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Prior to describing the translation situation in the 18th century, it should be noted that several factors led to its development, including the expansion of modern languages teaching, and the increasing presence of grammars, vocabularies and anthologies for both language learning and translation. French, because of historical and political reasons, becomes the first foreign language in Spain, and also the most translated; on many occasions, it also appears as an intermediary language for other less practiced languages (such as English and German). On the other hand, Latin continues to hold a predominant place in areas such as religion or medicine. The existence of a debate about translation and the figure of the translator is also observed, which sometimes gave rise to heated controversies. Regarding the translation reality, we start from non-literary texts (religious, humanistic, scientific and technical), since they represent the largest volume of translations, surpassing those of a literary type. When approaching the translation of literary texts, attention is drawn in the first place to the continuity of the classical Greco-Latin literature, even though that the presence of modern literatures is increasing, like French, which has been strengthening its position as the century progresses. There is also evidence of the permanence, especially in the theater, of Italian literature, which lost its presence in the 16th and 17th centuries, as well as the emergence (towards the end of the century) of English literature (especially Shakespeare and the novel). The place of other literatures (German, Portuguese) remains in the minority.

Of the 18th Century, a 19th century critic remarked that it mated decadence with splendor — a poetically conceived evaluation, but one which introduces more than aesthetic judgment. From the time of Sylvester Baxter's pioneer appreciation of art and architecture in colonial Mexico, there have been a great variety of travellers and scholars who have attempted to clarify the stylistic problems of the period. It would be impossible to give any just measure of credit to all those who have contributed; much of the most meaningful interpretation of this period, however, must be based on the brilliant work of the late Manuel Tous-saint and the investigadores of the Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas at the University of Mexico.

This open access book looks at how, in the 17th and 18th centuries, a new loanword private came into the Nordic languages. It had very little to do with the way we define the word today. Still, the introduction of it contributed to an emerging discourse that clearly distinguished between the public - usually identified with the state - and its opposite. Private/Public in 18th-Century Scandinavia includes ten case studies analysed by leading Swedish and Danish researchers in the fields of history, law, archaeology, and theology. It considers whether the modern sense of the word private can be found in material from the period. The questions are approached through a multitude of different sources, including parliamentary-records, letters, newspapers, architectural drawings, archaeological findings, records of probate courts, legislation, and court cases. The volume starts from the assumption that the private and the public neither were, nor are, fully separated, but instead continuously work in relation to each other. To study the private, it argues, we are compelled to pay special attention to the public and how private and public interacted. Privacy and protection of privacy remains of great topical interest and this book contributes to the present-day debate by examining neglected aspects of the history of the private before these concepts gained their modern meaning. In addition to investigating the history of these concepts in Scandinavia, the text offers a general theoretical reflection about what private was and is.The open access edition of this book is available under a CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license on www.bloomsburycollections.com. Open access was funded by The Centre for Privacy Studies, University of Copenhagen

A collection of 90 hymns, entitled Songs of Zion, and published in 1743 in Sweden, gave rise to heated religious controversy associated with the struggle of the State (Lutheran) Church against German pietistic influences. Participants in the controversy were concerned with many of the same kind of problem as those dealt with by contemporary content analysts, and used, albeit in crude form, a number of techniques such as symbol lists and f-tables which are used in current research. The affair not only anticipated certain trends in modern research, but suggests the utility of applying such a method for the analysis of other historical situations. K. Geiger.