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2016 Summer. ; Includes bibliographical references. ; In 2014, marijuana became legal for recreational use for adults 21 and older in Colorado (Colorado Const. art XVIII § 16., 2012). There are potential health risks related to marijuana dependence, which are more prominent in adolescent users (Volkow, Baler, Compton, & Weiss, 2014). Medical marijuana legalization has not been shown to increase marijuana use or prevalence of dependence (Cerdá, Wall, Keyes, Galea, & Hasin, 2012). Changes related to legalization may include increased availability and social acceptance, as well as decreased price and perceived harm of use (Hopfer, 2014). There also may be increased interest in moving to Colorado related to the changes in marijuana laws (United States Census Bureau, 2015; Institutional Research & Analysis, 2014). The facets of sensation seeking, risk seeking and experience seeking, influence marijuana use (Zuckerman, 2007; Conner & Henson, 2011). Sexual orientation has a quadratic relation to marijuana use (Ford & Jasinski, 2006). Use among bisexuals is higher than use at either end of the spectrum (Eisenberg & Wechsler, 2003). Based on these findings, several hypotheses were made. First, marijuana use would increase in college students after legalization, however just for those 21 and older. Next, risk seeking and experience seeking would both uniquely moderate marijuana use before and after legalization and in underage and of-age students. Third, sexual orientation would have a quadratic relation with marijuana use. Finally, the relation between the influence of marijuana leglislation on non-residents decisions to attend a Colorado college and marijuana use was examined. Data was collected from undergraduate students (N = 5241) at a Colorado university. Participants were assessed for marijuana use behavior, sensation seeking, sexual orientation, and influence of marijuana laws on non-resident decision to attend Colorado schools. Pearson's Chi-square, analysis of variance, negative binomial regressions, and polyserial correlations were used to test the hypotheses. Results indicated that marijuana use has increased since legalization for all students, but moreso for those over 21 (p < .001). No differences in frequency of past month use was found between pre and post legalization (p = .615). Regression analysis found experience seeking to be a significant predictor of past 30 day use (p <.05). Additionally, risk seeking predicted use for those under 21 (p <.01). A quadratic relation was found between sexual orientation and past month use, where use increased at a decreasing rate from the homosexual end of the spectrum to the heterosexual end (p <.01). Correlations were found between degree of marijuana law influence and both past 30 and lifetime use among non-resident college students (ρ = 0.29, p < .001; ρ = 0.17, p < .001). Overall, legalization, experience seeking, underage risk seeking, sexual orientation, and legislation influence on decision making all predicted marijuana use. These findings may help inform other states considering legalization of potential outcomes and groups at higher risk of marijuana use. Future research should examine longer term effects of legalization, as well as effective interventions.

"Mixed mode designs are receiving increased interest as a possible solution for saving costs in panel surveys, although the lasting effects on data quality are unknown. To better understand the effects of mixed mode designs on panel data we will examine its impact on random and systematic error and on estimates of change. The SF12, a health scale, in the Understanding Society Innovation Panel is used for the analysis. Results indicate that only one variable out of 12 has systematic differences due to the mixed mode design. Also, four of the 12 items overestimate variance of change in time in the mixed mode design. We conclude that using a mixed mode approach leads to minor measurement differences but it can result in the overestimation of individual change compared to a single mode design." (author's abstract)

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the impact of gender on the performance assessments of managers arising from the 360‐degree scheme operated within the UK headquarters of a large multi‐international financial services organisation.Design/methodology/approachA questionnaire approach was used to collect data on 66 managers (33 males and 33 females) against four broad capabilities on the 360‐degree appraisal system. Data were gathered on each of the 66 managers from eight different sources including the individual being appraised, three of their peers, three of their direct reports (subordinates) and their manager (supervisor).FindingsPerformance ratings were either gender neutral or higher for female than for male managers. Within the case company there was no evidence of unfavourable discrimination against female managers, if anything the reverse with female managers showing superior performance compared to their male counterparts.Research limitations/implicationsAs with all cross‐sectional research causality cannot be confirmed and difficulties in accessing 360‐degree appraisal information for a large number of managers led to constraints on research methodology.Practical implicationsThe implication for human resource management is that the 360‐degree appraisal system did not necessarily fulfil the degree of objectivity claimed by its adherents and that possible adverse influence may be inherent within the 360‐degree rating system of managers particularly.Originality/valueThe paper offers insights into gender differences within 360‐degree managerial performance appraisals.

This article analyses Europeans' consumption of and participation in non-national cultural activities. These patterns serve as a measure of Europeans' affinity with cosmopolitan culture and aesthetic tastes that are associated with other countries. I use survey data recently collected by the Eurobarometer (2013) to analyse the profile of individuals in European countries who engage with another country's culture and to compare distributions between countries. Examples of indicators include reading books by an author from another country, going to a musical performance from another country, and attending a festival or exhibition from another country. I find low levels of cosmopolitan cultural consumption in the sample as a whole. There are significant differences between countries and among individuals in a specific country in the degree of engagement with another country's culture. I discuss the implications of the finding that cosmopolitan cultural consumption is not necessarily a very significant phenomenon for different social groups and what this means for the analysis of the link between cultural consumption and social inequality.

Aims: This study aims at comparing hospitals' organizational traits and nurses and hospitals' characteristics between teaching, governmental, and private hospitals in Jordan, as perceived by Registered Nurses (RNs). Methods: The Revised Nursing Work Index (NWI-R) 1 was used to collect data from a convenience sample of 295 nurses who were employed in two teaching hospitals, four governmental hospitals, and three private hospitals. The total response rate of the current study was 59%. Findings: Significant differences were reported between the three types of hospitals in the following nurses and hospitals' characteristics: shift worked, level of education, ages, average daily census, organizational structures, models of nursing care, decision-making styles, and areas of work. Based on means of the subscales, nurses' autonomy and their control over practice settings were the highest in teaching hospitals but the lowest in private hospitals. The strongest nurse-physician relationships were in governmental hospitals but the weakest were in teaching hospitals. Organizational support for nurses was the highest in teaching hospitals but it was the lowest in private hospitals. Based on the individual items of the scale, F-tests revealed that there were significant differences between the three types of hospitals in some organizational traits. Conclusions: There should be useful managerial tools that help in developing positive organizational traits such as improving nurses' autonomy and nurses' control over practice, enhancing nurse-physician relationships, and enhancing organizational support for nurses. These are considered important traits to produce positive outcomes for nurses, patients, and organizations.

BACKGROUND: Most of the parents have no idea that how and when they should educate about sexual health to their typically growing children. It is important for parents to educate their children with intellectual disability about sexual health. The risk of sexual exploitation and abuse is very high in individuals with intellectual disability. OBJECTIVE: The present study was conducted to find out the awareness among the parents of individuals with intellectual disability about sexual health education. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Subjects for the present study were the parents of individuals with intellectual disability studying at government rehabilitation institute for intellectual disabilities, chandigarh (n = 100). The present study is a cross-sectional study and subjects were selected by making use of random sampling technique. A Rating scale on "Awareness on sexual health education for parents of intellectually challenged children" developed by Lakshmi and Navya, (2014) was used. RESULTS: The results revealed that there is a significant difference in knowledge, attitude, and practice among the parents of individuals with intellectual disability about sexual health education. The significant difference with respect to the gender on awareness about sexual health education (knowledge, attitude, and practice) among the parents of individuals with intellectual disability was found. No significant difference with respect to family type on awareness about sexual health education was found. CONCLUSION: Parents who live in rural locality have responded greater on the knowledge and practice than those who live in urban locality. However, parents living in urban locality have scored more on attitude over the parents who live in rural locality.

Cluster analysis of audit firms in Serbia was carried out in order to assess the similarities and differences between audit firms. This analysis shows that "Big four" audit firms are significantly different from other audit firms by market position and human potential, but not according to net income. In addition, it can be noted that there are significant differences in observed performance indicators between individual audit firms.

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to explore how individual and macro-level factors shape the work–life balance of young men and women across European countries.Design/methodology/approachThe paper combines macro-level data from the official statistics with individual-level data from the Work, Family and Wellbeing (2010/2011) module of the European Social Survey. The study uses multilevel modelling to explore the factors which shape the work–life balance of men and women aged 15–34 across 24 European countries.FindingsThe findings show both differences and similarities between young men and women in how education shapes work–life balance. Higher education increases the likelihood of considering work–life balance as important in work selection for men, while lower education decreases the odds of considering this balance for women. More education is associated with lower acceptance of the traditional norm, for both men and women, and less time spent on housework. Higher share of family benefits decreases the importance of work–life balance, more so for men than for women. Work–life balance is more important for men living in conservative, Mediterranean and post-socialist welfare regimes compared to those from social-democratic regimes.Social implicationsThe policy implications are to more closely consider education in the transformation of gender-sensitive norms during earlier stages of child socialization and to design more holistic policy measures which address the multitude of barriers individuals from poor families and ethnic/migrant background face.Originality/valueThe study contributes to existing literature by applying the capability approach to the empirical investigation of work–life balance. The analytical model contains three dimensions – norms about paid/unpaid work, considering work–life balance in the choice of employment and time spent on unpaid work. Through this approach, we are able to uncover the agency inequality of young people taking into account individual level characteristics, including gender, education, ethnicity and macro-level factors.

This dissertation explores how country-level cultural values are associated with gender differences in the enrollment in and completion of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) Massive Open Online Courses (MOOC), national achievement in mathematics and science, and students' science achievement. Study 1 explored how gender-equal culture and economic development moderate the gender differences in STEM MOOC enrollment and completion across countries. This study provides evidence supporting MOOC democratization. Using multilevel logistic regression on the HarvardX-MITx Person-Course de-identified dataset, this study found that while females were less likely than males to enroll in STEM MOOCs, they were equally likely to complete them. Further, a higher probability to enroll in STEM MOOCs and smaller gender gaps in STEM MOOC enrollment and completion were found in less gender-equal and less economically developed countries.Study 2 investigated the relationship between cultural values and national achievement in mathematics and science. Using cluster analysis and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) on the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2015 and World Value Survey (WVS) wave 6 datasets, study 2 found that country-level valuing science and technology and thriftiness were positively associated with while worrying about the availability of education and trying to make parents proud were negatively associated with national achievement in mathematics and science. Four cultural value profiles were identified and the highest achieving cultural value profile was high in valuing science and technology and thriftiness, low in trying to make parents proud, and about average in worrying about the availability of education.Study 3 explored the relationship between country-level cultural value profiles, gender, self-concept of science ability, utility value of science, and individual student's science achievement. Using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) on TIMSS 2015 8th grade and WVS wave 6 datasets, study 3 found that country-level cultural value profile was significantly associated with individual student's science achievement and country profile moderated gender differences in students' science achievement, females and males performed equally well in science, and self-concept of science ability and utility value of science are positively associated with students' science achievement.

Existing information processing theories of strategic choice focus on either the organizational or individual level of analysis. This single level focus makes these theories incomplete representations of how strategic decisions are actually made in organizations. We believe an integration of these two levels is necessary for a comprehensive view of choice. This paper thus proposes a parallel process model of strategic decision making that integrates organizational and individual level information processing perspectives. The integrated, comprehensive view afforded by the proposed model enhances understanding of strategic decision making by identifying (1) multiple ways in which bias can enter into choices and (2) dual level influences on decision activities such as information gathering and alternative generation. The proposed model portrays strategic decision making as complex, multilevel information processing and choices as emergent outcomes of that processing. The model is developed as follows. First, the individual level of the model is generated by recognizing that people process information in stages. The notion of stages is used because it depicts the basic structure of information processing and is widely supported by empirical research. Second, the organizational level of the model is articulated by acknowledging organizations (1) process information in stages and (2) exhibit information processing activities analogous to those at the individual level. Third, a series of linking mechanisms connecting individual information processing stages to analogous organizational level ones is proposed. These linking mechanisms thus conceptually operationalize the integration of the two levels. Fourth, three contingency variables are presented to flesh out the model and formulate propositions. Contingency variables specifically acknowledge differences in information processing across organizations. A final section of the paper explains how key variables in the proposed model can be operationalized and outlines a test for the presence of multiple levels of information processing in a strategic choice context.

<b><i>Background:</i></b> Pharmaceutical opioid (PO) overdose deaths have increased in many Western countries. There are indications that those dying from a PO overdose differ from those dying from other types of overdoses. These differences might pose a challenge as the majority of current preventive measures are tailored toward those with the characteristics of "conventional" overdose deaths. <b><i>Objective:</i></b> We investigated differences in the characteristics of persons who died from PO overdoses compared to all other overdoses. <b><i>Material and Methods:</i></b> Using the Norwegian Cause of Death Registry, we retrieved information on overdoses classified according to ICD-10 and identified PO overdoses (T40.2; T40.4) and all other overdoses (T40.X; T43.6) in 2010–2019. By linking data from nationwide registers, we analyzed data on opioid dispensations and the history of mental and behavioral disorders. 1,224 persons were registered with PO overdoses and 1,432 persons with other overdoses. <b><i>Results:</i></b> Persons in the PO overdose group were older and were more frequently women (35.0% vs. 20.5%) than persons with other overdoses. They had a higher prevalence of chronic pain (35.8% vs. 13.2%), history of cancer (8.1% vs. 1.8%), filled prescriptions of analgetic opioids more frequently the month before death (38.8% vs. 12.0%), and used threefold higher doses of prescribed opioids compared to individuals in all other overdose group (66 vs. 26 oral morphine equivalents/day). In the PO overdose group, oxycodone and fentanyl were more frequently dispensed, while codeine was more frequently dispensed in the other overdose groups. A lower proportion of those in the PO overdose group had recorded diagnoses of substance use disorders, schizophrenia, and hyperkinetic disorder compared to the other overdose groups. <b><i>Conclusion:</i></b> Persons dying from overdoses on POs often differ from the population targeted by existing prevention strategies, as they are more frequently older women with chronic pain and using high doses of prescription opioids.

Abstract  This study examines gender differences in employees' group orientations on the basis of the United States‐Japan gender comparisons of individual work attitudes. It is hypothesized that the gender differences in work group orientations disappear when workplace structures and styles of supervision are held constant across individual employees in the U.S. and Japan. The results show that the impact of being a woman on work group orientations is relatively small in both countries. At least, the impact of gender on Japanese and American group attitudes does not appear to be powerful enough to reinforce the assertion that gender is an absolute determinant of work attitudes. Although gender‐based arguments can not be fully rejected by the present results, the fact that one is a woman produced only a minimal increment in employees' work group orientations, when men and women worked in similarly structured organizations. The findings, however, indicate that gender differences in work group orientations are not thoroughly reducible to the fact that workplaces are differently structured for the two genders in Japan and the U.S. The possibility of cultural embeddedness of individual affective work orientations is discussed.

The usefulness of individual education plans (IEP) is undeniable for students, parents and teachers/special education teachers. In addition to development (team cooperation), and implementation, the participation of students with disabilities and developmental disorders is essential. According to modern literature, only the participation of students and self-directed IEP meetings provide various benefits (development of self-evaluation skills, self-advocacy, and probability of motivation to achieve the goals planned in the IEP, etc.). The aim of the paper is to examine teachers and special education teachers about the participation and role of students in the first meeting of the IEP team. Additionally, to determine the differences in relation to the experience of working with students with developmental disorders and the educational profile of experts. This research included 131 respondents (94 teachers and 37 special education teachers) from various regular and special secondary schools. The research was conducted online through "Google Forms", the data was collected through the questionnaire IEP Implementation Rating Scale – IEP IRS without the influence of the examiner. Based on the results, we concluded that students are often absent from the first IEP meeting, while teachers/special education teachers and parents are present. In this research, experience in working with students with developmental disorders was not significantly associated with student participation. However, differences in the educational profile are noted, special education teachers have a leading role and the participation of students with disabilities and disorders in development is modest.

Abstract

Objective: Many research claim that Millennials value work ethic much lower and leisure time much higher than older generations. Most of them are based on cross-sectional analyses of data collected at one time. This design confounds the COHORT effect (born in the same time period and thus exposed to the same cultural forces during their formative socialization period) and biological AGE, and it makes it impossible to separate them. Our goal is to demonstrate how to empirically separate the confounded effects of APC (biological AGE – PERIOD of measurement – COHORT) in a simple way.

Methodology: Three generations (Baby Boomers, X-ers and Millennials) from the representative Polish samples of the World Value Survey, were cross-sectionally compared, and a cross-lagged comparison was made between BB in 2005 vs X in 2020, and between X in 2005 and Millennials in 2020.

Findings: It was shown that significant cross-sectional differences in attitudes toward work between the 3 generation (with the highest score for Baby Boom-ers and the lowest for Millennials) cannot be explained by age differences. Over the period of 15 years, the importance of leisure time has increased for all generations (PERIOD effect).

Value Added: The paper highlights significant methodological problem: the confounding effect of APC in most generational findings. It promotes the idea of using nationally representative samples from publicly available data like World Value Survey, instead of collecting convenience samples.

Recommendations: Greater methodological rigour in generational studies is recommended, as their results can create/support stereotypes that tend to generate individual expectations (e.g. every Millennial is computer literate or lazy), ignoring the fact that intra-generational variability is very high.

Individual entrepreneurial orientation and innovation are essentials for small and medium enterprises (SMEs) to drive their performance, including surviving or even growing during economic crises. The entrepreneur's gender might have an impact on those relationships. Hence, this study aims to analyze whether there were some differences in the five dimensions of individual entrepreneurial orientation and differences in the influence of individual entrepreneurial orientation and innovation on performance between male and female entrepreneurs. The study was performed through an online survey of 352 SME owners in Indonesia. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and multi-group analysis were conducted to test the hypotheses. The results demonstrated that all dimensions of individual entrepreneurial orientation are valid for developing this construct, but only the risk-taking dimension distinguishes male and female entrepreneurs the most. Male entrepreneurs are more willing to take risks than female. Furthermore, individual entrepreneurial orientation affects performance mediated by innovation, and this effect is not different between male and female entrepreneurs. These findings enrich the literature on the impact of gender on entrepreneurial orientation and the influence of innovation on SME performance. In Indonesia, individual entrepreneurial orientation affects performance assisted by innovation; however, this influence is not different for SMEs managed by male and female entrepreneurs.
AcknowledgmentWe acknowledge and thank all of the respondents and parties who supported this research. This study was funded by the Directorate of Research and Community Engagement, Universitas Indonesia, contract number NKB-1782/UN2.RST/HKP.05.00/2020.