he had broached the subject to his wife before this occasion. When Duncan is in his castle, after he has definitely made up his mind to commit the murder, he tells her that he will not go on, and she replies: I56 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. " What beast was't then That made you break this enterprise to me ? » * * * Nor time nor place, Did then adhere, and yet you would make both." There is nothing here to support the theory of a good man gone to ruin through the evil influence of his wife. Macbeth himself was the originator of the murderous plan. Assured by the early fulfilment of part of the prophecy, Mac-beth seems inclined to drop his thought of murder and let matters take their course. "If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me Without my stir." He seems content to await what may happen. But, unfortu-nately, the very thing happens within an hour which is needed to again arouse his wicked purpose. The king, happy in success, lavishly bestows honors, and among them, makes his son Prince of Cumberland, which was the title assumed by the successor to the throne. While this act of Duncan's was not constitutional, it was not objected to, and Macbeth sees two men in his way in-stead of one. The barrier between him and the throne is in-creasing. Accordingly, announcing that he will go before to make ready for the king at his castle, he adds: "Stars, hide your fires Let not light see my black and deep desires; The eye wink at the hand; yet let that be Which the eye fears, when it is done, to see." This is the pivotal point in the play. Macbeth had a vague in-tention of murder before, but now he has made up his mind to commit the deed, and on that very night. Duncan's fate is set-tled. It is quite possible that Macbeth led his wife to believe that she was impelling him to the murder. It would be in entire ac-cord with the hypocrisy of his nature to bring about her moral downfall in such a way. Having made up his mind to the murder, he enters his castle. "Macbeth. My dearest love, Duncan comes here to-night. Lady Macbeth. And when goes hence? THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 157 Macbeth. To-morrow, as he purposes. Lady Macbeth. O ! never Shall sun that morrow see, Your face, my thane, is as a book, where men May read strange matters." And so later he says that he cannot do it, then yields little by little to her representations of the ease of the murder and of their escape from blame. We are impelled to pity this wife, who, guilty in her own ambition and assent to his plans, is dragged farther and farther down the road to ruin by the false dealing of her more wicked husband. This hypocrisy runs through the entire play and is manifested toward all, till his consciousness of his own false nature leads him to distrust everyone else. But the strangest element in Macbeth's character is seen in the beautiful imagery which he employs in pondering over the worst crimes. He loves to play with his conscience ; to set forth his crime pro and con; to conjure up its consequences, and he does it in language which one must admire. He is the greatest poet Shakespeare has shown the world and his genius rises as his deeds are darkest. He weighs and ponders the murder of Duncan and discusses it with his wife, until the phantom of his brain seems to be projected into space—he sees a dagger. For a moment he has a qualm of superstitious fear, but dismisses it quickly. "It is the bloody business which informs Thus to mine eyes." Then he promptly loses himself in rapt revery, and ushers in his crime with a beautiful soliloquy : "Now o'er the one-half world Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse The curtained sleeper: witchcraft celebrates Pale Hecate's offerings ; and withered murder, Alarumed by his sentinel the wolf, Whose howl's his watch, thus with his stealthy pace, With Tarquin's ravishing strides, towards his design Moves like a ghost. Thou sure and firm-set earth, Hear not my steps, which way they walk, for fear Thy very stones prate of my whereabout, And take the present horror from the time, Which now suits with it." Nothing can be more awful than this portrait of a murderer reveling in mental images of what he is about to do, and causing riteUMmmmiwimmMmiMMmMB 158 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. wave after wave of emotion to pass over his sensibility, for the sake of the intellectual pleasure it gives him; yet never swerving from his inexorable purpose. With what poetic beauty of lan-guage he later describes the scene in Duncan's room : "Here lay Duncan His silver skin lac'd with his golden blood; And his gash'd stabs look'd like a breach in nature For ruin's wasteful entrance." Absorbed with the pathetic words in which he has painted his picture, he never sees that they have caused his wife to faint. He is not the man to care for a matter of such small moment as his wife's feelings. He has been spoken of as a man of moral coward-ice. This may be true to some degree, but his fears were never more than superstitious, and never stood in the way of his pur-poses for an instant. He amply paid for any such weakness in his absolute lack of feeling. The influence of the supernatural upon Macbeth's course is a most interesting point of investigation. Was Macbeth responsible for his actions, or did the witches impel him to all he did? He certainly acted for himself in the beginning of his downward path. The first meeting with the witches contained nothing to compel into the course he took, but rather discouraged it. Banquo had as much reason as he to commit murder—even more, for the throne was promised to Macbeth himself, but to Banquo's descendants only. Had Banquo not been the loyal, honest soldier that he was, he would have planned death for both Duncan and Macbeth, that he might rule in person. Macbeth had only to wait, to become king honorably. But in his second consultation with the weird sisters, he surrenders himself to them; they advise him wrongly, and in his after deeds he seems impelled by a supernatural power— he has fallen into the net of Ate. In preparing the charm, Hecate tells us "He shall spurn fate, scorn death, and bear His hopes 'bove wisdom, grace, and fear; And you all know, security Is mortals' chiefest enemy." There are two side-lights thrown on the character of Macbeth which may be of interest. The first is the opinion of Hecate con-cerning him, expressed when she upbraids the witches for giving him any knowledge of the future: THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "How did you dare To trade and traffic with Macbeth, In riddles and affairs of death ; 159 All you have done Hath been but for a wayward son, Spiteful and wrathful; who, as others do, Loves for his own ends." We must remember that this comes from a supernatural being, and, as such, must be Shakespeare's estimate of Macbeth's real character. The second is the hypothesis that Macbeth was the third mur-derer who took part in the slaying of Banquo. This is not plainly stated, but may be argued from several standpoints. So intelli-gent a man as Macbeth would hardly entrust such a thing to two parties who did not know one another ; the third man displays a most intimate knowledge of Banquo's affairs, and is most eager for the murder. It is he who brings complete instructions; who first hears Banquo's horses; he when the others wonder that they seem to be going away, explains what Banquo usually does, re-calling himself by the quickly uttered "so all men do;" he rec-ognizes Banquo; he demands why the light has been put out, and first notices the escape of Fleance. Macbeth was not at the ban-quet, for it was appointed for seven oclock : but, as the ghost ap-peared and the guests were sent away before it had really begun, and it was then midnight, it could not have begun before eleven. This leaves four hours to be accounted for, These facts, then, seem to prove that Macbeth was a man who was not content to command the_ murder of a faithful friend, to gratify his jealousy, but must do it with his own hands—in truth, murder incarnate. A poet of the highest intellectual power, who expressed his blackest deeds in the most beautiful language; a man who de-lighted in exploring every phase and consequence of his action, for the sake of the emotional waves which would pass over his soul; a man of great sensibility, but no feeling, who could weep at his own portrayal of his sins, yet never think of pausing in their committal; a selfish, hypocritical, cold-blooded villain, with the physical bravery of the devil himself, and just enough moral weakness to superstitiously shudder for a moment—what a soul-study is presented in Macbeth ! —L,. A. W., *00. i6o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. SUCCESS IN BUSINESS. ASUCCESSFUL business man exercises a great influence in a country, both morally and financially. The requisites for this success are many. To be success-fully engaged in financial business, the old saying applies very well, that, "you must drive your business, and never let your business drive you." To do this one must be punctual in fulfilling all business en-gagements, laying aside all else, and especially keep his mind away from all worldly pleasures, attending to business first, pleasure afterwards. One must have a foresight in his pecuniary affairs. His experience in his past business must teach him to look for-ward, as to how the market stands, whether it indicates an ad-vance or a decline. His experience will teach him how to judge the market to a great extent. Then he should not be forgetful as to the standing of his bank account, and a favorable one will generally add to his prospects of success. On comparing the two, the one who drives his business, and the other who lets his business drive him, we find a vast differ-ence. The one driven by his business never looks forward, and is always in the dark as to how he stands in his affairs, until the time is reached when it is too late to make the necessary changes, which if they had been made in time would have saved him from a financial distress. His creditors come on him and he is unable to make up a sum sufficient to pay them all and consequently be-comes bankrupt. The other man, driving his business, always keeps posted as to his financial condition and is always prompt in meeting all his business obligations, and therefore is respected by all the commu-nity and is happy and prosperous. At times circumstances arise which cripple a business man through no fault of his own. The successful man will rise above these, commence anew and build a second reputation. The un-successful man will sink down, prostrated by the storm and never will rise again in business life. To be successful morally one must show by his business trans-actions that he has the welfare of his patrons at heart, as well as his own financial success. The unsuccessful man is generally of the kind whose time is nearly all given up to idle pleasures for THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 161 his own amusement, and who cares not for the welfare of his pa-trons. He has for the most part no religious tendencies and con-sequently can not have any influence for the good in the locality in which he resides. But the successful man by his integrity wins the esteem and confidence of his patrons and associates. By his industry, energy and perseverance he sets a good example to those employed by him. He is generally a man who possesses some re-ligious tendencies, and experience teaches us that this is the most essential characteristic for success. Probably nothing can be given to prove this more forcibly than the fact that the most prominent business men in our coun-try to-day are industrious, energetic, persevering, and drive their business instead of allowing their business to drive them. —D., '00. A MIRROR'S REFLECTIONS. [SECOND GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] IT had been fitted into the marble mantlepiece years ago, when the house was built, that large square of beveled glass with its back-ground of mercury, and year by year it rested there in its place against the wall, with wide, unsleeping eyes, noting all that went on in the room. At first the only sight that met its astonished gaze was the blank, white wall opposite. That was when the house was new. But soon objects and persons appeared on the scene, to attract the attention of the observant mirror, when, the house completed, families moved in. For this was one of those large houses, built in great cities, for the accommodation of many families, and it fronted on a busy street where all day long numberless feet hurried to and fro, cars whizzed by, and carts and wagons rattled over the pavement. But of all this the mirror knew nothing. It could see only what was going on in its immediate vicinity. One day a dainty covering of pale blue and gold appeared on the bare wall opposite, and a graceful picture of St. Cecilia hung there. Chairs were scattered about, and the white keys of a piano shone in the glass. Some potted plants added to the beauty of a picture already pleasing to the mirror's curious eyes, but the sight that delighted it most was the vision of a happy face, peeping in a dozen times a day to arrange a curl or set a ribbon right. Some- 162 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. times a man's dark face bent over the woman's fair one, and formed a perfect picture, but only the mirror saw it. Once in awhile a third and smaller face appeared, and a pair of tiny hands were stretched to "catch the baby in the glass." These same pictures the mirror saw, day after day, and never tired of reflecting. But one day a new and strange sight greeted its eyes. Near the opposite wall stood a tiny white box, in which was hid the baby form, now cold and still, while over it pale flowers were strewn. No happy face peeped into the mirror in those days, and soon after the chairs and flowers disappeared, the room was left empty and desolate. But not for long could the mirror mourn over lost faces; new scenes came into its field of vision. Great heaps of books were piled up on a table against the opposite wall, and beneath the light of a green-shaded lamp a boy sat with his head resting on his hands. Often the mirror saw him thus, for hours at a time, turn-ing pages earnestly, and, all the while running restless fingers through his hair. Sometimes his head dropped down upon the table, and he fell fast asleep. Sometimes he got angry and threw a book across the room. Now and then a whole troop of boys came rushing past the mirror, pausing occasionally to adjust a tie, or part their hair exactly in the middle. How long the students came and went before its shining sur-face the mirror did not know,—but it seemed a long time. One day, however, the room was again deserted, the opposite wall a blank. And thus it remained for many a weary month, until the mirror grew tired of staring at the bare walls, and longed for the sight of a living face. At last it came, a gentle patient face, framed in snowy hair, a woman's face, yet one that seldom paused before the mirror's answering eyes, a face lined by suffering, yet deeply sweet. On the walls no pictures hung, no elegant bits of furniture brightened the room, just plain chairs, and a table on which stood a single red geranium plant. The woman seemed to be quite alone, except at long intervals, when a handsome, bold-faced man staggered by the wondering glass, and brought tears to the eyes of the sad mother. One night when a little lamp burned on the table, a still form was carried into the room by stranger-hands. Soon after that the opposite wall was blank again. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 163 Many years had passed, and the busy street was no longer fashionable as a residence. Well-to-do folk sought other parts of the city, and the poorer class took possession. This the mirror did not know, so it looked with startled eyes upon the troop of ragged little ones, who next sought shelter within range of its gleaming surface. Hungry-looking children they were, who played all day long with simple toys in the bare room, and at night crept softly into corners to hide from the eyes of a cruel man. But one evening as the shadows began to fall, and obscured the view of the mirror, a sudden tumult arose, the children ran hither and thither, some-thing crashed against the mantlepiece, a blow shivered the glass, and the mirror's reflections were ended. -A. R. W., '99. PEN SKETCHES FROM NATURE. [THIKD GIES PRIZE ESSAY.] I DO not wonder at the ancients who peopled the earth, sea and air with gods, and then lest some one should be omitted and offended, built altars to both the known and the unknown ones. For even to-day, with all our minute knowledge of nature and revelation, her mild moods fills the breasts of the most in-telligent with fear and awe. Clouds assume monstrous and fore-boding forms and go scurrying, like martial hosts, across the sky, or hang like smouldering mountains on the distant horizon, hurl-ing bolts of fire at each other the while they are lit up by lurid flames and are rolling forth volley upon volley of artillery, whose concussions shake the very earth. Nor is there less to marvel at, even if there is less to fear, when the rain comes down in cata-racts, when the whistling sleet drives swift and sharp, or when the crystalline snow silently changes the bare fields into acres of diamonds. To the ancients, all these agencies in nature were persons or represented personalities. Beautiful conceptions they were, in-deed; but how much grander are ours. We have studied cloud formation and movement; have discovered sufficient of the laws by which electricity acts to harness it for our use, and have di-vested all nature of the personal element. But though we have thus removed Heaven from our surroundings as we have emerged 164 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. from the infancy of our race, we have made it a far higher and nobler conception. In learning that God is not in the whirlwind, we have subordinated it as a manifestation of Him to that gen-eralized and centralized Force, which is all powerful to create and all sufficient to preserve in equipoise the energies which are continuously working in nature. Nature is no longer manifesta-tions of persons, but of a Person. * * * * A little knowledge of nature often reconciles us to workings which otherwise seem only destructive. Many a man whose buildings lie in ashes, the result of a "hot stroke" of lightning, questions the utility of lightning, and is disposed to attribute it to an angry God, useful only to Him as an instrument of revenge, even as the ancients placed the thunder-bolts in the hands of angry Zeus. The following fact sought to receive our consideration and help to reconcile us. The air which we breathe is a mixture of three gases, possessing no particular affinity for each other. They are continually being used up by animal and vegetable growth and from the same sources again given off free. In an unmixed condition they would not serve their purpose. The mixing is pro-moted by electric discharges, and knowing thoroughly how essen-tial this process is to vegetable and animal growth, and especially to one's own life, it is easier to be reconciled to temporary loss and even to suffering, than when one is ignorant of these workings of nature. Not so destructive are meteors. Only occasionally does one read of a house being crushed and a family destroyed by their fall. Of what use are they? Any one who has lived in a city whose atmosphere is foggy of mornings, will attribute the same to the smoke, and so it is. The air is capable of holding a great deal of moisture, and were it perfectly free from dust particles, very little of the moisture would be precipitated. A heavy dew would likely fall nightly, but no showers, though the air be al-ways damp and laden to the point of saturation. The little dust particles are helpful to the formation of drops of rain. Meteors are the chief source of this microscopic dust. Coming from way out in space, millions and millions of miles from us, cold as space, they make a start for the sun. However, some of them in their eagerness to start on their journey, do not calculate for our earth and the power she has of influencing small bodies, and coming too near, they get caught in the atmosphere and only oc- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 165 casionally does any such escape. Even if anyone does, it is only after it has been so singed by the friction of the winds that it is scarcely to be recognized again by its most intimate friends. Its path can be traced by its long trail of dust, a memento of its visit. These dust particles become the recruiting points of the invisible moisture and the clouds are formed, and when they fall as rain or snow they bring the dust with them. But there are generally more of these particles than the moisture can use up, so the little sunbeams use these in a game of hide and seek and dash in and out among them so swift and in such varied ways that all we can see is the region in which they play, which seems a large city of fairy palaces painted in orange and jasper and gold, and we wish their morning and evening play hours would last all the day. Science in its infancy saw only facts; it is now discovering re-lations, and more and more tracing all phenomena to a central force which is causal for all events and existences. In this uni-fying and classifying process, there are some points which must remain for some time yet on debatable ground. The exact line of demarcation between the plant and the animal kingdoms is not fixed; in the lowest orders they merge insensibly into each other. As we rise above these low forms, the differences are more marked and charasteristic, physically ; but we never reach a point where they are not dependent and related, virtually. Beyond my window is a field of clover. Odor and color at-tract the bee. The pollen and nectar gives him a double burden to wing hive-ward. Both these are essential to his life. Neither does the clover yield them without being blest in the giving. Unknowingly the bee fertilizes the ovary and the plant is perpet-uated. This is only one link in the great chain of united and de-pendent relations. The clover roots penetrate into the soil, and air and water follow, disintegrating rocks and forming soluble compounds of the inorganic elements. These latter cannot sup-port animal life; but transformed into clover, they become, through the agency of the bee, honey—delicious and wholesome; or, con-sumed by the herds, flesh—invigorating and sustaining. Thus does the thinking man discover that in thousands of ways are nature's forces united and working for the sustenance and happi-ness of him, who is the crown of her products, and the best ex-pression of earthly existence. IHH^HHHmm 166 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. I remember as if 'twere yesterday, how, when a child, I was used to bend over little cone-shaped cavities in the soft soil under a thick-leaved tree or shelving rock and cry, "Rolly-bolly, come up your hole, come up your hole, come up your hole." I usually succeeded in getting "rolly-bolly" to respond, for soon the little grains of soil would move as though he were coming up. I never could get him to come clean out, though; and, angered at him on this account, would order him, "down your hole," or dig him out with a stick. I never once thought they had any other mo-tive for making pits or living than to come out when called unless they were stubborn. Alas, for all such childish fancies! I have since watched them and found that those are real treacherous pit-falls, formed with a malicious purpose,—to catch the innocent ants. And so voracious and cruel are these "rolly-bollies" that they deserve the name given them—ant-lion. The surest way to get them to come up is to throw a struggling ant into the little pit. The ant is at once conscious of its danger and immediately begins a pitiable and frantic effort to get up the incline. But the little grains of sand roll down beneath the struggling feet, and, trembling, sink into the treacherous quick-sands below at whose centre there is already a vigorous pushing up. Soon the ant is being helplessly pulled down by its leg into the dining room of its superior and hungry foe. You cruel rolly-bolly, what are you good for anyhow ? Do you do anything but kill the industrious ants ? What are you here for ? If rolly-bolly could answer I know he would say that life is as sweet to him as it is to the ant or to me. A sad and unpleasant law this seems at first: "And that a rose may breathe its breath, Something- must die." Humanity rebels against it. Man uses the power given him to exercise dominion over the earth, air, and sea, and even wages war against his kind, to prolong his little life which disease and death soon terminate. Could not God have peopled the earth with a limited number of immortal beings and prevented all this merciless warfare between kingdoms and races and species, and the shameful survival of the bloody strongest ? Doubtless it could have been done. But if the ant-lion and the ant could speak, they would likely prefer to live as they do, foes indeed, but each one enjoying life with all its dangers and uncertainties. And surely we can learn a lesson. The sum total of happiness is THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 167 greater when many enjoy life a short while that if a few should live always. It is our duty to live as long as nature permits, "to husband out life's taper to its close" ; to be unselfish for the sake of those who are living now; to be virtuous for the sake of those who shall live after us. Just as one meets with surprises in observing nature, finding unlooked for beauties and new adaptations, so there also await us disappointments. Birds, flowers and minerals which have been idealized by painter and poet are always disappointing when they are seen in reality, and this is especially true of those things which have been used as symbolic of the celestial and spiritual. St. John's description of the walls of the New Jerusalem is so sub-lime that one builds them of imaginary stones more exquisite than ever were found. For if built of our real amethyst, jasper and topaz, their combination would be exceedingly disappointing. But what better could be done ? Alone on Patmos, surrounded by rocks and sea and sky, conscious of the povetry of language and the inadequacy of terrestial objects as symbols, he fills in the picture with these colors, with a feeling identical to that expe-rienced when in the midst of the book-learned world he tells us, at the close of his beautiful gospel, that the world could not contain the books that should be written. These are only symbols. The music for the ears, the colors for the eyes will be such as hath never yet been conceived by the heart of man. # * # ^ There is but one way to Nature's soul, accessible to all ages and conditions ; it is found by those who love her with a sympa-thetic heart, for herself alone. The scholar who has habituated himself to scientific analysis of every object he meets, fails to se-cure that best knowledge of her tempers and strivings. A poor comforter indeed would he be who was so scientifically inclined as to think of the proportion of water and salts of sodium and potash in the tears of his weeping.friend. Is he any more worthy of Nature's confidence who sees in every bird an ornithological specimen, in every flower an addition to the herbarium, in every stone a mineral for his cabinet ? To see her best we must look at her sometimes with simple childlike eyes, even as we did when every object was for us a living personality. i68 T THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. "Siisse, heilige Natur, Lass mich gehn auf deiner Spur, Leite mich an deiner Hand Wie ein Kind am Gangelband 1 Wenn ich dann ermiidet bin, Sink' ich dir am Busen hin, Athme siisse Himmelslust Hang-end an der Mutter Brust. Ach, wie wohl ist mir bei dir! Will dich lieben fii and ffir ! Lass mich gehn auf deiner Spur, Liisse, heilige Natur ! " —F. L. Stolberg. —W. B. C, '99. EDITOR'S DESK. HIS word from the MERCURY comes late but it is sincere: Welcome, thrice welcome to the Freshmen ! The Gies prize of seventy-five dollars has been offered again to the students of Gettysburg. The object of the generous and loyal alumnus who offers it is to develop literary talent among our students and to afford the best possible material for the MER-CURY. As this prize gives so fine a chance for a convenient pocket-full, every one with a spark of ability should compete. Since the number of students competing for the prize last year was small, of course the articles of value for the MERCURY were few. This prize money is divided between the three best contributors, into parts of thirty-five, twenty-five, and fifteen dollars. Last year the successful contributors were Luther A. Weigle, 'oo; Anna R. Welty, '99; and W. Bruce Carney, '99. The paramount object of an institution of learning is mental training and consequently one would suppose that those intending to enter such an institution would be influenced more by its facili-ties to develop mental power than by anything else. Yet such is by no means the case, for the high record of a college in ath-letics is found to be its best drawing card. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 169 Whether this incentive is one that friends of a college may be proud to use or whether it is disgraceful that superiority in con-tests of skill and physical strength should be made the basis of appeal to those desiring to enter college is not for us to answer. What we must meet is this fact, that not to fall behind its class, a college must make a good record in athletics. The sizes of Freshman classes in institutions making a good name in athletics last year seem to indicate that successful athletics means success-ful colleges. We rejoice that Dr. McKuight is living in the present and is doiugall in his power to stimulate athletics in Gettysburg. Many of Gettysburg's best friends little think how vital the question of athletics is to our college. L,oyal alumni, Gettysburg calls on you for support! Remember the Athletic Association of your Alma Mater! COLLEGE Y. M. C. A. DURING recent years the work of the Young Men's Chris-tian Association has been forcing itself steadily before the gaze and the admiration of the public and to-day it must be recognized as a mighty power in the world. It is our duty therefore to look at it as such. In its growth it has had great obstacles to overcome and one of them has been the great lack of interest and aid given it by the Christian people. In fact many have been positively antagonistic to the movement. This should not be and I feel that if the work in all its departments were fully understood there could no longer be this antagonism. It is our purpose therefore to show to you a little of the inner life of the association. It might be well to look first at the aims and purposes of this movement as a whole and also at its divisions of work. L,et me state here that the Y. M. C. A. is not apart from the church, that it is not a separate and distinct organization, but a part of the church, reaching out its hands unto thousands of young men and bringing them into active church work. Its fundamental purpose then is to bring men to a saving knowledge of their L,ord and Savior, Jesus Christ. It is to help them to successfully battle against temptations and bring them into vital connection with the church. No other part of the church seems so ably 170 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. adapted to carry on this work among young men. In that it is a movement distinctly for men, we are able to reach many whom otherwise it would be almost impossible to save. The association work is non-sectarian and therefore should appeal to every branch of the evangelical church. As most probably is known to all, the work is divided into three distinct branches, the town, the railroad and the student. As we see how the many young men who are swarming our cities and towns are kept from yielding to the temptations peculiar to these places, and how many more are led to an acceptance of Christ, and as we see in the railroad circles the real earnest en-thusiasm in the cause of Christ and winning of souls to Him among those who have found the Life, we cannot but feel God is with us, and if He is with us, we know that souls must be saved and this is the fundamental aim of all our work. But we cannot dwell longer on these departments, but must turn our attention to that branch which is of vital importance to the student world. It is a recognized fact that the men who are to rule the world are the men who year after year are crowding out of the doors of our institutions of learning. If therefore we wish our government to be under the control of Christian men, men who will not flinch at doing their duty no matter what the consequences may be, it is of the most extreme importance that these men be won to Christ in their youth while they are within the college walls. To this end we are striving. It is almost impossible for anyone who has not been on the ground for himself to realize the awful need of Christian work in the colleges of our country. It fairly makes the heart break as time after time we see fellows coming from Christian homes where every helpful influence has been thrown around them and where possibly they have been looked up to for nobleness of character, and then come to college, sepa-rated from home and launched out into an entirely new life with its peculiar temptations, and amid fellows, some loving and some not knowing Christ, and then to see them fall little by little. It is pitiable in the extreme. And then there are those who have never known Christ, and what an awful influence they have on the weak Christians. It is for this that those who are Christians may be kept from falling and kept in touch with Christian work and that those who know Him not may be brought to Him that the Y. M. C. A. stands in college. I THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 171 In order to accomplish this we do not depend alone on our re-ligious meetings which we hold twice every week, but we have regularly organized Bible, Missionary and Personal Workers classes. If we wish to broaden our spiritual life we must employ those means which God has distinctly made known to us, and these are secret prayer and Bible study. The importance of this can not be too strongly urged. It is the backbone of all Chris-tian work. The International Committee of the Y. M. C. A. has furnished us with a most excellent systematic, devotional course of Bible study. Through it in the four years of college life a man has had a bird's eye view of the entire Bible. The Fresh-men take up the life of Christ; the Sophomores "Studies in the Acts and the Epistles" ; the Juniors, Old Testament characters ; and the Seniors, the crowning truths of the Bible. The Senior course will not be ready, however, for another year. The classes meet once every week and are entirely under the control of the students. Four years ago in the colleges throughout the United States and Canada there were eight thousand students banded to-gether in Bible study. Last year that number was increased to twelve thousand who continued in the work at least two months. The Morning Watch is urged for the most successful Bible study. This is the setting apart of about fifteen to thirty minutes to Bible study and secret prayer at the very beginning of the day when we can give our best thought to God. How can we afford not to give God this little time that we may hold sweet commun-ion with Him. Missions are brought prominently to the front in our work. Here again we use the course prescribed by the International Com-mittee. The class meets every week. Besides the class work, contributions are solicited from the students for Missions. In connection with the class is a volunteer band for the foreign field. The great need of missions is becoming to be more and more felt and where can there be a better place to stir up the mission spirit than right among college men ? Another most important part of our work is the personal work done among the fellows. A class is formed for the best methods of doing personal work and for discussion of the work to be done. Personal work is something every Christian ought to do and for which there is no excuse for not doing but rather condemnation. Another feature of the work is the work among the new stu- 172 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. dents, meeting them at the train and doing whatever we can for them to help in making them feel at home. An information bureau is also conducted. Especial efforts are put forth at the opening of the term to enlist men in Christian work before they form any evil associations. A reception is also held at the open-ing of the term for the new students that they may all become acquainted with each other and with all the men in college. May this brief sketch of the work of our association but move us on to a more earnest and prayerful appreciation of these privileges which we now enjoy, and may its success be the con-stant prayer of all who are interested in the cause of Christ. —WM. J. MIMJER, Jr., '00. TWO MISCHIEVOUS FALLACIES IN EDUCATION. EDUCATION, as we now understand the meaning of the term, must accomplish its purposes in the face of two mis-chievous and prevalent fallacies. The first of these is the fallacy of the short cut, the desire to avoid a long course of study and discipline; the disposition to make our culture consist in a few phrases and in merely superfi-cial knowledge of a great many things. Especially is this the case with the young people. While a boy is at his studies, his acquaintance, who is doing something that can be rated in dollars, measured with the yard-stick or weighed upon the scales, seems to him to be getting on, while he seems to be standing still; so he chafes and frets at his studies and longs to be in active business. How much better it would be for the world if such a boy could be made to understand that it is no gain, but a fatal loss of time to undertake to have a hand in the world's work before he can do anything that the world really wants; that if he wants a place he must first become such a person that the place will want him. The impatient boy ought to understand that so far as he is con-cerned the world is entirely patient, that it is quite willing to wait for him until he has mastered himself and some department of knowledge or industry, but that when he has done that the world is so impatient for him that it will at once find him out and set him at work. If however, he undertakes to participate in the world's work before he has fully prepared himself, what-ever he seeks he will find at his elbow some better man seeking THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 173 the same thing—some man who did what he failed to do ; a man who made the most of himself; who did not strive to do four years' work in three; a man who made the utmost of all his op-portunities. It is true not only that the trained man wins, but that the trained man is about the only one wanted to do any kind of work. In ordinary conversation we find ourselves referring to the young graduate as having "completed his course" or "finished his education," and yet if we think soberly of the matter we know that if the school or college has done its work properly for him it has only prepared him to be educated. The idea that education is a thing to be concluded definitely within a few of the earlier years of life, then to be regarded as forever over and done, and that it consists of some disagreeable preliminaries of syntax, Latin, grammar and rhetoric, to be gotten out of the way as speedily as possible; this idea of education we understand to be thoroughly obsolete. Rather do we understand that education, if it means anything, means the continual enrichment of the re-sources of the individual. How foolish then to think that an education can be "completed" or "finished" by taking a shortcut. The president of a certain college on being asked by a young man if he could not in two years probably get all the good that the college could give him, said: '' Well young man, when God wants to make a squash He takes about six weeks, but when He wants to make an oak He takes a hundred years." Another difficulty against which we must strive in the educa-tion of others or of ourselves is the alluring fallacy about the self-made man. Some one has wittily said that the chief char-acteristic of the self-made man is that he is much given to the worship of his Maker. Doubtless this is more witty than it is just. By a self-made man we generally mean one who has achieved distinguished success without the aid of schools, and if we think soberly about the matter we are in no great danger of saying too much in praise of such men. America, of all countries, should speak respectfully of the self-made man. In no other country has he achieved such splendid things; no other country probably owes so much to the self-made man. But what does he prove? In every case where a man has achieved great success by his own unaided efforts, he has been a man of extraordinary abilities, 174 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. and he has succeeded by means of these abilities in spite of and not because of the lack of other aids. We are now beginning to recognize the fact that the self-made man is one who has made the most of his opportunities. Every-man in the world who amounts to anything is a self made man. It is simply a question of using one's actual opportunities. Abra-ham Lincoln was a self-made man. So just as truly was William Gladstone. The opportunities of the one were those of narrowness and poverty; of the other, abundance and comfort. Each made the most of his opportunities, and for each equally this was the condition of success. We ought to understand that self-culture is not a term to be applied only to those who have not the advantages of assistance from the schools, but that the term self-culture describes the personal enrichment of every individual who simply makes the best of whatever opportunities he has. What great mischief has been wrought in the past by the fal-lacious idea that the man who takes advantage of the training which our schools and colleges offer is not a self-made man. Such a man is, indeed, the highest type of a self-made man. If we wish to be thoroughly prepared to engage in the active duties of life, and if we wish to give to the world the fullest reali-zation of our possibilities, we must be fully aware that there is no short cut in education and that the self-made man is that man who has made the most of his opportunities with or without the aid of the school or college. —' 'PROMETHEUS. '' Who reads Incessantly and to his reading- brings not A spirit and judgment equal or superior, (And what he brings, what need he elsewhere seek ?) Uncertain and unsettled still remains. Deep versed in books and shallow in himself. —Milton. THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 175 WHY WE SHOULD BE TRUE AND HONEST. TRUTHFULNESS and honesty go hand in hand. Truth alone may not constitute a great man but it is the most im-portant element of great character. It gives security to those who employ it and confidence to those who use it. It is an essential to every man no matter who he is, the king on his royal throne or the slave in the galley. In fact it is one of the first re-quisites for true manhood. Lying, common as it is, is denounced by the liar himself. He protests that he is speaking the truth for he knows that truth is universally respected and a lie universally condemned. He who tells an untruth is not only dishonest but a mean coward. Fear-ing the consequences of making a true statement, he cowers be-neath a lie or probably, what is even worse, just keeps on the verge of the truth, for a lie which is half truth is the worst of lies. Exaggeration is but another name for falsehood. To exaggerate is to pass the bounds of truth and surely these bounds cannot be passed without entering the limits of falsehood. There can be no middle point; what is not true must be false. Not only may one be dishonest in the words he utters but also in his doings. Actions have as plain a voice as words. The sin-cere man speaks as he thinks, acts as he professes to act and does what he promises to do. All phases of society are permeated by this most common of vices, from the highest to the lowest. A lie is a lie, no matter if it is a little white one or a big black one. Ruskin says, "Lies may be light and accidental but they are an ugly soot from the smoke of the pit and it is better our hearts should be swept clean of them without our care as to which is the largest or the blackest." Truth and honesty show themselves in many ways. They characterize the men of just dealings, the faithful men of business and those men who will not deceive you to their own advantage. Full measures, just weights, true sample and a strict fulfillment of engagements are indispensable to men who would succeed. We are always complaining of adulteration of the goods we buy. We pay for one thing and get another. In the study of Chemistry, we learn for instance, how cotton goods is very often treated so as to bring more money into the manufacturer's pocket. The cotton is loaded with china clay, starch, magnesium or zinc. 176 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. When such goods is washed, the clay and starch are removed and it becomes a rag. Recently an engineer crossing the Indian Ocean was decorating his turban with a piece of muslin. "Is that English?" he was asked. His answer was, "No, it is from Swit-zerland. The English makes my fingers stick. It's too gummy." This is the way the dishonest Englishman would eventually lose his trade by forcing this inferior, shoddy stuff on his customers. Why not be honest and sell goods for what they are ? Thus in all walks of life one may find falsehood and deception. But why ? Is it not always easier to tell the true straightforward story than to go to the trouble to invent a lie ? At first it is, but like all other habits, lying increases with practice and an experienced liar often finds difficulty in telling the truth. Very many times he tells a crooked story where the truth would have served his purpose even better. —J. C. M., '00. e^j THE RELATION OF COMMERCE TO MISSIONS. WE are living in an age of great commercial activity. The remarkable progress of science within the last century has afforded surprising facility in international commu-nication ; distances have been annihilated, and those parts of the globe most widely separated may now be said to be in compara-tively close touch with one another. The printing press, the railroad, the telegraph and the steamboat have brought into ex-istence an international community of interests as well as of thought. Along with this there has naturally sprung up great commercial rivalry, and nation now vies with nation in seeking new markets for its products. Vast as the world's great market is, the gigantic proportions of our modern manufacturing industries demand new openings. Nor would it seem a difficult task to find such openings when we but consider the hundreds upon hundreds of millions who need but be raised from their present state of savagery and barbarism to the light and life of our modern civilization to create new de-mands for the world's supply of commodities. With this object in view trading posts and colonies have fre-quently been established in the midst of savage peoples in order to awaken among them the wants peculiar to civilized life by THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 177 bringing them, as much as possible, into contact with the products and institutions of civilization. However, the results of such undertakings have not,as a rule,been of a nature calculated to recom-mend the system to us. Evidently the principle was wrong; our sav-age brothers need something more potent than the mere veneer of our modern civilization to bring them into a condition in which there will be a demand for the commodities of commerce. It is evident to the most casual thinker that between commerce and missions there exists a natural relation; but the remarkable closeness and strength of this relation is recognized by compara-tively few. We all agree with the statement that missions ma-terially promote commercial activity; but many of us shake the head, or at least want time to think it over, when we hear the statement that the founding of missions is essential to commer-cial success in a heathen land. That the latter statement is true however, we believe a careful study of the subject will prove. Reference has already been made to the efforts put forth to re-claim the savage from his degraded state and create in him new wants by familiarizing him with the manners and institutions of civilized society. The utter failure of such efforts has also been referred to. Experience has shown that the savage man may come into frequent contact with civilized men and the products of civilization without being in any way prompted to change his own mode of life. To him civilization, with its multifarious wants, is sheer foolishness, and contrasts very unfavorably with his own life of indolence and general simplicity. What then is the "Open Sesame" whereby commerce may gain entrance to this great market? The answer is plainly, the Gospel of Christ,—not civilization, as we have learned, for gen-uine civilization, with all its requirements must be preceded by the Gospel; whenever the order is reversed failure results. We might cite numerous examples to substantiate this statement. That civilization alone is insufficient is proven moreover by the fact that savages, after having been separated from their na-tive tribes and degraded life for years, given a good education and brought under the influence of the highest civilization, have fre-quently been known to relapse again into savagery. For a very significant illustration of this fact permit us to quote from Rev. J. C. Bryant, who, in writing in the Missionary Journal, says: "Of fourteen young meu who have left my employ within two i78 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. years, one has since been converted, and of course clothes him-self; the rest go naked as before, showing how impossible it is to civilize men without first converting them. Wash a pig and shut him in a parlor, he may stay clean for a while, but as soon as free he will return to wallowing in the mire. Make a lamb of him, and at once he gives up his filthy ways. To try to civilize heathen without converting them is to try to make lambs of swine by washing them and putting on them a fleece of wool." Thus we see that the only way whereby the world's savage and degraded millions may be brought into the full light and en-joyment of civilization and thus be made important factors in commerce is the way of the Gospel. It is only when the Gospel enters the hearts of men that they awaken to the great possibili-ties of life. New wants are created. The former savage no longer lives in tents and covers his body with the skins of beasts but dwells in a house and dons the garb of civilization. Instead of the few and primitive wooden implements by means of which he formerly cultivated the soil, he now uses modern implements of agriculture. And in every department of life this inward transformation gives rise to a demand for the various products of civilization. And thus it ever is, the Gospel opens the way, and in its wake comes the commerce of civilized lands. For another illustration of the great value of missions to commerce, let us briefly consider the missionary development of the Sandwich Islands. Less than three-quarters of a century ago these Islands were utterly valueless from a commercial standpoint. The inhabitants, who were most ignorant and lazy, lived in sav-age simplicity. The Gospel was carried to those Islands, with the result that a wonderful transformation followed. Civilized com-munities sprang into existence; churches and school-houses were built; agriculture was given new life, and the fertile soil of the Islands was made to yield bountiful harvests; various industries were created, and a steady and profitable trade with the Islands began. And at the present time the entire cost of christianizing the Islands is more than paid back in less than a year at the port of San Francisco alone. Many similar instances might be cited but we believe that sufficient has been said to show that Chris-tianity is essential to real commercial success and activity in those lands now in heathen darkness. Wherever it goes it exerts a quickening influence, it actuates men to living a more exalted, THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 179 more useful and more industrious life. It elevates the general character of society, and firmly establishes the power of civiliza-tion. It is essential to real progress and growth, being to human-ity what the sun is to the world. In view of these considerations it is a matter of surprise to note the comparatively slow progress which is being made in the world's evangelization. The very nature of foreign missions enti-tles them to the zealous support and encouragement of all civi-lized peoples. Christianity stands for the very highest type of civilization. Like an everflowing stream of purest water, it vivifies, purifies and transforms all with which it comes in con-tact. Christian missions constitute the only agency whereby men may be reclaimed from darkness and destructive indolence, and brought to a full realization of all the benefits of civilization. Their every advance gives a new impetus to commerce, for they bring about industry and fruitfulness. Under their divine in-fluence the earth is made to yield to men its richest treasures, and those places once desolate and unfruitful become the abodes of prosperity. "The wilderness and the solitary place shall be glad for them; and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." —R. D. C, '00. THE UNITED STATES AS A COLONIZING NATION. EVERY nation that has ever been a factor in the development of the human race has had some strong characteristic which has given life and form to its civilization. Among the Greeks it was culture; among the Romans it was law; among the Hebrews it was purity; among the Americans this one central idea is liberty. For it, and for scarcely any other cause, thousands of them have shed blood in battle, and sacrificed their lives. From our earliest existence as a nation we were the best representative, if indeed not the only one, of pure civil and religious liberty. Two other representative characteristics of the nation are the unequaled energy and the undaunted perseverance of its people. There is scarcely any doubt that to-day the American people are the most aggressive, the most expansive and at the same time the best champions of liberty in the world. These characteristics of the people of the United States account largely for their being at i8o THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. once the most extensive and the most successful colonizers the world has yet seen. "A colony is a territory, not forming, for political purposes, a part of the mother country, but dependent upon her, and peopled in part, at least, by her emigrants." According to this definition there was no time in its history that the United States has not had colonies. The small country along the Atlantic sea-board had scarcely been organized before it launched out upon one of the most extensive colonizing schemes in the history of the world. In a few years the great Northwest Territory was settled largely by colonists from the mother country and new states were formed from it. This territory was not fully developed until the vast tract known as the Louisiana Purchase was also added. This domain, large enough in itself for a strong kingdom, was thrown open for colonization and in seventy-five years scarcely less than a dozen states have been developed from it. Since then the terri-tory of the United States has been extended by the Gadson pur-chase, the Oregon cession, the annexation of Florida, the Mexican cession, the Purchase of Alaska, and the annexation of the Ha-waiian and Philippine Islands. In the colonization of this vast territory the government had no trouble with the slight exceptions of the quarrel introduced into Kansas from the states and the Mormon power in Utah. This may in part be accounted for by the contiguity of the colonies to the parent government. Since we can go no farther west but must spread out to the islands of the sea we encounter more diffi-culties; but with the schooling we have had during the last hun-dred years we need not fear for our future success in colonizing or civilizing. When we consider with our great energy and deep love of liberty, our advantageous position, our immense wealth, our mar-itime power, our extensive commerce, our enlightened civilization, and our religious enthusiasm, colonization seems to be the work for which we as a nation are especially fitted. And when we compare our colonizing policy with that of Spain we can still further see why we have thus far had so successful a career and will likely have in the future. We find that throughout her career as a colonizer her ruling passion was jealousy; that her primary objects were subjection and and self-enrichment. Everything that could possibly tend to ac- THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 181 tivity, education, enterprise or independence was sedulously dis-couraged . The government of her possessions in the New World, extending at one time from 37° N. to 41 ° S., was administered entirely by foreigners who cared only for their own and the parent government's welfare. The original inhabitants, instead of be-ing raised to a higher plane of living, were reduced to a state of abject bondage and imbecility. At the beginning of the 18th century her annual income from her colonies was about ten mil-lion dollars. What do we behold as the result of such a course of colonization ? Her vast possessions in North and South Amer-ica have long ago slipped from her control, and now even Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippine Islands, her last colonial possessions, are lost to her forever. Spain's colonial policy was a failure. Examining more closely our past career we find instead of our controlling policy being jealousy it was first a desire of improve-ment in the domestic condition of the colonies and second the strengthening of the entire country. Instead of discouraging ed-ucation, enterprise, study, and independence, schools were organ-ized and encouraged, capital was sent into the territory for indus-trial development, railroads were built, and independence was en-couraged by extending to the colonies the privilege of becoming states as soon as they were capable of self-government. Instead of being ruled entirely by the parent state the colonies selected their own officers and administered their own local affairs, the national government reserving to itself only a veto power. In short the territories were held in a state of tutelage until they could manage their own affairs and then were admitted into the Union on an equality with all the rest of the states. In our new possessions many new conditions confront the government. They are thousands of miles away ; they are mostly in tropical latitudes; and they are more thickly settled than were our former colonies. In our new venture of crossing the seas to find colonies many of our old principles will still serve us well. We have become more philanthropic in our policy: we no longer expect any strength to the home government, nor any great com-mercial advantage, and certainly no increase of wealth. Our guiding hand, liberalizing influence, and generous sympa-thies have been extended solely in the effort of raising the inhab-itants to a higher political, social and religious plane of life. Our great aim here will doubtless be as it has been in the past to train 182 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. the colonists in the habit of self-government. This will be done by letting them, so far as possible, manage their own affairs to their own advantage and interest. It is now our duty to give them peace and order, the foundation of a beneficent government, and afford them every opportunity of prosecuting their lawful pursuits. —"GEORGB." ADVANTAGES OF STUDYING THE CLASSICS. OBSERVATION and the personal experience of many have proved that the classical department of an institution is the one least appreciated by the majority of the students. That such should be the case is due, perhaps mostly, to the fact that in this department we find some of the most difficult labor. It is, therefore, natural that the minds of some of the students should be prejudiced on this subject. It has often been a surprise to see men of experience argue that the study of Greek and Latin will never benefit a man. To say the least of the majority of such men, we can only say that they expose their ignorance by speaking on the subject. To convince such men that there are really benefits and advantages derived from studying the classics, is not the original idea of this produc-tion. But if they are patient in following while we speak of at least some of the advantages derived from studying the classics, they may be induced to lay aside their "Cui boni" criticism in regard to this subject. That advantages are derived from studying the classics has been proved conclusively by the past. While the world has had some powerful intellects who were not classical scholars, we can, never-theless, say that the most powerful minds of the past and the present are those which have been developed by classical culture. Let it be understood, however, that by studying the classics in this production we mean true, honest and earnest study. Not such studying as the majority of the students pursue. To say nothing of the dishonesty and injustice of such studying both towards the professors and towards the few of the class who are honest enough not to use translations, let it suffice to say that such a course of study will never secure true and lasting good to the scholars. All are willing to acknowledge that a student while at college THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. 183 is laying his foundation for future usefulness in active life. And while the body must not be neglected, the mind is after all the important factor to be developed in the student. Now while the study of all the different branches has the tendency of developing the mental faculty, we hold as the first advantage derived from studying the classics, that they have the tendency more than any other branch to develop the mind of the student. The develop-ment of the mind may be a subtle point to discuss ; but what we mean by it, without bringing into consideration mental philosophy, is the cultivation of the mental faculties so as to expand the mind, thus making it stronger and more capable of grasping and prose-cuting other studies. It is the brain power that the student stands in need of, and as the muscles of a man are developed in propor-tion to his muscular efforts so the mind is developed and expanded in proportion to the exertions made. We find that in all institu-tions of learning much attention is being paid to the classical de-partment. The recitations are about as two to one compared with the recitations in any of the other departments, and frequently we find the professors in this department the most competent men of the institution. It is known that the recitations in said department are for the most part difficult. Taking, therefore, into consideration the time occupied in studying the classics and also the hard work em-ployed in solving many of the dark and mysterious passages of the same, we can come to no other conclusion than that classical training will develop the mind. In the second place, studying the classics will develop and en-large our thinking and reasoning faculties and our judgment. These are the faculties which place us so high above the brute creation, and if properly developed give to man his true dignity. The less these are developed the lower will be the standard of our manhood, but the more they are developed the higher will we as-cend towards that position intended by the Creator for all rational creatures. The man who cannot reason and think for himself is at best a poor and insignificant being. The above named faculties are the ones which should be par-ticularly developed in the student. Let him pursue the study of Greek and Latin diligently and he can not fail to improve him-self. I ATHLETICS. THE opening of the football season this year has been more encouraging than for some years. The material is better and heavier, the spirit of all the boys is higher, and the scrub team is larger and stronger than at any time within the knowledge of any man at college. There has been one great disappointment, however,—in the matter of a coach. Money is already secured to defray the expense, and a man was practically engaged, but at the last moment he went back on us, and we were left in the hole. Manager Imler THE GETTYSBURG MERCURi. 187 has been making strenuous efforts to secure a man, but has not succeeded as yet. Captain Dale has been doing all the coaching, being ably assisted by White, '97, a well-known former captain and half-back, who has been coaching the backs, and Ott and Menges, '97, former tackle and guard, who have been coaching the line men. The most attention has been given to defensive work, recognizing that there is no hope of winning the first two games—Indians and State—and the wisdom of the coachers was shown in the low score made against us by the Indians. Hickman is back at his old place as center. He plays the same good defensive game as formerly, and has improved greatly in offensive work. Nicely, our well-known big guard, is showing the same good form which always characterizes his work. Hoff-man has rapidly learned his place at left guard, and is playing an aggressive game. The guards-back is very effective as played by these men, they tearing big holes in the opponent's line. Gilbert retains his place at right tackle, with Williams, our former center, at left tackle. Gilbert's ability is well known, and Williams is fast getting on to his new place. Minuigh, a former Gettysburg High School player, is holding left end, and Emmert the "little sub," who was so much praised by Dickinson and Susquehanua last year, is playing left end. Both are speedy and manifesting excellent tackling ability. Rugh, a half on last year's team, is filling the position at quarter very acceptably, being quick and sure. Captain Dale at right half is so well known that nothing need be said concerning his ability. Koller, left tackle for two years, is filling left half. He is learning the position rapidly, and with a little experience at the place will be all that can be desired. The biggest surprise of the year is the ability displayed by Young, last year's captain and end, at full-back. He plays a fierce game, both offensive and defensive, his line-bucking being the hardest seen here for some time. Dale does all the kicking, and is prac-ticing hard at goals from the field. Other good men are Henry for the line; Krout, quarter, McClean, end, and Weaver, back. The Scrub, captained by Bottiger, 'oo, has been unsually strong, and is giving the Varsity good hard practice. The first game was played Saturday, September 23d, against the Indians at Carlisle. The result was encouraging in the highest degree, our men holding the Indians down to twenty points. In addition, but one of their tallies was a touchdown, the other three i38 THE GETTYSBURG MERCURY. being goals from the field kicked by Hudson. Our men played a fine game both offensive and defensive, and Young and guards tore great holes in the Indians' line. We clip from a comment on the game in the Philadelphia Times, September 25th: "Gettysburg did finely, and should rank somewhat better, it seems, than Swarthmore, Dickinson, Haverford, or Franklin and Marshall, who may usually be ranked with her.'' Now let everybody do his best to prove this prophecy true. —W. C F. SOLT MERCHANT TAILOR Masonic Bldg., GETTYSBURG Our collection of Woolens for the coming- Pall and Winter season cannot be surpassed for variety, attractive designs and general completeness. The latest styles of fashionable novelties in the most approved shades. Staples of exceptional merit, value and wearing durability. Also altering", repairing-, dyeing and scouring at moderate prices. .FOR UP-TO-DATE. Clothing, Hats, Shoes, And Men's Furnishing- Goods, go to. I. HALLEM'S MAMMOTH CLOTHING HOUSE, Chambersburg St., GETTYSBURG, PA. ESTABLISHED 1867 BY ALLEN WALTON. ALLEN K. WALTON, President and Treasurer. ROBT. J. WALTON, Superintendent. flummelstomn Bromn Stone Company Quarr3Tmen and Manufacturers of Building Stone, Sawed Flagging and Tile Waltonville, Dauphin Co., Pa. Contractors for all kinds of Telegraph and Express Address. Cut Stone Work. BROWNSTONE, PA. Parties visiting the Quarries will leave cars at Brownstone Station on the P. & R. R. B. ii1 j PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. The Century Double-Feed Fountain Pen. Fully Warranted. 16 Kt. Gold Pen, Indium Pointed. GEO. EVELER, Agent for Gettysburg College. PRICE LIST. No. 1. No. 1. Chased, long- or short $2 00 Gold Mounted 3 00 No. 3. Chased 3 00 No. 3. Spiral, Black or Mottled $2 SO Twist, " " 2 SO Hexagon, Black or Mottled 2 50 Gold Mounted 4 00 Pearl Holder, Gold Mounted S 00 THE CENTURY PEN CO. WHITEWATER. WIS. Askyour Stationer or our Agent to show them toyou. Agood local agent wanted in every school' ■ 'J^^^i^fi^jff^^-iixiJrmE CENT!) Printing and Binding We Print., 'The Mercury' THE MT. HOELY STATIONERY AND PRINTING CO. does all classes of Printing' and Binding-, and can furnish you any Book, Bill Head, Letter Head, Envelope, Card, Blank, or anything pertain-ing to their business in just as good style and at less cost than you can obtain same elsewhere. They are located among the mountains but their work is metropolitan. You can be convinced of this if you give them the opportunity. Mt. Holly Stationery and Printing Co. "SPRINGS, PA. SJ I H.S. BENNER, .DEALER IN. Groceries, Notions, Queensware, Glassware, Etc., Tobacco and Cigars. J7 CHAMBERSBURG ST. ■■■■■^i^^HHiH WE RECOMMEND THESE BUSINESS MEN. Pitzer House, (Temperance) JNO. E. PITZER, Prop. Rates $1.00 to $1.25 per day. Battlefield a specialty. Dinner and ride to all points of interest/including the three days' fight, $1.25. No. 127 Main Street. MUMPER & BENDER Furniture Cabinet Making, Picture Frames Baltimore St., O.ETTYSBURCI, PA. You will find a full line of Pure Drugs and Fine Sta- People's Drug Store Prescriptions a Specialty. .QO TO. l?otel (Gettysburg Barber Sfyop. Centre Square. B. M. SEFTON J, A. TAWNEY ,. Is ready to furnish Clubs and Bread, Rolls, Etc. At short notice and reasonable rates. 'Washington & Middle Sts., Gettysburg. W.F.CODORI, Bi2E5S£d Dealer in Beef, Pork, Lamb, Veal, Sausage. Special rates to Clubs. York St., GETTYSBURG. Davib Croxcl, Dealer in ^tne groceries anb Hottons e4*_4Jorfc Street. .GO TO. CHAS. E. BARBEHENN, Barber In the Eagle Hotel, Cor. Main and Washington Sts. YOHN BROS. Agents for the Keystone State, Waldo, Washburn, Groupner & Meyer. Highest Grade Mandolins, Guitars, Banjos, Mandollas and Mandocellos. Headquarters for Phonographs, Graphophones and supplies. Trimmings of every description. All sheet music one-half off. Large discounts on Books and studies. 326 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. I FAVOR THOSE WHO FAVOR US. I Baseball sSapplies, .Spalofng's Xeaguc Jfiall, /kits, flbaefte, Etc. Managers should send for samples and special rates. Every requisite for Cennte, Oolf, Grlcftet, ttracft ano ffielo, ©Btnnasium Equipments ano ©utfite Complete Catalogue Spring and Summer Sports Free. The Name the Guar-antee." a. ©. SpalOing & JBroe. New York .•. Philadelphia '." Chicago ROWE. YOUR GROCER Carries Full Line of Groceries, Canned Goods, Etc. Best Coal Oil and Brooms at most Reasonable Prices. OPPOSITE COLLEGE CAMPUS. S. J. CODORI, **Druggists Dealer in Drugs, Medicines, Toilet Articles, J- Stationery, Blank Books, Amateur Pho-tographic Supplies, Etc., Etc. BALTIMORE ST. R. H. CULP PAPER HANGER, Second Square, York Street. COLLEGE EMBLEMS. EMIL ZOTHE, ENGRAVER, DESIGNER AND MANUFACTURING JEWELER. 19 S. NINTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. PA. SPECIALTIES: Masonic Marks, Society Badges, College Buttons, Pius, Scarf Pins, Stick Pins and Athletic Prizes. All Goods ordered through C. H. Tilp. Gotrell Leonardi 472-474 Broadway, Albany, N. Y. /lakers of CAPS, QOWNSand. HOODS To the leading American Colleges. Illus-trated Manual, etc., upon application. Meneely Bell Co. TROY, N. Y. MANUFACTURERS Of SUPERIOR BELLS The 2000 pound bell now ringing in the tower of Pennsylvania Col-lege was manufactured at this foundry. PATRONIZE OUR ADVERTISERS. You can't expect to create the im-pression that you are well dressed unless your clothes are MADE FOR YOU. Equivocate as you may, the fact remains that ready-made garments lack that air of exclusiveness which custom work possesses. J. O. LIPPY, Merchant Tailor 39 Chambersburg St., Gettysburg-, Pa. G. E. SPANGLER, Dealer in Pianos, Organs, Music, Musical Instsuments, Strings, Etc. YORK STREET, 1ST SQUARE. GETTYSBURG. L. D. Miller, GROCER Confectioner and Fruiterer. Ice Cream and Oysters in Season. 19 Main St. GETTYSBURG City Hotel, Main St. Gettysburg. 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In the first edition of the Handbook, published in 1994, we as editors ventured the judgment that, in the previous 15 years, economic sociology had enjoyed a remarkable renaissance, following on a season of relative quiescence. This led us to believe that the time was ripe for a consolidating publication that told about the past, assessed the present, and looked toward the future. The decade following that volume's appearance seemed to validate those assessments, if the amount of critical attention given, sizable and sustained sales, and course adoptions are taken as measures. If anything, the book's fortunes surpassed our expectations. Furthermore, the momentum of economic sociology as an enterprise has accelerated in the meantime. The quality and quantity of research have remained high; new and young talent continues to flow into the field; sociology departments in half a dozen or more leading research universities have established centers of excellence in economic sociology; courses in economic sociology have become standard fare in the curricula of most colleges and universities; and a section on economic sociology has formed and now thrives in the American Sociological Association. All these circumstances have convinced us that a second, fully updated edition of the Handbook is needed, and we are more confident of this judgment than we were the first time around. While the first edition still contains much of value to scholars and students, the knowledge it contains has in some cases been superseded by advances in the meantime. To take these into account—and also to accelerate the development of economic sociology— we had to undertake a wholesale revamping of the first edition. Fully two-thirds of the chapters in this second edition are either new or have authors different from those in the first. Despite this transformation, we found that the general intellectual architecture of the first edition remained a good organizing framework for the second. Thus, part I (chapters 1–6) is a series of general considerations of the field from a variety of different perspectives; part II (chapters 7–21), which we call the economic core, deals with economic systems, economic institutions, and economic behavior behavior. Part III (chapters 22–30) concerns a number of intersections among the economy and various noneconomic sectors of the society. Within this general frame the reader will find the following substantial thematic changes: • Two chapters on international and global concerns (contrasted with the single chapter in the first edition), with international aspects covered in other chapters as well • A chapter on behavioral economics, which continues as a vibrant subfield of economics • A chapter by Pierre Bourdieu on economic anthropology; Bourdieu had agreed to write such a chapter but his untimely death in 2002 prevented this; still wishing to have him represented, we are printing the English translation of "Principes d'une anthropologie économique," which is published on pp. 233–70 in Les structures sociales de l'économie (Paris: Seuil, 2000) • A chapter on new lines of institutional analysis in economics and sociology • A chapter on the transitions from socialist economies (replacing the earlier chapter on socialist economies themselves) • A chapter on labor markets and trade unions • A chapter on the sociology of work and the professions • A chapter on culture and consumption • A chapter on the sociology of money and credit • A chapter on law and the economy • A chapter on technology and the economy • A chapter on emotions and the economy We regard these changes as reflecting recent shifts in emphasis and active lines of research in economic sociology. We now provide a brief supplement to the table of contents, intended as a guide to readers wishing to delve selectively into the volume according to their specific interests. For those interested in learning about the scope of sociology we recommend chapter 1 ("Introducing Economic Sociology"). The remainder of part I contains chapters on comparative and historical treatments of economy and society in chapter 2 ("Comparative and Historical Approaches to Economic Sociology," by Frank Dobbin), recent developments in institutional analysis of the economy in chapter 3 ("The New Institutionalisms in Economics and Sociology" by Victor Nee), Pierre Bourdieu's critical anthropological formulations in chapter 4 ("Principles of an Economic Anthropology"), developments in behavioral economics, which has made its main business the modification of the psychological assumptions of neoclassical economics and tracing the implications of these modifications (chapter 5, "Behavioral Economics," by Roberto Weber and Robyn Dawes), and an assessment of the scattered literature on the role that emotions play in economic life (chapter 6, "Emotions and the Economy," by Mabel Berezin). The first section of part II takes a look at sociological aspects of economies at the macroscopic— including the global—level. We introduce the section with the chapter by Ian Morris and J. G. Manning on the economic sociology of the classical civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and Rome (chapter 7, "The Economic Sociology of the Ancient Mediterranean World"). Next comes a general chapter on the international economy (chapter 8, "The Global Economy: Organization Governance, and Development," by Gary Gereffi), and one on its governance (chapter 9, "The Political and Economic Sociology of International Economic Arrangements," by Neil Fligstein). Finally, Lawrence King and Iván Szelényi develop a distinctive perspective on the varieties of transition from socialist to post-socialist economies (chapter 10, "Post-Communist Economic Systems"). The second section of part II—"The Sociology of Economic Institutions and Economic Behavior"— reaches to the heart of economic activity itself. The section begins with three chapters on markets, the core economic institutions. Richard Swedberg (chapter 11, "Markets in Society") treats the subject from a sociological and historical point of view. Wolfgang Streeck (chapter 12, "The Sociology of Labor Markets and Trade Unions") concentrates on the market for labor services, and Linda Brewster Stearns and Mark Mizruchi (chapter 13, "Banking and Financial Markets") deal with a range of markets that have only recently commanded significant sociological attention. The sociology of the production side of the economic process is the topic of Andrew Abbott's contribution (chapter 14, "Sociology of Work and Occupations"). Viviana Zelizer explores the diversity of ways in which cultural factors infuse consumption (chapter 15, "Culture and Consumption"), and Bruce Carruthers synthesizes past and present literature on the social aspects of money and credit (chapter 16, "The Sociology of Money and Credit"). Two additional chapters deal with the less formal aspects of economic life. The important work on networks in the economy is covered in chapter 17 ("Networks and Economic Life," by Laurel Smith-Doerr and Walter Powell); and the complex and seemingly contradictory nature of the informal economy is analyzed in chapter 18 ("The Informal Economy," by Alejandro Portes and William Haller). The third secion of part II—"The Sociology of Firms, Organizations, and Industry"—draws mainly from organization theory and general economic sociology. Mark Granovetter updates and reassesses the character of business groups in a comparative context (chapter 19, "Business Groups and Social Organization"). Howard Aldrich examines the nature of entrepreneurial activity and entrepreneurs in chapter 20 ("Entrepreneurship"), and Gerald Davis examines a number of environments of business firms—especially other business firms—in chapter 21 ("Firms and Environments"). Part III—"Intersections of the Economy"— deals with the mutual penetration of economic activity and many "noneconomic" sectors of society. Three chapters address the most important aspects of the economy and the polity. The first is on the state in general (chapter 22, "The State and the Economy," by Fred Block and Peter Evans). Lauren Edelman and Robin Stryker focus on law as a special aspect of state activity (chapter 23, "A Sociological Approach to Law and the Economy"), while Evelyne Huber and John Stephens assess recent developments in the welfare state and a number of assessments of those developments (chapter 24, "Welfare States and the Economy"). Two additional chapters deal with economic intersections with the institutions of education (chapter 25, "Education and the Economy," by Mary Brinton) and religion (chapter 26, "New Directions in the Study of Religion and Economic Life," by Robert Wuthnow). Chapters 27 ("Gender and Economic Sociology," by Paula England and Nancy Folbre) and 28 ("The Ethnic Economy," by Ivan Light) deal with the embeddedness of the socially constructed dimensions of gender and ethnicity in economic life. The volume is rounded out by a chapter on technology (chapter 29, "Technology and the Economy," by Giovanni Dosi, Luigi Orsenigo, and Mauro Sylos Labini), and one on economic- environmental relations (chapter 30, "The Economy and the Environment," by Allan Schnaiviii berg). Both these final topics have significant international aspects. We conclude with the hope that the stocktaking of economic sociology contained in this Handbook, as well as its attempts to drive the field forward by selecting a few new important areas, will be successful. Economic sociology, we are convinced, currently represents one of the leading edges of sociology, as well as one of its most important interdisciplinary adventures.

The paper aims to articulate an "encounter" between Autonomist Marxism (AM) and World-Ecology (WE), that is, between two theoretical paradigms increasingly discussed at the global level, but so far never analyzed in close connection to one another. AM is a current of unorthodox Marxism that is characterized, methodologically, by the partiality of the point of view, the constitutive unity of thought and conflict, the ambivalence of the working-class condition (labor force / abstract labor within capital, working class / living labor against capital), and the centrality of class composition. Politically, AM proposes two main innovations: the practice of refusal of work, and the so-called Copernican revolution, according to which class struggle comes first and capitalist organization follows suit (instituting, therefore, a causal and incremental link between workers' unrest and capitalist development).WE can be defined as a global conversation that develops the analysis of the world-system along distinctively environmental lines: capitalism, therefore, does not have an ecological regime, but rather is an ecological regime, i.e. a specific way of organizing nature. Beyond any residue of Cartesian dualism, the concept of world-ecology refers to an original mixture of social dynamics and natural elements that make up the capitalist mode of production in its historical development, and in its tendency to become a world-market. In this framework, the capitalist theory of value imposes space as flat and geometric, time as homogeneous and linear, and nature as external, infinite, and free.The aim of this paper is to show that, although the two perspectives relate to the question of the (ecological) crisis in a very different way, they can be effectively integrated if juxtaposed on a different level - that of the historico-political analysis of the question concerning the environment. Both approaches originally rework Marx's crisis theory, but they do not completely avoid the polarization that marked its evolution: development vs. catastrophe.AM tends to renew the tradition that sees the crisis as a moment of development and historicizes it through original interpretations of the cycle of struggles 1968-1973, claiming its defeat was "peculiar" as it imposed a change in the structure of capitalist valorization in the direction of an expansion of its accumulation base. The causes of this transition are to be found in the intersection between the financialization of the economy, the cognitization of labor and, above all, the becoming-productive of the sphere of social reproduction. On the other hand, WE elaborates the so-called "breakdown" theory in unprecedented fashion. The starting point is a convincing reconstruction of the historical succession of long waves of economic cycles through an articulation of underproduction (of ecological surplus) and overproduction (of commodities). Thus, WE provides an instrumental ecological counterpoint to the socio-centric reading of AM through the fundamental notion of negative value — the most innovative analytical element with regard to the neoliberal form of crisis theory. However, the general discursive strategy follows that of every breakdown theory ever since the "classical" debate within the Second International. Therefore, it is aimed at showing that, although the crises of the twentieth century were developmental (that is, they fostered the capitalist restructuring at a higher level), the crisis we live through nowadays presents itself as epochal in that its result is deemed to be an inevitable collapse.The convergence between the two paradigms —which is actually a rather demanding theoretical exchange, and as such require some deep rethinking for both positions— can take place through a re-reading of the historical process of politicization of ecology. Although it is customary to date it between the mid-seventies and the following decade —i.e. after the great cycle of Fordist conflicts— in recent years a different hypothesis is being tested: that such politicization occurred not only a decade earlier, but also, and above all, because of rather than despite the struggles of the workers' movement (in close connection with the rise cycle of revolutionary feminism). With particular regard to the Italian context, the struggles against noxiousness, which multiplied between the end of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s, and often in opposition to the confederal unions, were the first to fiercely criticize the so-called monetization of risk; that is,the idea that wage increases and/or organizational benefits could "compensate" for exposure to pollutants, even hazardous ones. Although this criticism would never become common sense of trade union action, such occurrence does not deny that it was first of all the strength of organized workers that blew up the compensatory mechanism and (im)posed the ecological question as politically unavoidable. Only at a later stage will the environmental movement emerge along with a new post-materialist sensitivity among the urbanized intermediate strata.Against this background, the paper proposes an analysis of neoliberal green economy —i.e. the capitalist attempt to internalize the ecological limit, turning it from obstacle to valorization, through an innovative strategy of accumulation— as simultaneously assuming the form of development (in accordance with AM hypothesis) and of anti-development (in accordance with WE hypothesis). From this plausible "convergence" could then emerge a political interpretation of the contemporary ecological crisis, capable of questioning the relationship between capitalism and nature by avoiding both catastrophism and the elective affinity between the logic of profit and the logic of environmental protection.In this unprecedented context, WE can grasp the second aspect through the concept of negative value, which correctly conveys the message that climate change, health-related emergencies, and the narrowing of waste borders make the ecological crisis an unprecedented everyday reality in the history of capitalism. In fact, negative value implies an internal contradiction of the dynamics of capital and, above all, an ontological challenge to the valorization project, therefore to capitalist civilization tout court.On the other hand, AM is in a privileged position to make sense of the shift from the rhetoric of limits to growth, which somehow alluded to environmental noxiousness as a crisis of capitalism, to a rhetoric of growth of limits, which identifies these latter as drivers of accumulation, as "filters" that turn the ecological constraint into a crisis for capitalism. Furthermore, AM can now show that commodities traded on environmental markets contain value as they are produced by hybrid units of labor (reproductive / informational) and nature (financialized). However, the developmental potential of such green economy must also be relativized. In fact, the process of enhancing the "free" activity of nature seems, at least until now, to be unable both to "repair" the environmental damage already done and to provide widespread social protections potentially able to compensate for the class polarization that invariably accompanies the multiplication of financial dividends. What neoliberal capitalism lacks is an inclusive mechanism capable of (partially) socializing financial profits either through a decarbonization of the economy, or through the formation of a new middle class (or both). ; Este artículo pretende articular un encuentro entre el operaísmo y la ecología-mundo, es decir, un encuentro entre dos paradigmas teóricos cada vez más objeto de debate a nivel global, pero que, hasta el momento, no han sido analizados en estrecha relación. El operaísmo es una corriente del marxismo heterodoxo caracterizada por centrarse en la ambivalencia de la condición de la clase obrera (fuerza de trabajo/trabajo abstracto dentro del capital, clase obrera/trabajo vivo contra el capital) y la noción de la composición de clases sociales. La ecología-mundo puede definirse como un diálogo internacional que desarrolla el análisis del sistema-mundo desde una perspectiva ambiental: el capitalismo, por lo tanto, no tiene un régimen ecológico, sino que es un régimen ecológico, es decir, constituye un modo especifico de organizar la naturaleza. El objetivo de este artículo es demostrar que, a pesar de que las dos perspectivas se relacionan con la cuestión de la crisis (ecológica) de forma muy distinta, ellas pueden integrarse eficazmente si son yuxtapuestas a otro nivel: el del análisis histórico-político de la cuestión medioambiental. En su origen, ambos planteamientos revisan la teoría de la crisis de Marx, pero no eluden la polarización que caracteriza su evolución: mientras que el operaísmo tiende a reafirmar la tradición que considera la crisis como un momento de desarrollo, la ecología-mundo desarrolla la teoría de la brecha metabólica de un modo bastante inaudito. La convergencia entre estos dos paradigmas —lo que, en realidad, constituye un exigente intercambio teórico y que, por lo tanto, requiere una intensa reflexión por parte de ambas posiciones— puede producirse a través de una relectura del proceso histórico de la politización de la ecología. Aunque se suele situarlo entre mediados de los años setenta y la siguiente década —tras el gran ciclo de conflictos fordistas—, en los últimos años se está comprobando una hipótesis distinta: esta politización no sólo ocurrió una década antes, pero también, y, sobre todo, sucedió debido a, y no a pesar de, las luchas del movimiento obrero (en estrecha relación con el surgimiento del feminismo revolucionario). En ese contexto, la economía verde neoliberal —es decir, el intento capitalista de internalizar el límite ecológico, transformándolo de un obstáculo a la valorización a una estrategia innovadora de acumulación— asume simultáneamente la forma de desarrollo (en línea con la hipótesis postulada por el operaísmo) y la de antidesarrollo (en línea con la hipótesis defendida por la ecología-mundo). De esta "convergencia" plausible podría emerger entonces una interpretación política de la crisis ecológica contemporánea capaz de cuestionar la relación entre el capitalismo y la naturaleza, al evitar tanto el catastrofismo como la afinidad electiva entre la lógica del beneficio y la lógica de la protección medioambiental.

Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Editoriale Performative Thinking in Humanities Un Quaderno periodico Editoriale in cui si spiega che il Quaderno Think Tank PTH – Performative Thinking in Humanities diventerà una pubblicazione annuale dedicata alla disseminazione dei saperi filosofici e umanistici attraverso le arti audiovisive e musicali. Filosofia, Musica, Teatro, Impegno, Politica Fabrizio Masucci Museo Cappella Sansevero fabriziomasucci@museosansevero.it Un melologo filosofico per Raimondo di Sangro principe di Sansevero Prefazione del Presidente del Museo Cappella Sansevero al libretto e alla partitura del melologo. Velo, Cristo velato, Museo Cappella Sansevero, Teatro della Filosofia, Disseminazione Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Il pensiero velato Una meditazione notturna del principe di Sansevero melologo in quattro quadri per voce recitante, voci registrate e percussioni libretto Basato sulle opere di Raimondo di Sangro e su altri testi dell'epoca concepiti nella cerchia dei cosiddetti Liberi pensatori, il libretto mette a fuoco la personalità del principe di Sansevero nel momento in cui scrive la Supplica (1753) da inviare a Benedetto XIV per chiedergli di derubricare la sua Lettera apologetica (1751) dall'Index librorum prohibitorum. Raimondo di Sangro viene presentato come un ostinato difensore della libertà di pensiero e della tolleranza. Il suo interesse per il sistema di segni del popolo peruviano (quipu) denuncia in lui un'attenzione per la scrittura, intesa come l'unico strumento concesso all'uomo per lasciare traccia di sé e guadagnare quindi una immortalità (non personale) nella fama. Pensiero critico, Tolleranza, Censura, Scrittura, Sperimentazione Rosalba Quindici Hochschule der Künste Bern rosalbaquindici@yahoo.it Il pensiero velato Una meditazione notturna del principe di Sansevero melologo in quattro quadri per voce recitante, voci registrate e percussioni score Partitura musicale del melologo. Musica contemporanea, Ricerca timbrica, Percussioni, Scrittura, Sperimentazione Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Pandemia 2020 / scena deserta Breve storia di un progetto nato e mutato dall'emergenza sanitaria Il breve saggio racconta le fasi di lavorazione necessarie a produrre il video Pandemia 2020 / scena deserta, che evoca il tema dei teatri chiusi per la l'epidemia di Covid-19 ed è dedicato ad attori e musicisti in difficoltà perché rimasti senza lavoro. L'esplodere dell'emergenza sanitaria ha costretto i partecipanti a modificare il progetto mentre era in corso di svolgimento. Teatro, Video, Scenografia, Musica, Sceneggiatura Nera Prota Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli nera.prota@yahoo.com Pensare con le mani nell'era digitale Manualità tra Information Technologies (IT) e creatività umana Nelle Accademie di Belle Arti, sempre più spesso l'information technology è proposta come un sostituto o un surrogato dello sviluppo individuale della manualità. Coloro i quali, per qualsiasi motivo, si sentono a disagio nell'usare la loro manualità, possono trovare un'apparente via di uscita nell'uso dei software. Tuttavia, questo trend rinforza la perdita di manualità impedendo alle persone di costruire un loro personale linguaggio artistico. L'aiuto delle macchine nella produzione artistica incontra un'esigenza di mercato, consolidando l'idea fittizia che la creatività umana possa essere espressa attraverso processi standardizzati. Certamente, ciò è funzionale all'interesse del mercato. Per esempio, uno dei software più usati in ambito artistico progettuale è il CAD (Computer-aided design). Il nome del software immediatamente svela la relazione asimmetrica con l'utente. In molti casi, software come il CAD possono interagire direttamente con altre macchine complesse (ossia macchine a controllo numerico) per intraprendere attività di larga scala ed estrema precisione. In questo saggio, l'autrice ricerca il confine tra la produzione industriale e la creatività umana in ambito artistico, sfatando in questo modo alcune ambiguità sul ruolo che la tecnologia ricopre nella società. Design, Virtuale, Arte, Tecnologia, Didattica Benedetta Tramontano Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli bene_98@hotmail.it Ricerca stilistica e scelte personali Tecla: un'evocazione visuale in tre bozzetti di una città invisibile di Italo Calvino Nel contributo si descrivono le modalità seguite nel dare una raffigurazione fantastica – dunque soggettivo-prospettica – di una delle città invisibili di Italo Calvino: Tecla, la metropoli-cantiere. L'Autrice ha deliberatamente scelto il disegno e la colorazione a mano libera, rifiutandosi di utilizzare software di disegno digitale. Acquerello, china, bozzetto, colore, disegno digitale Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.it Giancarlo Turaccio Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Salerno "Antonio Martucci" giancarlo.turaccio@gmail.com Un ascolto iniziatico Conversazione tra un filosofo e un compositore sulla musica acusmatica Un ricercatore di filosofia e un docente di composizione dialogano sulla musica acusmatica, ossia quella proposta (anche in concerto) in assenza della sua fonte sonora. La discussione ricostruisce brevemente la storia del concetto e mette in evidenza l'importanza dell'ascolto "puro", fondato sulla relazione diretta fra l'orecchio e l'oggetto sonoro. Pitagorici, Pierre Schaeffer, Walter Benjamin, Oggetto sonoro, Spazializzazione del suono Gianvincenzo Cresta Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Avellino "Domenico Cimarosa" gianvincenzo.cresta@conservatoriocimarosa.org Ricordo di Bruno Maderna (1920-1973) a cento anni dalla nascita Del canto immobile Qualche riflessione su Per Caterina di Bruno Maderna per violino e pianoforte Spesso nell'indagine storico analitica su un compositore si cerca una sintesi e ci si focalizza su alcune opere ritenendole maggiormente rappresentative. È una via possibile che però delimita l'identità del compositore, piegandolo a una narrazione semplificata, mentre invece il cammino creativo di un artista è un complesso caleidoscopio. Per Caterina di Bruno Maderna è un breve brano per violino e pianoforte composto nel 1963, il cui esito, pur ponendosi in rottura rispetto ad altre sue opere e agli stilemi stilistici degli anni '50 e '60, si colloca con naturalezza nell'arco creativo dell'autore. È un brano emblematico del suo modo di vivere la musica come fenomeno unitario, senza steccati stilistici e categorizzazioni. La retorica è per Maderna un mezzo e non un'estetica e la musica un'esperienza complessa che mescola al sonoro il percettivo, il motorio e l'emozionale. Afferma Maderna: «la musica non può essere che un fatto espressivo, un suono suscita reazioni e i suoni non sono che mezzi». Identità, Canto, Antico, Modernità, Libertà Tommaso Rossi Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Benevento "Nicola Sala" info@tommasorossi.it Una grande Aulodìa Flauto e oboe nella "melodia arcaica" di Bruno Maderna Nella variegata e copiosa produzione musicale di Bruno Maderna la scelta di dedicare una particolare attenzione al flauto e all'oboe – i due più acuti rappresentanti della famiglia dei "legni" – sembra andare oltre il pur comprensibile interesse del compositore per l'indagine timbrica di due affascinanti strumenti, ma è legato a ragioni più profonde, che risiedono in aspetti fondanti della poetica musicale del compositore. Il flauto e l'oboe sono "gli" strumenti della mitologia classica, e il loro suono particolare rimanda immediatamente alla Grecia antica, alla civiltà che il popolo greco ha creato e al culto della bellezza che ne è scaturito, influenzando il corso della storia dell'Occidente. Maderna guarda, attraverso il suono di questi strumenti, a questo mondo – oggi perduto – con il preciso desiderio di riproporre utopicamente, in una modernità segnata dalla violenza delle macchine e nel contesto di una società disumanizzata, un ideale superiore ma irraggiungibile di armonia. Attraverso l'analisi di molti dei lavori scritti da Maderna, che hanno per protagonisti il flauto e l'oboe, l'autore ricostruisce alcuni aspetti dell'estetica maderniana. Hyperion, Musica su due dimensioni, Grande Aulodia, Don Perlimplìn, Terzo concerto per oboe Rossella Gaglione Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II rossellagaglione@hotmail.com Discorsi tra Eco e Narciso A proposito di un recente libro di Dario Giugliano Che rapporto c'è tra ίδιοςe κοινός? E come possono la filosofia (nello specifico la metafisica) e la letteratura coniugare questi due termini? Quanto è difficile, e allo stesso tempo necessario, comunicare con l'Altro, cioè trasferire la propria voce singolare all'interno del sistema segnico condiviso affinché possa essere compresa? Che cos'è l'esperienza? Cosa si intende per idiotismo? Com'è possibile leggere il mito di Eco e Narciso? Questi e altri interrogativi sono alla base del testo di Giugliano che – grazie anche al confronto con vari pensatori (tra cui Platone, Novalis e Nietzsche) – offre numerosi e interessanti spunti di riflessione. Idiotismo, comunicazione, esperienza, Filosofia, linguaggio ; Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Editorial Performative Thinking in Humanities A Periodical Book Editorial explaining that the Book Think Tank PTH – Performing Thinking in Humanities will become an annual publication dedicated to the dissemination of philosophical and humanistic knowledge through the visual and musical arts. Philosophy, Music, Theater, Commitment, Politics Fabrizio Masucci Museo Cappella Sansevero fabriziomasucci@museosansevero.it A Philosophical Melologue for Raimondo di Sangro principe di Sansevero Preface by the President of the Sansevero Chapel Museum to the libretto and score of the melologue. Veil, Veiled Christ, Sansevero Chapel Museum, Philosophy Theater, Dissemination Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com The Veiled Thought A Nocturnal Meditation by the Prince of Sansevero melologue in four scenes for narrating voice, recorded voices and percussion libretto Based on the works of Raimondo di Sangro and on other texts of the circle of the Free Thinkers, the libretto focuses on the personality of the Prince of Sansevero when he writes the Supplica (1753) for Benedict XIV. In it he ask him to delete his Lettera apologetica (1751) from the Index librorum prohibitorum. Raimondo di Sangro is presented as an obstinate defender of freedom of free thought and tolerance. His interest in the system of signs of the Peruvian people (quipu) denounces in him an attention to writing, which – understood as a trace of an existence – can guarantee immortality in fame. Critical Thinking, Tolerance, Censorship, Writing, Experimentation Rosalba Quindici Hochschule der Künste Bern rosalbaquindici@yahoo.it The Veiled Thought A Nocturnal Meditation by the Prince of Sansevero melologue in four scenes for narrating voice, recorded voices and percussion partitura musicale Score of the melologue. Contemporary music, Timbric Research, Percussion, Writing, Experimentation Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.com Pandemic 2020 / Deserted Scene A Brief History of a Project that the Pandemic has changed The short essay describes the processing steps to produce the video Pandemic 2020 / deserted scene, which evokes the theme of closed theaters because of the Covid-19 epidemic and is dedicated to actors and musicians in difficulty, because without work. The explosion of the health emergency forced the participants to modify the project while it was in progress. Theater, Video, Scenography, Music, Screenplay Nera Prota Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli nera.prota@yahoo.com Thinking with Hands in the Digital Age Crafting Art Amidst Information Technology (IT) and Human Creativity In Art Academies, IT is increasingly proposed as a substitute or a surrogate to developing individual crafting abilities. Those that, for any reasons, feel uncomfortable using their hands can easily find in computer applications an apparent way-out. However, this trend reinforces hands disability preventing individuals to build their own personal artistic language. Machine support in art crafting meets a growing market demand ushering in the fictitious idea that human creativity can be achieved through standardized processes. This is of course functional to market interests. For example, one of the most popular software is used in art design is CAD (Computer-Aided Design). The name itself highlights the asymmetric relation with the user. In many cases software like CAD can directly interact with other complex machines (i.e., numeric control machines) to undertake large-scale, precision tasks. In this essay, the Author will search the boundary between industrial production and human creativity, thus debunking some ambiguity about the role of technology in society. Design, Virtual, Art, Technology, Didactics Benedetta Tramontano Accademia di Belle Arti di Napoli bene_98@hotmail.it Stylistic Research and Personal Choices Tecla: A Visual Evocation in Three Sketches of an Invisible City by Italo Calvino The contribution describes the methods followed in giving a fantastic – therefore subjective-perspective – representation of one of Italo Calvino's invisible cities: Tecla, the building site-city. The Author has deliberately chosen freehand drawing and coloring, refusing to use digital drawing software. Watercolor, Ink, Sketch, Color, Digital Drawing Rosario Diana Istituto per la Storia del Pensiero Filosofico e Scientifico Moderno Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ISPF-CNR) rosariodiana61@gmail.it Giancarlo Turaccio Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Salerno "Antonio Martucci" giancarlo.turaccio@gmail.com An Initiatory Listening Conversation between a Philosopher and a Composer about Acousmatic Music A philosophy researcher and a professor of composition talk about acousmatic music, which is proposed (even live) in the absence of her sound source. The discussion briefly reconstructs the history of the concept and highlights the importance of "pure" listening, which is based on the direct relationship between the ear and the sound object. Pythagoreans, Pierre Schaeffer, Walter Benjamin, Sound Object, Spatialization of Sound Gianvincenzo Cresta Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Avellino "Domenico Cimarosa" gianvincenzo.cresta@conservatoriocimarosa.org Memory of Bruno Maderna (1920-1973) One Hundred Years After his Birth On Steady Song Some Reflections on Per Caterina by Bruno Maderna for Violin and Piano In the analytic historical survey of a composer we usually look for a synthesis and we focus on some works that are considered more representative. It is a possible way but that can restrict the identity of the composer, bending it to a simplified narrative whereas the creative journey of an artist is a complex kaleidoscope. Per Caterina by Bruno Maderna is a short piece for violin and piano composed in 1963, and despite being in contrast with his other works and stylistic styles of the '50s and '60s, it is naturally placed in the creative arc of the author. It is an emblematic piece of his way of experiencing music as a unitary event, without stylistic fences and categorizations. Rhetoric is for Maderna a means and not an aesthetic and music is a complex experience that mixes sound with the perception, the motor and the emotional. Maderna says: «Music can only be an expressive fact, a sound that elicits reactions and sounds are only a means». Identity, Song, Ancient, Modernity, Freedom Tommaso Rossi Conservatorio Statale di Musica di Benevento "Nicola Sala" info@tommasorossi.it Una grande Aulodìa The Flute and the Oboe in Bruno Maderna's "Arcaic Melody" In Bruno Maderna's varied and copious musical production, the choice to devote particular attention to the flute and the oboe – the two highest pitched members of the "woodwind" family – seems to go beyond the composer's understandable interest in the timbre investigation of two fascinating instruments, but it is linked to deeper reasons, which reside in fundamental aspects of the composer's musical poetics. The flute and the oboe are "the" instruments of classical mythology. Their particular sound immediately recalls ancient Greece, the civilization that the Greeks founded, with its inherent cult of beauty, which influenced the whole history of Western civilization. Through the sound of these instruments, Maderna looks at this world – now lost ­­– with the precise desire to re-propose utopically–in a modernity marked by the violence of machines and in the context of a dehumanized society–a superior but unattainable ideal of harmony. Through the analysis of many of his works, which feature the flute and the oboe, the author reconstructs some aspects of Maderna's aesthetics. Hyperion, Musica su due dimensioni, Grande Aulodia, Don Perlimplìn, Terzo concerto per oboe Rossella Gaglione Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II rossellagaglione@hotmail.com Talkbetween Echo and Narcissus About a Recent Book by Dario Giugliano What is the relationship between ίδιος and κοινός? And how can philosophy (specifically metaphysics) and literature combine these two terms? How difficult is, and at the same time necessary, communicate with Other, that is to transfer one's singular voice in the shared sign system for this voice can be understood? What is experience? What is idiotism? What about the myth of Echo and Narcissus? These questions and other ones are the basis of Giugliano's text which – thanks also to the comparison with various thinkers (including Plato, Novalis and Nietzsche) – offers numerous interesting food for thought. Idiotism, Communication, Experience, Philosophy, Language

Bertrand Badie on the Trump Moment, the Science
of Suffering, and IR between Power and Weakness



Lire en français




IR retains a traditional focus on the
game of power between states as its defining characteristic. But what, so asks Bertrand
Badie, if this means that our discipline is based on a negation of our humanity?
A giant in Francophone IR, Badie has labored to instead place human suffering
at the center of analysis of the international, by letting loose sociological
insights on a truly global empirical reality. In this Talk, Badie—amongst others—challenges the centrality of the idea of
state power, which makes little sense in a world where most of the IR agenda is
defined by issues emanating from state weakness; argues for the centrality of
suffering to a more apt IR; and uses this to contextualize the Trump Moment.




Print version (pdf) of this Talk



What is (or should be), according to
you, the biggest challenge / principal debate in current International
Relations? What is your position or answer to this challenge / in this debate?



Unquestionably, it would be the matter of change. It is time to conceptualize,
and further than that, to theorize the change that is happening in the field of
International Relations (IR). Humans have always had the feeling that they are
living in a period of upheaval, but contemporary IR is really characterized by several
landmarks that illustrate the drastic extent of change. I see at least three of
them.



The first one concerns the inclusive nature of the international system.
For the first time in the history of mankind, the international system covers
nearly the whole humanity, while the Westphalian system was an exclusively European
dynamic in which the United States of America entered to turn it into a system,
that I would call, Euro-North-American.



The second element, around which publications abound (see notably Mary
Kaldor's work, Theory Talk #30), is the deep mutation of the nature of conflict. War used to be, in
the Westphalian model, a matter of competition between powers. Today we have
the feeling that weakness is replacing power, in that power cannot any longer
function as central explanatory term of conflictual situations, which are
rather manifestations of state weakness. Think of 'failing' or 'collapsing'
states, which refers to the coming apart of nations that have been built badly
as well as the deliquescence of social ties. This new form of conflictuality
completely turns the international environment upside down and constitutes a
second indicator of transformation.



The third aspect concerns mobility. Our international system used to be
fully based on the idea of territory and boundaries, on the idea that fixity
establishes the competences of States in a very precise way. In this
perspective, the state refers to territory—as the definition given by Max Weber
states very clearly—but today this territorial notion of politics is challenged
by a full range of mobilities, composed of international flows that can be
either material, informational, or human.



These are three indicators illustrating a deep transformation of the
inner nature of IR that encourage me to speak about 'intersocial relations'
rather than 'interstate relations'. The notion of interstate relations no
longer captures the entirety of the global game. Our whole theory of IR was
based on the Westphalian model as it came out of the peace of Westphalia, as it
was confirmed by the accomplishment of the nation-state construction process
and as it dominated the historical flow of international events until the fall
of the Berlin wall.



Until the fall of the wall, all that was not related to Europe or to the
United States of America, or more precisely North-America, was simply called 'periphery',
which says enough. Today, by contrast, the periphery is central at least
regarding conflictuality. We should therefore drop our Westphalian prism and
build up new analytical tools for IR that would take these mutations as their
point of departure. Doing away with our Westphalian approach to IR would mean
questioning both our classical IR theories and questioning the practical models
of action in international politics, which means the uses of diplomacy and
warfare.





How did you arrive at where you
currently are in your thinking about International Relations?



You know when we write, when we work, we are first of all influenced by
our dissatisfaction. The classical Westphalian approach to IR, as I said
earlier, did not satisfy me as I had the feeling that it was focusing on events
that no longer had the importance that we kept giving them—for instance the arms
race, great power politics, or the traditional diplomatic negotiations—while I
was seeing, maybe this was the trigger, that the greatest part of suffering in
the world was coming from places that IR theory was not really covering.



I have always told my students that IR is the science of human suffering.
This suffering exists of course where we are—in Europe, in North America, they
exist everywhere in the world—but the greatest part is outside of the
Westphalian area, so the classical approach to IR gives a marginal and
distorted image. Africa and the Middle East seen through the Westphalian prism are
a dull image, strongly different from the extraordinary wealth, both for good and
bad, that these areas of the world have. I've also always held that in a world
where 6 to 9 million people starve to death each year, the main foci of traditional
IR were derisory. Even terrorism, to which we collectively attribute so much
importance, hardly comes near how important a challenge food security is.



My three latest books take a stand against traditional IR theories. In Diplomacy of
Connivance (2012) I tried to
show that the great power game is really a game way that is much more
integrated than we usually say and that this game plays out in all multilateral
fora. There is indeed a club, and that is precisely what I wanted to describe,
a club of powers—one which results to the detriment of less powerful members in
the international system.



In Le Temps des humiliés ('the
era of the humiliated', 2014), I tried to crystallize what the classical theory
could not express, which is domination seen through the lens of the dominated,
humiliation as felt by the humiliated, violence as experienced by the
desperate. For instance, even if we look at powers as accomplished as China
today—sharing the first place with the USA in terms of GDP—we have to admit
that their historical experience of humiliation constitutes a huge source of inspiration
when it comes to the elaboration of its foreign policy.



And then, in my last book Nous ne
sommes plus seuls au monde ('we are no longer alone in the world', 2016), this
critique was even more explicit. We are writing an IR that encompasses only about
one billion of human beings, while forgetting all the others. Today it is
simply no longer true that these old powers are setting the international
agenda. Global politics today is written by the little, the weak, the dominated;
often with recourse to extreme forms of violence, but this needs to be analyzed
and understood, which would mean to totally change the IR theory.



We should not forget that in large part, IR theory was a given as the USA
triumphed in 1945. The well-known 'great power politics' that dominates
traditional IR theory, inaugurated by Morgenthau and supported by so many others,
described what was true at that time: the ability of American power to set us
free from the Nazi monster. Today the challenge is strongly different, and it
is by the way meaningful that two of the greatest American internationalist
political scientists, Robert Keohane (TheoryTalk #9) and Ned Lebow (Theory Talk #53),
have both written books that elude to the end of this global order
(respectively After Hegemony and Goodbye Hegemony). Well what interests
me is exactly to dig into what comes after hegemony.





What would a student
need to become a specialist in International Relations or understand the world
in a global way?



First of all, I would advise them to rename their science, as I said
earlier, and to call it intersocial relations. The future of what we call IR
comes down to the ability to understand the extremely rich, multiple and
diversified interactions that are happening among and across the world's
societies. It does not mean that we have to completely abandon the state-centric
perspective, but rather dethrone states from the middle of this multiplicity of
actors in order to realize how very often these states are powerless when faced
with these different actors. That would be my first advice.



My second advice would be to look
ahead and not back. Do not let yourself be dominated by the Westphalian model,
and to try to build up what we need—since almost nothing has been done yet
today to construct this post-Westphalian, meta-Westphalian model. Beyond power,
there are things that we still misidentify or overlook while they are the driving
forces of today's and tomorrow's IR. From this point of view, sociology could
prove particularly useful. I consider, for instance, that Émile Durkheim is a very important inspiration to understand the
world today. Here is an author to study and to apply to IR.



The third advice that I would give them would be to not forget that IR
or intersocial relations are indeed the sciences of human suffering. We should
be able to place suffering at the core of the thinking. We've lost far too much
time staring at power, now it is time to move on to place human suffering at
the center. Why? First of all because it is ethically better; maybe will we be
able to learn from it? But also because in today's actual international
politics suffering is more proactive than power, which is not necessarily
optimistic but if recognized, would allow us a better questioning of new forms
of conflictuality. Perhaps unfortunately, the international agenda is no longer
fixed with canons, but with tears. Maybe this is the key point on which we
should concentrate our reflection.



Your insistence on placing suffering at the center of
IR scholarship seems to place you firmly alongside those who recognize "grievance" ratherthan "greed" as a central logic of international politics. What do you make of this parallel?



You are right: the idea of grievance, of recrimination, is a structuring
logic of the international game today. We did not see it coming for two
reasons. First of all because our traditional analysis of international
politics presupposed a unity of time, as if the African time, the Chinese time,
the Indian time and the European time where all identical. Yet this is
completely wrong because we, in our European culture, have not understood that
before Westphalia there were
political models, political histories, that profoundly marked the people that would
then shape contemporary politics. Remember that China is 4000 years of empire,
remember that precolonial Africa was composed of kingdoms, empires,
civilizations, philosophies, arts... Remember that India also is multi-millenary.
The Westphalian time came to totally deny and crush this temporality, this
historicity, almost in a negationist way, which means that, in the spirit of
those who were defending the Westphalian model, only this model was associated
to the Renaissance; and that the age of enlightenment and reason with a big R
had a calling to reformat the world as if it were a hard drive. This was a
senseless bet, a bet for which our European ancestors who led it had excuses
because at that time we did not know all these histories, at that time we did
not have all the knowledge we today have of the other and thus we simply
resolved it, through the negation of alterity. Yet, IR ought on the contrary aspire
to the accomplishment of alterity. Inevitably, all those who saw themselves
denied their historicity, over several centuries and even several millenaries,
accumulated a feeling of recrimination, of particularly deep grievances.



The second element is that all of this happened in a context of
disequilibrium of power resources, linked to different factors that reflected
indeed the fact that at a given moment of time western powers were both
literally and figuratively better armed than other societies. Abovementioned negation
of alterity was mapped onto, and amplified, by the forceful imposition of a
multilateral system that turned into the worst situation, into a proclaimed
hierarchy of cultures; as a result and there were, as Jules Ferry put it in the France
of the 19th century, 'races'; as in, 'We have the obligation to
educate inferior races'. It is not the beginning of history, but it is the
beginning of a history of humiliation. And through subsequent waves of globalization,
this humiliation has turned into a central nerve running through international
life. A nerve that has been used by both the powerful, who made a tool out of
humiliating the others to better dominate them (think here of the opium wars, colonization)
and simultaneously a nerve that fed the reaction of mobilization in the extra-Westphalian
world by those that had to stand up against those who were humiliating them. So
you see how it truly lies at the basis of IR. In my mind, it became a forceful paradigm,
it explains everything, even though others factors continue to weigh in on
actual dynamics.



In order to appreciate all this, we need a sociological approach, which
has for me two aspects. Both these aspects must be considered together for the
approach to be well understood. The first one is a timeless aspect, which is to
consider that everywhere and in all eras politics is a social product. Politics
cannot be understood as somehow outside society. This I would say contradicts the
majority of IR scholars, who believe excessively in the autonomy of politics
and of the state—even if only for analytical purposes. The second element of
this sociological approach is the historical or temporal component. That is
what I was talking about earlier: with globalization the social fabric strongly
progressed compared to the political fabric, and considering that intersocial
relations grew, we need a sociological approach to understand them.





Do you think that the Trump period constitutes a
fundamental break with the conduct of IR?



Trump himself maybe not, but what he represents certainly. If we look at
the USA today we see, since the new millennium, three models succeeding each
other. After 11-09 there was a time of neo-conservatism where globalization was
considered by American leaders as a means or maybe a chance to universalize the
American model, willingly or not. By force, as was the case in Iraq in 2003.
This model failed.



This lead to a second model which I would describe as a liberal model,
neo-liberal, incarnated by Obama who learnt from the lessons of the failure of neo-conservatism,
and had the courage to question the hypothesis hitherto considered as indisputable
of American leadership in the world, and who considered that the USA could win
only through soft power or smart power or free-trade. That is the reason why
Obama was just a little bit interventionist and was counting a lot on the TTIP
and on all these transregional agreements.



With Trump we arrive at a third model, one that I would call
neo-nationalist, that looks at globalization in a different way. In his perspective,
globalization constitutes a chance to satisfy the national American interests. The
idea of the national comes back after a long interlude of a globalizing vision.
It does not mean that we are not interventionist anymore. What happened in
Syria proves it. It means that we will intervene not according to the needs of
globalization but rather to American interests. It is about sharing a strong
and powerful image of the USA on the one hand and on the other serving the
concrete interests of the American people and nation.



This neo-nationalist model is not defended only by Trump, that is the
reason why I was saying that we should not consider Trump individually. We find
it exactly the same way with Putin. We find it by many other world leaders,
such as Erdogan or Duterte or Victor Orbán—really different figures—or Marshal
Sissi in Egypt.



We find it as well in attitudes, for instance Brexit in Great Britain, in
right-wing neo-populism in Europe: Ms. Le Pen, Mr. Wilders...  or in a certain left-wing neo-populism as
Mélenchon in France. It is in the air, seeming almost a passing fad. But it
constitutes perhaps a double rupture within IR. First of all because since the
emergence of globalization, let's say around the 70's, the national interest as
a thought category was bit by bit replaced with approaches in terms of collective
goods. Today by contrast we witness the abandonment of this image of collective
goods for a return to the national interest. This is very clear in Trump's renouncing
of the COP21 of Paris. At the same time, second, this constitutes some form of the
rehabilitation of the idea of power, which again seeps into the language of IR.




You know the IR scholar is not a neutral person, we have to use our science
towards positive action and for the definition of sound public policies. Going
against the idea of collective goods, casting doubt on the ideas of human
security, environmental security, food security, and sanitary security is
extremely dangerous because the composition of national interests and egoism
will never converge to a globally coherent policy. It is the weak that will
suffer first.



And the same time that power is reinstated as a driving principle of IR
praxis, the paradox is that great powers are becoming more and more powerless. If
we look only since 1989, and ask, when did state power ever triumph in IR?
Where did the strongest ever find a battleship enabling him to resolve a
problem to his benefit and according to his goals? Never. Not in Somalia, not
in Afghanistan, not in Iraq, not in Syria, not in Palestine. Nowhere. Not in
Sahel, not in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nowhere. So I am a little
worried, indeed, about this naive and old-fashioned rehabilitation of state
power.





Can we say that globalization, or rather the ambition of
integration at either the European or global scale, has failed? Can today be
considered a good moment to bury of the idea of integration?



I do not like burials, it is not an expression that I would use, but
your question is very pertinent. For around twenty years I have been saying and
teaching that regional integration constituted an intermediary and realistic
level of adaptation between the era of the nation state and that of globalization,
which means that I believed for a long time that regional integration was the
final step towards a global governance of the world.



I thought for a long time that what was not possible at the global
scale, a global government, was possible at the regional level and this would already
strongly simplify the world map and thus go in the way of this adhesion to the
collective dimension required by globalization. Nevertheless, not only Europe
suffers a setback, but all the regional constructions in the world are in a
similar situation. Mr. Trump openly shoves the NAFTA agreement, MERCOSUR is
down as every State that is composing it has recriminations against it, and we
could extend the list… All the forms of integration that have been set by
Chavez around his Bolivian ideal have ceased to exist; Africa progresses very
slowly in terms of regional integration; the Arab Maghreb Union, which is an
essential device, totally failed. Thus indeed the situation does not look good.



In the case of Europe there is a double phenomenon: on the one hand,
there is this really grave failure due to the secession of Great Britain from
Europe, and then there is a general malaise of the European model. Brexit is
really rare, if you look at the contemporary history of IR it is simply
unprecedented that a state shuts the door on a regional or global organization.
As far as I remember, it only happened a few times before, with Indonesia in
the UN in 1964, which lasted only 19 months. It happened with Morocco with the
African Union and Morocco is currently reintegrating in it. This British
situation came as a thunderbolt, worsened by the fact that paradoxically it is
not so much because of regional integration that the British voted against the
European Union. It was more from an anti-migration, xenophobic and nationalist
(in reference to that nationalism trend that I was earlier talking about)
perspective and what is dramatic is that we can clearly see that the
nationalist sentiment is really attacking the inner principles of regional
integration.



I was saying that in the European case there are internal problems which
run even deeper than the British defection, and I will underline at least two
of them. First of all there is a democratic deficit of Europe, meaning that
Europe was not able to match electoral spaces with the ones where decisions get
made; people still vote at the national level while the decisions are taken in
Brussels. In consequence, democratic control over these decisions is extremely
weak. How to resolve this equation? And here the breakdown is total since very
few people are coming up with suggestions. The other factor of this crisis is,
according to me, the fact that Europe has been built with success after World
War II in a progressive way around association and indeed, Durkheim proved it,
the integrative logic makes sense. Unity makes strength and it did make
strength once in Europe to prevent war, a third World War, and secondly to
encourage the reconstruction of European countries where economy was totally
collapsed. This time is now over and it is the fault of Europe to not have
known how to recontextualize itself, to react to the new contexts.



Paying one more time tribute to Durkheim who guessed it right, Durkheim
said that there are two ways of constructing social ties: around association
and around solidarity. I think that the time of association is now over, we
should enter in the time of solidarity, which does not consist in saying 'We
Germans are associated with Greece', but rather 'We Germans are joined together
with Greece because we know that if Greece collapses, in a long term
perspective, we will suffer the consequences'. Thus this idea of fundamental
unity is an idea that has been a little bit overlooked, abandoned by the
Europeans and now they find themselves in a complete paralysis.





Is the decolonization period still having an impact on
contemporary IR?



Oh totally, totally. I would first say because it is a major event in
the field of IR, which made the World switch from 51 sovereign States of the UN
in 1945 to 193 today but above all, a very aggravating circumstance, is that
this decolonization has been a complete failure and this failure weighs
enormously on international politics.



It has been a failure because decolonization assumed the format of copying
the western state model in countries that were accessing independence, while
this model was not necessarily adapted, which provoked a proliferation of
failed states, and these collapsed states had a terrible effect on IR.



Secondly because decolonization should have led to the enrichment and to
the substantial modification of multilateralism, by creating new institutions
able to take charge of new challenges resulting from decolonization. Yet,
except the creation of UNCTAD in 1964 and of
UNDP in 1965, there have been very little innovations in terms of global governance.
Thus global governance remains dominated by what I earlier called 'the club',
which means the great powers from the north, and this is very dysfunctional for
the management of contemporary crises. Then also because the ancient colonial
powers happen to find new forms of domination that did somehow complicate the
international game. Thus in fact decolonization is a daily aspect of the crisis
that the international system faces today.





In conclusion, which question should we have asked? In
other terms, which question have we forgot?



I found your questions very pertinent as it allowed the discussion of themes
that I consider essentials. Now, the big problem that makes me worry is the
great gap between the analysts and the actors in IR. I am not saying that the
analysts understood everything, far from it, but I think that IR theorists are
very conscious of some of these transformations I have mentioned. If you look
at some great authors such as James Rosenau, Ned Lebow or Robert Keohane, to
name just a few—there are way more—they all contributed to the reconstruction
of IR.



What truly strikes me is the autism of political actors, they think that
they are still at the time of the Congress of Vienna and that is an
extraordinary source of tension. Thus as long as this spirit of change does not
reach political actors, maybe Barack Obama was the first one to enter this game
and then the parenthesis was closed, as long as there will not be this move
towards the discovery of a new world, maybe as well through the inclusion in
our reflection about the international fabric such partners as China, it is not
normal that this very powerful China does not have any choice but to share the
paradigm and the model of action proper to occidental diplomacy, as long as we
would not have done this precise effort, well, we will remain in the negation
of the human, and that is the essential problem today, we are unable to
understand that at the end there is just one unity, which is the human being.



I had the chance to visit 105 countries and everywhere I met the same
men and the same women, with their pain, with their happiness, their hardship,
their joy, their sorrow, their needs that were everywhere identical. As long as
we will not understand that, well, we will be living in a world that is in total
contradiction with what it is truly and essentially. We will live in a world of
artifice and thus a world of violence.



Related links  



Read Badie's
The Arab Spring: A starting point (SER
Études 2011) here
(pdf)



Print version (pdf) of this Talk

Our research focuses on the genesis of the teaching of art history in secondary schools in France. This precisely means its foundation and initial development under the Third Republic. We will first study the educational institution and the discipline of art history at the time, since the teaching of art history is closely linked to them. In Chapter I, the study will show the complexity of the secondary school system in France at the time. There is not only the distinction between male and female audiences, but also between classical education and modern education, so that the teaching of art history is not homogeneous across the board in terms of importance and aims. Chapter II will seek to reestablish the history of the institution of the discipline of art history in France, since secondary school education is concerned with the progress of its own discipline. At the time, the discipline of art history was in an initial phase, where its definition was still imprecise. Therefore, the purpose and practice of its teaching in secondary school are not clear. Then, our research will study the evolution of this teaching. In the first place, it is observed that it is never autonomous. That is to say, it is grafted onto other courses, that of drawing or history in particular. The role assigned to art history in the teaching of drawing differs from that in the teaching of history: in Chapter III, we will deal with several major reforms in the teaching of drawing, hence the fact that in drawing courses, art history is generally supposed to complement the drawing practice of an high culture; in Chapter IV concerning one art history in the teaching of history, it is noted that the more "the history of civilization" dethrones "the history of facts", the more art history is considered, in history, to be essential for the understanding of general history. As the discipline of art history became more autonomous, its teaching in secondary school was also supposed to be autonomous by the reform of 1925. The study of students should focus on the works of arts themselves - in view of the importance of this event, we will dedicate Chapter V to it. To this, however, there is no independent training regime for special teachers. Teaching continues to be entrusted to drawing or history teachers. The study of the selection regime followed by these professors shows that a professor's competence in art history varies with the effects of the previously mentioned reforms. Chapter VI will focus on the educational means and tools for this teaching, as art books, photos, projection, walk and visit, etc. We are going to approach lastly "the teaching of music history at secondary school in France", since this teaching which is given almost in parallel with the teaching of art history, or sometimes merges with it, is not yet fully studied by historians. In addition to the school system or the so called discipline itself, artistic currents and the democratic trend on all social levels give their repercussions to this teaching, so that art now comes into play in civic education and knowledge in applied or industrial arts occupies the central place of the study of art history. At the same time, the movement of new pedagogy based on practice and observation at the beginning of the twentieth century also inspires this teaching. ; Notre recherche a pour sujet la genèse de l'enseignement de l'histoire de l'art à l'école secondaire en France. Il s'agit précisément de sa fondation et son développement initial sous la IIIe République. Nous allons en premier lieu étudier l'institution scolaire et la discipline d'histoire de l'art à l'époque, car l'enseignement de l'histoire de l'art leur est lié étroitement. Dans le Chapitre I, l'étude va montrer la complexité du régime scolaire secondaire de France à l'époque. Il y a non seulement la distinction entre le public masculin et le public féminin, mais aussi entre l'enseignement classique et l'enseignement moderne, de telle sorte que l'enseignement de l'histoire de l'art n'est pas homogène au sens de l'importance comme de la finalité. Le chapitre II va chercher à rétablir l'histoire de l'institution de la discipline d'histoire de l'art en France, car l'enseignement à l'école secondaire s'attache au progrès de sa propre discipline. A l'époque, la discipline d'histoire de l'art se tient en phase initiale, où sa définition reste toujours imprécise. Par conséquent, la finalité et la pratique de son enseignement à l'école secondaire ne sont pas solides. Par la suite, la recherche va étudier l'évolution de cet enseignement. En premier lieu, il est constaté qu'il n'est jamais autonome. C'est-à-dire, il est greffé à d'autres cours, celui de dessin ou d'histoire en particulier. Le rôle qu'on assigne à l'histoire de l'art dans l'enseignement du dessin se différencie de celui dans l'enseignement de l'histoire : nous allons traiter dans le chapitre III plusieurs réformes majeures de l'enseignement du dessin, d'où peut se dégager le fait qu'au cours de dessin, l'histoire de l'art est généralement supposée compléter la pratique de dessin d'une culture élevée ; dans le Chapitre IV concernant l'histoire de l'art dans l'enseignement de l'histoire, il est constaté que, plus « l'histoire de la civilisation » détrône « l'histoire des faits », plus l'histoire de l'art est considérée, au cours d'histoire, comme étant indispensable à la compréhension de l'histoire générale. Au fur et à mesure de l'autonomisation de la discipline d'histoire de l'art, son enseignement à l'école secondaire est aussi censé être autonome par la réforme de 1925. L'étude des élèves doit porter sur les œuvres d'arts elles-mêmes – en considération de l'importance de cet événement, nous allons y dédier le Chapitre V. Il n'en existe pourtant pas, jusque-là, de régime indépendant de formation des professeurs spéciaux. L'enseignement continue à être confié aux professeurs de dessin ou d'histoire. L'étude sur le régime de sélection que suivent ces professeurs amène au constat que la compétence en histoire de l'art d'un professeur varie au gré des effets des réformes susdites. Le Chapitre VI va porter sur les moyens et outils pédagogiques à l'usage de cet enseignement, comme ouvrage d'art, photographie et projection, promenade et visite, etc. Nous allons aborder en dernier lieu « l'enseignement de l'histoire de la musique à l'école secondaire en France », vu que cet enseignement qui se donne presque en parallèle avec l'enseignement de l'histoire de l'art, ou fusionne parfois avec celui-ci, n'est pas encore pleinement étudié par les historiens. Outre le régime scolaire ou la discipline proprement dite, les courants artistiques et la tendance démocratique sur tous les plans sociaux donnent leurs répercussions à cet enseignement, si bien que l'art entre désormais en jeu de l'éducation civique et que le savoir en arts appliqués ou industriels occupe la place centrale de l'étude d'histoire de l'art. En même temps, le mouvement de pédagogie nouvelle fondée sur la pratique et l'observation au début du XXe siècle inspire cet enseignement ; 本文研究的是法国中学艺术史教学的初期情况,即在第三共和国时期的设立与发展情况。该教学与学校制度、学科制度息息相关,因此将首先对这两个问题进行考察。在第一章节中,研究展示了这一时期法国中学制度的复杂性。不仅有男校女校之分,还有古典教学与现代教学之分。艺术史教学在这些体系中的比重和要求均不相同。第二章节展示了艺术史学科在法国的建立过程,因为中学艺术史教学依托于学科的发展。这一时期,艺术史学科在法国还处于初级阶段,并且它的定义又始终存在模糊性,导致了中学艺术史教学的目标和实施也是不稳定的。接下来,论文将研究中学艺术史教学的发展过程。在这一时期,艺术史一直未被设立为独立课程,而是被移植到其他课程进行教学,尤其是素描课与历史课。这两个课程对艺术史的定位并不相同:在第三章节中,研究展示了几次重大素描教学改革中,艺术史是如何被当作素描练习的理论补充;第四章节则展示了,随着"文明史"逐渐取代传统的"事件史",艺术史也相应地被确立为年轻人必学的历史。。到了二十世纪,艺术史学科的独立性愈加明显。到了1925年,艺术史在中学正式被设立为独立教学内容,即对作品本身进行分析学习。第五章节将对这一重大改革展开研究。但直到这个时候,仍然不存在专门的艺术史教师培养制度。艺术史教学主要还是由素描老师或历史老师承担。论文通过对这些老师的选拔制度进行研究,展示了老师的艺术史素养是随着上述教学改革而变化的。第六章节主要考察了几种主要教学手段和教学工具,例如艺术类著作、照片与投影、参观与散步等。本文最后一章节对法国中学音乐史的教学情况展开一段初步的研究,因为该教学与艺术史教学几乎同时发展,有时还合并到一个教学大纲中。除了学校制度和学科本身,该论文还展示了给艺术史教学带来影响的艺术潮流与方方面面的民主化趋势。首先,对艺术的认知成为公民素养的一部分。其次,应用艺术和工业艺术,作为经济发展的推动力,逐渐成为了艺术史教学的重要内容。同时,二十世纪初,重视实践与体验的新教学法运动来到法国,也给该教学带来了新的启发