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his doctoral thesis is focused on the increasing importance of mutual funds as saving vehicles for the finances of individuals in the economies of developed countries over the last half of the twentieth century. Among them, the equity funds that take the form of open-end funds like mutual funds are becoming one of the most relevant instruments. Mutual funds collect money from investors and invest it in stocks, bonds, other funds, and so on, and their performance depends on the mix of the allocated securities. Its main objectives were to contribute to the topic of the Active Share (AS) as applied to mutual funds in Eurozone countries. This investigation was mainly motivated by the need to analyse how both the level of concentration of the benchmarks and the level of concentration of the mutual fund industries in the Eurozone affect active management. Due to the scarce number of studies focused on this topic in Europe our results have relevant implications to investors, market supervisors, and policymakers. In Chapter 1, we analysed how article 52 in Directive 2009/65/EC (UCITS IV) on risk of portfolio diversification could distort the accuracy of AS due to the higher level of concentration in Eurozone domestic benchmarks. In this chapter, we were able to identify truly active management in Eurozone mutual funds. Thus, we developed an algorithm to capture the spurious AS (sAS), which is defined as the minimum AS, that is not a consequence of active decisions made by equity fund managers. The results provide evidence that the Directive negatively influences the accuracy of the AS shown for managers who work with very concentrated domestic Eurozone benchmarks such as the PSI 20 (Portugal), ATX 20 (Austria), and IBEX 35 (Spain). In contrast, the evidence from the sAS for the least concentrated domestic Eurozone benchmarks shows that AS reported by managers who work in France, Germany, and Finland are much more accurate. Hence, these results prove that direct AS comparisons in the Eurozone are not feasible and lead us to obtain three AS thresholds per domestic equity benchmark, which are the minimum values of AS needed to confirm that domestic equity funds are significantly active at 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence levels. We also analysed the level of active management in the domestic equity funds registered in each Eurozone country. Our findings also show that the high concentration level and the heterogeneity present in the domestic equity funds in the Eurozone prevent the direct comparability of the AS. Therefore, we had to consider the level of AS over the spurious level and the characteristics of each market that produces significant and different styles of active management. For that, we formulated an actual active share (aAS) that considered the level of concentration in the domestic equity funds of the Eurozone markets and the limits of the portfolio concentration on European regulation. We define aAS as the difference between the monthly AS obtained for each domestic equity fund minus its monthly AS threshold obtained previously at 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence levels. Focusing on the most relevant mutual fund industries in the Eurozone countries, we find that France is the most active domestic equity fund market. Spanish and Italian markets also show high levels of actual active management despite the large concentration in their domestic benchmarks. Conversely, domestic equity funds registered in Germany show lower levels of active management. Our research results support the hypothesis that aAS corrects the potential bias in the original AS caused by both the domestic benchmark concentration and the EU portfolio diversification rules. In summary, our study is the first to evaluate the consequences of both the assorted characteristics of domestic Eurozone benchmarks and the European regulation that prevents portfolio concentration (UCITS IV) in the appropriate estimation of AS. Furthermore, our study identifies truly active management in domestic equity funds in the Eurozone markets. This chapter has important implications for policymakers and practitioners of the domestic equity funds in the Eurozone. In the strongly regulated European markets, our unbiased approach allows both investors and market supervisors to identify the accurate levels of active management of each industry after considering both the regulation of portfolio diversification and the concentrated domestic equity benchmarks. Market supervisors will have a better picture of the active management map to develop appropriate regulations for the mutual fund industry. In addition, our approach should help practitioners and investors to effectively find out the level of active management of domestic equity funds and therefore provide information for fund management companies to replace actual performing managers. Further, our results should help to reduce the opacity in the management fees that funds charge by providing accurate measures of active management. In Chapter 2, we analysed how some market and fund characteristics play a crucial role in explaining the portfolio concentration default on Directive 2009/65/EC (UCITS IV). This chapter should help market supervisors to improve the monitoring process of defaults by domestic equity funds in the Eurozone mutual fund industries. On the one hand, the origin of UCITS directives was considered the beginning towards market protection and increased transparency in the Eurozone. On the other hand, the structure of mutual funds allows retail investors to access sophisticated active strategies that comply with liquidity and transparency restrictions protected by regulatory oversight. Their rules are based on a certain degree of portfolio diversification with the goal of reducing their vulnerability to portfolio risks. This chapter is the first to analyse how concentrated strategies could lead to non-compliance with article 52 in UCITS IV. First, we analysed several market characteristics that may influence the probability of a fund manager failing to meet the portfolio concentration limits. Using a logic panel data model (fixed effects), we estimated the probability of incurring defaults. Our findings provide evidence that should lead market supervisors to pay attention to concentrated fund industries with concentrated domestic benchmarks to prevent defaults on Eurozone concentration limit. The level of concentration of the domestic equity benchmarks would make the defaults almost twice as likely to occur. The level of concentration of the domestic fund industry also has positive and significant effects on the likelihood of incurring defaults. That is, defaults are approximately 12% to 17% more likely to occur when the level of concentration in the domestic fund industry increases. This evidence is consistent with the findings in the literature that link competition with active management strategies such as concentrated portfolios (see Dyck et al., 2013). Second, in the same line of Chapter 1, we analysed several funds characteristics that may influence the probability of a fund manager failing to meet the portfolio concentration limits. In Eurozone markets, market supervisors should especially monitor the most experienced funds that are solo-managed to prevent portfolio weights over the 10% limit. This finding is in accordance with Goldman et al., (2016) who shows that individual managers have much more concentrated portfolios than management teams. The fund's age has a positive and significant influence on the likelihood of defaults. That is, the probability of incurring defaults is approximately 18% to 26% higher among older funds. Thus, this evidence is in accordance with the literature that links older funds with higher levels of idiosyncratic risk as a consequence of having more concentrated portfolios (see Amihud and Goyenko, 2013). Further, we analysed the characteristics of those stocks that were especially subject to more concentrated strategies and, therefore, more vulnerable to mutual funds' investment policies. For that, we applied a multinomial logic panel data model (fixed effects) and found that the weight of the stocks in their benchmarks had a positive and significant effect on default on the EU portfolio concentration limit. The results show how the probability of a stock being subject to default is approximately 8% to 25% higher when the stock weight in the domestic benchmark increases. Thus, market supervisors should monitor stocks with large weights in domestic equity benchmarks. In addition, we also find how the stocks of domestic benchmarks that have been held longer are likely to be subject to concentration defaults. That is, defaults are approximately 13% to 24% more likely to occur when choosing stocks that belong to the benchmarks during the last 24 months. Thus, this result is consistent with the literature that argues the local advantage of reducing information asymmetry problems. Thus, we find how stocks that present low volatility have a greater likelihood of being subject to non-compliance with EU portfolio concentration limits. In terms of percentages, the probability approximately lowers between 19% to 27% when stock volatility increases. This finding is in accordance with the commitment to controlled risk strategies (see Huang et al., 2011). Therefore, market supervisors should pay more attention to these stock characteristics to monitor stocks that are more frequently overweighted above EU concentration limits. In summary, this chapter is the first to both analyse and identify the determinants of domestic equity funds' failure to comply with the portfolio concentration limits of EU Directive 2009/65/EC. Furthermore, our study also determines the characteristics of the stocks subject to these non-compliant portfolios in domestic equity funds in the Eurozone. This chapter has important implications for market supervisors and policymakers in the mutual fund industries of the Eurozone. Our approach allows market supervisors with limited resources to identify and control non-compliant domestic equity funds by monitoring only some fund-specific characteristics. The improvement of this monitoring process should contribute to the financial stability of the EU asset management industry in terms of investor protection and market transparency. That is, mutual fund unitholders should be completely certain that their money is allocated to portfolios fulfilling the concentration limits required by the EU. Our findings also show a tool to assist EU market supervisors in identifying some explanatory mechanisms for stock weights that are over the EU concentration limits. Thus, our results may help supervisors identify what kind of domestic equity funds are more inclined to default and what kind of stocks are likely overweighted by these funds. Market supervisors could especially monitor these stocks to verify that domestic equity funds are meeting the concentration limits. Market supervisors should focus their limited resources on these types of stocks held by domestic equity funds to prevent defaults in portfolio concentration. Finally, our approach could also help retail investors control their risk profiles in terms of exceeding portfolio concentration limits. This application is in line with the reinforcement of investor protection of portfolio concentration. Investors could be sure that domestic equity funds fully follow the diversification requirements and market transparency provided by the UCITS directives. Chapter 3 presents a new perspective in the analysis of active management. We introduced dynamism by proposing a new version of AS that considers how the managers deviate their portfolios in two consecutive periods. We define dynamic Active Share (dAS) as a measure to capture over time the actual level of activity by comparing the differences against the benchmark in two consecutive periods. Our measure captures not only the long and short static positions in each stock included in the benchmark but also the previous long (short) positions that have been overweighted (underweighted) in the next period. Thus, dAS allows us to divide between investment decisions driven to spread portfolio weights closer to the benchmark (i.e., decisions that lead to a lower differentiation to the benchmark) and the other which is further from the benchmark (i.e., decisions that lead to a higher differentiation). Focusing on the most relevant fund industries in the Eurozone, we analysed the predictive power of AS first. The best results were found in the Spanish industry and, with less robustness, in Germany, the Netherlands, Austria, and Belgium. France only shows this relationship in the long term when we consider the CAPM alpha; while Italy, Finland, Portugal, and Greece fail to offer significant results or even present negative relationships. These results indicate that the prediction ability of AS presents assorted results as this relation is less clear than that presented in the literature (Cremers and Petajisto, 2009) Second, we examined the influence on the prediction power for performance of AS by splitting stocks in the portfolios of our sample into benchmark and non-benchmark . The results allow us to identify how the high proportion of prediction ability for performance of AS is explained by the investment in non-benchmark stocks. Although the AS's share of overweight or underweight benchmark stocks is really related to stock picking ability, investing in overweighted stocks may mean distortions in their performance evaluations that can lead to spurious contributions to portfolio performance. Third, we applied and analysed the predictive power of dAS. The results provided evidence that the performance of non-benchmark stocks in high AS funds did not extend to mutual funds with high dAS. Thus, this measure is less sensitive to the weight of the portfolio that is invested in non-benchmark securities that is very relevant in Eurozone countries where domestic benchmarks are highly concentrated. The main advantage of the dAS compared to the AS is that our measure provides more information and can be split according to different investment decisions. For that reason, we proposed splitting up the dAS to examine which trading decisions add value to the portfolio. Our most interesting results showed that German funds presents a robust relationship between selling investment decisions and subsequently better performance. This relationship was also found for Dutch, Austrian, and Portuguese funds but with actual limited significance. This finding is in accordance with the level of activity showed by these industries in Chapter 1. Further, we analysed the contributions to dAS that was generated by those trading decisions that might be considered as managers' bets. These bets could be those decisions that increased holdings that were already overweighted (buy bets) or decrease those holdings that were already underweighted (sell bets). Our findings show as in Germany and in some cases in the Austrian and Portuguese industries that there is subsequent significantly better performance in buying decisions. Focusing on selling decisions, only Finnish funds show positive and strong beliefs and performance. The results for predicting performance show that those portfolios with a higher concentration of these bets offer subsequent abnormal returns as this prediction ability is even higher than the seminal AS in some of the markets in this study. Accordingly, the results shown in this chapter are an interesting addition to Cohen et al. (2010) who try to identify the trades in which the managers have more confidence. The empirical findings show that those mutual funds with trading decisions with a stronger belief from the manager (i.e., decisions that lead them to deviate even more from the benchmark) outperform the remaining funds, especially when buying decisions are considered. This evidence is consistent with Karoui and Patel (2020) who show that the benefit of AS lies in the selection decision rather than the weighting decision. In summary, Chapter 3 is the first to introduce a dynamic perspective on AS to capture managers' activity and skill. This chapter is relevant for investors who should be interested in knowing whether their fund manager is active and whether their decisions on new investment opportunities add value to the portfolio (i.e., undervalued assets) or on the contrary, the fund manager is passive. The common argument is related to the fees because the management fees charged by these two types of funds should be different. In addition, the chapter is also relevant to regulators in order to adjust the management fees charged by management companies to the actual level of activity carried out by mutual funds. Several fields for further investigation have been identified in this dissertation. Regarding the EU Directive, an extensive test of the level of enforcement that the UCITS IV has implemented in each Eurozone country (including emerging markets) could be useful for making decisions about possible changes in the regulation. Furthermore, a complementary analysis of chapter VII in UCITS IV in terms of its appropriateness with the characteristics of each Eurozone country could allow a more complete assessment of the limits of portfolio concentration and the implementation of the protection to investors. In addition, this dissertation makes an important advance in the topic of active management to help further an analysis in other areas or regions with similar characteristics that could be relevant to the financial literature.

ENIGMA-CNV working group. ; Low-frequency 1q21.1 distal deletion and duplication copy number variant (CNV) carriers are predisposed to multiple neurodevelopmental disorders, including schizophrenia, autism and intellectual disability. Human carriers display a high prevalence of micro- and macrocephaly in deletion and duplication carriers, respectively. The underlying brain structural diversity remains largely unknown. We systematically called CNVs in 38 cohorts from the large-scale ENIGMA-CNV collaboration and the UK Biobank and identified 28 1q21.1 distal deletion and 22 duplication carriers and 37,088 non-carriers (48% male) derived from 15 distinct magnetic resonance imaging scanner sites. With standardized methods, we compared subcortical and cortical brain measures (all) and cognitive performance (UK Biobank only) between carrier groups also testing for mediation of brain structure on cognition. We identified positive dosage effects of copy number on intracranial volume (ICV) and total cortical surface area, with the largest effects in frontal and cingulate cortices, and negative dosage effects on caudate and hippocampal volumes. The carriers displayed distinct cognitive deficit profiles in cognitive tasks from the UK Biobank with intermediate decreases in duplication carriers and somewhat larger in deletion carriers—the latter potentially mediated by ICV or cortical surface area. These results shed light on pathobiological mechanisms of neurodevelopmental disorders, by demonstrating gene dose effect on specific brain structures and effect on cognitive function. ; 1000BRAINS: The 1000BRAINS study was funded by the Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Research Center Juelich, Germany. We thank the Heinz Nixdorf Foundation (Germany) for the generous support of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study on which 1000BRAINS is based. We also thank the scientists and the study staff of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study and 1000BRAINS. Funding was also granted by the Initiative and Networking Fund of the Helmholtz Association (Caspers) and the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under Grant Agreement 945539 (Human Brain Project SGA3; Amunts, Caspers, Cichon). Brainscale: The Brainscale study was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research MagW 480-04-004 (Dorret I. Boomsma), 51.02.060 (Hilleke E. Hulshoff Pol), 668.772 (Dorret I. Boomsma and Hilleke E. Hulshoff Pol); NWO/SPI 56-464-14192 (Dorret I. Boomsma), the European Research Council (ERC-230374) (Dorret I. Boomsma), High Potential Grant Utrecht University (Hilleke E.Hulshoff Pol) and NWO Brain and Cognition 433-09-220 (Hilleke E.Hulshoff Pol). Betula: The Betula study was funded by the Knut and Alice Wallenberg (KAW) foundation (Nyberg). The Freesurfer segmentations on the Betula sample were performed on resources provided by the Swedish National Infrastructure for Computing (SNIC) at HPC2N (in Umeå, Sweden), partially funded by the Swedish Research Council through grant agreement no. 2018-05973. Brain Imaging Genetics (BIG): This work makes use of the BIG database, first established in Nijmegen, The Netherlands, in 2007. This resource is now part of Cognomics (www.cognomics.nl), a joint initiative by researchers from the Donders Centre for Cognitive Neuroimaging, the Human Genetics and Cognitive Neuroscience departments of the Radboud University Medical Centre and the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Nijmegen. The Cognomics Initiative has received support from the participating departments and centres and from external grants, that is, the Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (Netherlands) (BBMRI-NL), the Hersenstichting Nederland and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO). The research leading to these results also receives funding from the NWO Gravitation grant 'Language in Interaction', the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement nos. 602450 (IMAGEMEND), 278948 (TACTICS) and 602805 (Aggressotype), as well as from the European Community's Horizon 2020 programme under grant agreement no. 643051 (MiND) and from ERC-2010-AdG 268800-NEUROSCHEMA. In addition, the work was supported by a grant for the ENIGMA Consortium (grant number U54 EB020403) from the BD2K Initiative of a cross-NIH partnership. deCODE genetics: deCODE genetics acknowledges support from the Innovative Medicines Initiative Joint Undertaking under grant agreement nos. 115008 (NEWMEDS) and 115300 (EUAIMS), of which resources are composed of EFPIA in-kind contribution and financial contribution from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (EU-FP7/2007-2013), EU-FP7-funded grant agreement no. 602450 (IMAGEMEND) and EU-funded FP7-People-2011-IAPP grant agreement no. 286213 (PsychDPC). Dublin: This work was supported by Science Foundation Ireland (SFI grant 12/IP/1359 to Gary Donohoe and grant SFI08/IN.1/B1916-Corvin to Aidan C. Corvin). ECHO-DEFINE: The ECHO study acknowledges funding from a Medical Research Council (MRC) Centre Grant to Michael J. Owen (G0801418), the Wellcome Trust (Institutional Strategic Support Fund (ISSF) to van den Bree and Clinical Research Training Fellowship to Joanne L. Doherty), the Waterloo Foundation (WF 918-1234 to van den Bree), the Baily Thomas Charitable Fund (2315/1 to van den Bree), National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH 5UO1MH101724 to van den Bree and Michael J. Owen), the IMAGINE-2 study (funded by the MRC (MR/T033045/1) to van den Bree, Jeremy Hall and Michael J. Owen), the IMAGINE-ID study (funded by MRC (MR/N022572/1) to Jeremy Hall, van den Bree and Owen). The DEFINE study was supported by a Wellcome Trust Strategic Award (100202/Z/12/Z) to Michael J. Owen. ENIGMA: ENIGMA is supported in part by NIH grants U54 EB20403, R01MH116147 and R56AG058854. NIA T32AG058507; NIH/NIMH 5T32MH073526. EPIGEN-Dublin: The EPIGEN-Dublin cohort was supported by a Science Foundation Ireland Research Frontiers Programme award (08/RFP/GEN1538). EPIGEN-UK (Sisodiya): The work was partly undertaken at UCLH/UCL, which received a proportion of funding from the UK Department of Health's NIHR Biomedical Research Centres funding scheme. We are grateful to the Wolfson Trust and the Epilepsy Society for supporting the Epilepsy Society MRI scanner. GAP: This work was supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and the Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. GOBS: The GOBS study data collection was supported in part by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) grants: R01 MH078143, R01 MH078111 and R01 MH083824, with work conducted in part in facilities constructed under the support of NIH grant C06 RR020547. GSP: Data were in part provided by the Brain Genomics Superstruct Project (GSP) of Harvard University and Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) (Principal Investigators: Randy Buckner, Jordan Smoller and Joshua Roffman), with support from the Center for Brain Science Neuroinformatics Research Group, Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Center for Genomic Medicine and Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research. Twenty individual investigators at Harvard and MGH generously contributed data to the overall project. We would like to thank Randy Buckner for insightful comments and feedback on this work. HUBIN: The HUBIN study was financed by the Swedish Research Council (K2010-62X-15078-07-2, K2012-61X-15078-09-3, 521-2014-3487 K2015-62X-15077-12-3, 2017-00949), the regional agreement on medical training and clinical research between Stockholm County Council and the Karolinska Institutet. HUNT: The HUNT study is a collaboration between HUNT Research Centre (Faculty of Medicine and Movement Sciences, NTNU—Norwegian University of Science and Technology), Nord-Trøndelag County Council, Central Norway Health Authority and the Norwegian Institute of Public Health. HUNT-MRI was funded by the Liaison Committee between the Central Norway Regional Health Authority and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, and the Norwegian National Advisory Unit for functional MRI. IMAGEN: This work received support from the following sources: the European Union-funded FP6 Integrated Project IMAGEN (reinforcement-related behaviour in normal brain function and psychopathology) (LSHM-CT- 2007-037286), the Horizon 2020 funded ERC Advanced Grant 'STRATIFY' (Brain network based stratification of reinforcement-related disorders) (695313), ERANID (Understanding the Interplay between Cultural, Biological and Subjective Factors in Drug Use Pathways) (PR-ST-0416-10004), BRIDGET (JPND: BRain Imaging, cognition Dementia and next generation GEnomics) (MR/N027558/1), Human Brain Project (HBP SGA 2, 785907),the FP7 projects IMAGEMEND(602450; IMAging GEnetics for MENtal Disorders) and MATRICS (603016), the Innovative Medicine Initiative Project EUAIMS (115300-2), the Medical Research Council Grant 'c-VEDA' (Consortium on Vulnerability to Externalizing Disorders and Addictions) (MR/N000390/1), the Swedish Research Council FORMAS, the Medical Research Council, the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, the Bundesministeriumfür Bildung und Forschung (BMBF grants 01GS08152, 01EV0711; eMED SysAlc01ZX1311A; Forschungsnetz AERIAL 01EE1406A, 01EE1406B), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG grants, SM 80/7-2, SFB 940/2), the Medical Research Foundation and Medical Research Council (grants MR/R00465X/1 and MR/S020306/1). Further support was provided by grants from: ANR (project AF12-NEUR0008-01—WM2NA, ANR-12-SAMA-0004), the Eranet Neuron (ANR-18-NEUR00002-01), the Fondation de France (00081242), the Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale (DPA20140629802), the Mission Interministérielle de Lutte-contre-les-Drogues-et-les-Conduites-Addictives (MILDECA), the Assistance-Publique-Hôpitaux-de-Paris and INSERM (interface grant), Paris Sud University IDEX 2012, the Fondation de l'Avenir (grant AP-RM-17-013), the Fédération pour la Recherche sur le Cerveau; the National Institutes of Health, Science Foundation Ireland (16/ERCD/3797), USA (Axon, Testosterone and Mental Health during Adolescence; RO1 MH085772-01A1) and by NIH Consortium grant U54 EB020403, supported by a cross-NIH alliance that funds Big Data to Knowledge Centres of Excellence. Lifespan: The study is funded by the Research Council of Norway (230345, 288083 and 223273). NCNG: NCNG sample collection was supported by grants from the Bergen Research Foundation and the University of Bergen, the Dr Einar Martens Fund, the Research Council of Norway, to le Hellard, Steen and Espeseth. The Bergen group was supported by grants from the Western Norway Regional Health Authority (Grant 911593 to Arvid Lundervold, Grant 911397 and 911687 to Astri Johansen Lundervold). NTR: The NTR cohort was supported by the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO) and The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMW) grants 904-61-090, 985-10-002, 912-10-020, 904-61-193, 480-04-004,463-06-001, 451-04-034, 400-05-717, Addiction-31160008, 016-115-035, 481-08-011, 056-32-010, Middelgroot-911-09-032, OCW_NWO Gravity programme—024.001.003, NWO-Groot 480-15-001/674, Center for Medical Systems Biology (CSMB, NWO Genomics), NBIC/BioAssist/RK(2008.024), Biobanking and Biomolecular Resources Research Infrastructure (BBMRI-NL, 184.021.007 and 184.033.111); Spinozapremie (NWO-56-464-14192), KNAW Academy Professor Award (PAH/6635) and University Research Fellow grant (URF) to Dorret I. Boomsma; Amsterdam Public Health research institute (former EMGO+), Neuroscience Amsterdam research institute (former NCA); the European Science Foundation (ESF, EU/QLRT-2001-01254), the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7- HEALTH-F4-2007-2013, grant 01413: ENGAGE and grant 602768: ACTION); the European Research Council (ERC Starting 284167, ERC Consolidator 771057, ERC Advanced 230374), Rutgers University Cell and DNA Repository (NIMH U24 MH068457-06), the National Institutes of Health (NIH, R01D0042157-01A1, R01MH58799-03, MH081802, DA018673, R01 DK092127-04, Grand Opportunity grants 1RC2 MH089951 and 1RC2 MH089995); the Avera Institute for Human Genetics, Sioux Falls, South Dakota (USA). Part of the genotyping and analyses were funded by the Genetic Association Information Network (GAIN) of the Foundation for the National Institutes of Health. Computing was supported by NWO through grant 2018/EW/00408559, BiG Grid, the Dutch e-Science Grid and SURFSARA. OATS: The OATS study has been funded by a National Health & Medical Research Council (NHMRC) and Australian Research Council (ARC) Strategic Award Grant of the Ageing Well, Ageing Productively Programme (ID No. 401162) and NHMRC Project Grants (ID Nos. 1045325 and 1085606). This research was facilitated through Twins Research Australia, a national resource in part supported by an NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence Grant (ID No.: 1079102). We thank the participants for their time and generosity in contributing to this research. We acknowledge the contribution of the OATS research team (https://cheba.unsw.edu.au/project/older-australian-twins-study) to this study. OATS genotyping was partly funded by a Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization Flagship Collaboration Fund Grant. Osaka: Osaka study was supported by the Brain Mapping by Integrated Neurotechnologies for Disease Studies (Brain/MINDS: Grant Number JP18dm0207006), Brain/MINDS& beyond studies (Grant Number JP20dm0307002) and Health and Labour Sciences Research Grants for Comprehensive Research on Persons with Disabilities (Grant Number JP20dk0307081) from the Japan Agency for Medical Research and Development (AMED), Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI; Grant Numbers JP25293250 and JP16H05375). Some computations were performed at the Research Center for Computational Science, Okazaki, Japan. PAFIP: The PAFIP study was supported by Instituto de Salud Carlos III, FIS 00/3095, 01/3129, PI020499, PI060507, PI10/00183, the SENY Fundació Research Grant CI2005-0308007 and the FundaciónMarqués de Valdecilla API07/011. Biological samples from our cohort were stored at the Valdecilla Biobank and genotyping services were conducted at the Spanish 'Centro Nacional de Genotipado' (CEGEN-ISCIII). MCIC/COBRE: The study is funded by the National Institutes of Health studies R01EB006841, P20GM103472 and P30GM122734 and Department of Energy DE-FG02-99ER62764. PING: Data collection and sharing for the Paediatric Imaging, Neurocognition and Genetics (PING) Study (National Institutes of Health Grant RC2DA029475) were funded by the National Institute on Drug Abuse and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development. A full list of PING investigators is at http://pingstudy.ucsd.edu/investigators.html. QTIM: The QTIM study was supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01 HD050735) and the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC 486682, 1009064), Australia. Genotyping was supported by NHMRC (389875). Medland is supported in part by an NHMRC fellowship (APP1103623). SHIP: SHIP is part of the Community Medicine Research net of the University of Greifswald, Germany, which is funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (grant nos. 01ZZ9603, 01ZZ0103 and 01ZZ0403), the Ministry of Cultural Affairs and the Social Ministry of the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. Genome-wide single-nucleotide polymorphism typing in SHIP and MRI scans in SHIP and SHIP-TREND have been supported by a joint grant from Siemens Healthineers, Erlangen, Germany and the Federal State of Mecklenburg-West Pomerania. StrokeMRI: StrokeMRI was supported by the Norwegian ExtraFoundation for Health and Rehabilitation(2015/FO5146), the Research Council of Norway (249795, 262372), the South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (2014097, 2015044, 2015073) and the Department of Psychology, University of Oslo. Sydney MAS: The Sydney Memory and Aging Study (Sydney MAS) is funded by National and HealthMedical Research Council (NHMRC) Programme and Project Grants (ID350833, ID568969 and ID109308). We also thank the Sydney MAS participants and the Research Team. SYS: The SYS Study is supported by Canadian Institutes of Health Research. TOP: Centre of Excellence: RCN #23273 and RCN #226971. Part of this work was performed on the TSD (Tjeneste for Sensitive Data) facilities, owned by the University of Oslo, operated and developed by the TSD service group at the University of Oslo, IT-Department (USIT) (tsd-drift@usit.uio.no). The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-PEOPLE-2013-COFUND) under grant agreement no. 609020—Scientia Fellows; the Research Council of Norway (RCN) #276082—A lifespan perspective on mental illness: toward precision medicine using multimodal brain imaging and genetics. Ida E. Sønderby and Rune Bøen are supported by South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority (#2020060). Ida E. Sønderby and Ole A. Andreassen have received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under Grant agreement no. 847776 (CoMorMent project) and the KG Jebsen Foundation (SKGJ-MED-021). UCLA_UMCU: The UCLA_UMCU cohort comprises of six studies which were supported by National Alliance for Research in Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders (NARSAD) (20244 to Prof. Hillegers), The Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) (908-02-123 to Prof. Hulshoff Pol), and Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO 9120818 and NWO-VIDI 917-46-370 to Prof. Hulshoff Pol). The GROUP study was funded through the Geestkracht programme of the Dutch Health Research Council (ZonMw, grant number 10-000-1001), and matching funds from participating pharmaceutical companies (Lundbeck, AstraZeneca, Eli Lilly and Janssen Cilag) and universities and mental health care organizations (Amsterdam: Academic Psychiatric Centre of the Academic Medical Center and the mental health institutions: GGZ inGeest, Arkin, Dijk en Duin, GGZ Rivierduinen, Erasmus Medical Centre, GGZ Noord-Holland-Noord. Groningen: University Medical Center Groningen and the mental health institutions: Lentis, GGZ Friesland, GGZ Drenthe, Dimence, Mediant, GGNet Warnsveld, Yulius Dordrecht and Parnassia Psycho-medical Center, The Hague. Maastricht: Maastricht University Medical Centre and the mental health institutions: GGzE, GGZ Breburg, GGZ Oost-Brabant, Vincent van Gogh, voor Geestelijke Gezondheid, Mondriaan, Virenzeriagg, Zuyderland GGZ, MET ggz, Universitair Centrum Sint-JozefKortenberg, CAPRI University of Antwerp, PC Ziekeren Sint-Truiden, PZ Sancta Maria Sint-Truiden, GGZ Overpelt, OPZ Rekem. Utrecht: University Medical Center Utrecht and the mental health institutions: Altrecht, GGZ Centraal and Delta.). UK Biobank: This work made use of data sharing from UK Biobank (under project code 27412). Others: Work by Pierre Vanderhaeghen was funded by Grants of the European Research Council (ERC Adv Grant GENDEVOCORTEX), the EOS Programme, the Belgian FWO, the AXA Research Fund and the Belgian Queen Elizabeth Foundation. Ikuo K. Suzuki was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship of the FRS/FNRS. ; Peer reviewed

ABSTRACTThis research is to evaluate Dana Desa (DD) which assessed from village officials point of view, society and the leader, also seen from the aspect of its usage, governance, the effect and in particular to discuss the agricultural sector. The result of this research is to show that Dana Desa (DD) in 2016-2018 received by village government was able to absorb by distributing to several existing sectors which include in the development and agriculture programs. In knowledge and participation, governance policy and the effect of Dana Desa (DD) has given enormous influence and change to society's lives of LembahBeringin villageKeywords: Knowledge and Participation, Governance, The Effect of Agriculture Sector Development. 1. Latar BelakangAdanya anggaran yang diberikan kepada pemerintah desa dalam jumlah besar, dalam hal ini Dana Desa (DD) maka seharusnya suatu desa lebih berkembang dan maju. Kemudian dalam semua bidang pembanguan desa terutama dalam pembangunan sektor pertanian, seharusnya lebih meningkat baik dalam pengagaran maupun program yang nantinya berdampak pada masyarakat lebih maju dan lebih sejahtera. Akan tetapi hal tersebut tidak terwujud sebagaimana tujuan dari pemberian anggaran tersebut. Banyak faktor yang menyebakan hal tersebut, dimulai dari perencanaan, pelaksanaan hingga evaluasi. Dengan begitu, diperlukan penelitian ini untuk mengevaluasi dari adanya anggaran tersebut. A. Permasalahan Bagaimana distribusi dan penggunaan Dana Desa (DD) berdasarkan tahun dan sektor pembangunan Sektor pertanian di desa Lembah Beringin?Bagaimana pembangunan di Desa Lembah Beringin khususnya pada pembangunan sektor pertanian?Bagaimana pengetahuan dan partisipasi masyarakat terhadap kebijakan Dana Desa (DD) pada pembangunan sektor pertanian di Desa Lembah Beringin?Bagaimana tata kelola kebijakan Dana Desa (DD) dari sudut pandang aparat desa dan tokoh masyarakat serta masyarakat pada pembangunan Sektor pertanian di Desa Lembah Beringin?Bagaimana dampak pembangunan sektor pertanian yang bersumber dari Dana Desa (DD) terhadap masyarakat di Desa Lembah Beringin? B. Tujuan PenelitianUntuk mengetahui distribusi Dana Desa (DD) berdasarkan tahun dan sektor pembangunan sektor pertanian .Untuk meninjau pembangunan desa di bidang pertanian.Untuk mendeskripsikan pengetahuan dan partisipasi masyarakat terhadap pembangunan sektor pertanian dalam kebijakan Dana Desa (DD).Untuk mendeskripsikan tata kelola kebijakan Dana Desa (DD) dari sudut pandang aparat desa dan tokoh masyarakat serta masyarakat pada pembangunan sektor pertanian.Untuk mendeskripsikan dampak pembangunan sektor pertanian yang bersumber dari Dana Desa (DD) terhadap masyarakat desa. 2. KAJIAN LITERATURMenurut Ananda (2017) pembangunan ekonomi suatu negara dimulai dengan pembangunan ekonomi daerah, yang dimaskud ialah sebuah proses dimana terjadi kolaborasi antara pemerintah daerah dan masyarakat dalam megelola sumber daya yang ada. Selanjutnya, dimungkinkan terbentuknya suatu pola kerja sama atau kemitraan antara pemerintah daerah dengan masyarakat atau sektor swasta sebagai upaya menciptakan tamabahan lapangan kerja baru dan menstimulus perkembangan akfitas ekonomi (pertumbuhan ekonomi) di daerah tersebut. Jadi peran serta suatu perencanaan yang strategis dan adaptif terhadap perubahan, merupakan suatu keharusan guna dapat memberikan hal gambaran yang ideal dan arah bagi keberlangsungan suatu proses pembangunan ekonomi yang berkelanjutan. Permasalahan utama dalam pembangunan daerah terletak pada prioritas daerah terhadap kebijakan-kebijakan pembangunan yang berbasis endogenous development atau didasarkan kepada kekhasan/karakteristik daerah yang bersangkutan dengan menggunakan potensi sumber daya manusia dan alam, potensi lokal dan kelembagaan. Maka pembangunan yang dilakuakan harus memberikan perbaikan dalam tingkat kehidupan seluruh lapisan masyarakat, dengan cara menghasilkan pendapatan yang lebih tinggi bagi masyarakat, penyediaan lapangan kerja, pendidikan lebih baik dan sebagainya (Muljarijadi, 2011). Blakley dalam Ester (2015) menyatakan bahwa, paradigma baru dalam pembangunan ekonomi daerah, yang akan mengeliminasi kesejangan ekonomi antar daerah. Konsep ini menjelaskan bahwa pembangunan ekonomi daerah haruslah dilaksanakan dengan memanfaatkan semua potensi yang ada didaerah, sesui dengan daerah yang bersangkutan, sehingga tidak terjadi inefisiensi dan untuk menghindari penggunaan sumber daya yang tidak optimal guna menghindari eksploitasi sumber-sumber pembangunan yang tidak memberikan kemakmuran terhadap masyarakat yang bersangkutan, serta untuk menekan dampak yang ditimbulkan oleh hal tersebut seminimal mungkin.Penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Fahri (2017) dengan judul Pengaruh Pelaksanaan Kebijakan Dana Desa Terhadap Manajemen Keuangan Desa Dalam Meningkatkan Efektitifitas Program Pembangunan Desa. Tujuan penulisan penelitian ini adalah membahas pengaruh pelaksanaan kebijakan Dana Desa terhadap manajemen keuangan Desa dalam meningkatkan efektifitas program pembangunan Desa. Mentode analisis yang di gunakan dalam pembahasan topik utama menggunakan model analisis causal effectual dengan meninjau hubungan rasional yang menganalisa hubungan sebab akibat antara pelaksana kebijakan Dana Desa, manajemen keuangan Desa dan efektifitas program pembangunan Desa. Lokasi penelitian adalah di Desa-Desa seluruh wilayah Kabupaten Garut yang di sampel berdasarkan tipologi Kecamatan di mana Desa tersebut berada, dengan jumlah responden sebanyak 80 orang.Hasil pembahasan menunjukan bahwa pelaksanaan kebijakan Dana Desa berpengaruh secara nyata dan positif terhadap manajemen keuangan Desa dan efektifitas program pembangunan Desa. Penelitian ini berkesimpulan bahwa untuk penyelenggaraan pelaksanaan kebijakan Dana Desa secara baik dapat di lakukan dengan mewujudkan manajemen keuangan Desa sehingga meningkatkan efektifitas program pembangunan Desa.Penelitian oleh Muslimin, Mappamiring & St. Nurmaeta (2012) dengan judul "Akuntabilitas Pengelolaan Dana Desa di Desa Punagaya Kecamatan Bangkala Kabupaten Jenoponto" tujuan penelitian ini adalah menggambarkan dan menjelaskan akuntabilitas pengeloaanDana Desa di Desa Punagaya Kecamatan Bangkala Kabupaten Jenoponto. Jenis penelitian ini adalah kuantitatif dan sampelnya sebanyak 40 orang pegawai dan masyarakat dengan menggunakan tekni probability sampling yang menggunakan keseluruhan dari anggota populasi. Data di kumpulkan dengan menggunakan instrument berupa; Observasi, Kuesioner dan Dokumntasi terhadap responden. Data tersebut dianalisis secara statistik deskriptif kuantitatif dengan menggunakan tabel frekuensi secara sederhana. Hasil penelitian menunjukan adanya akuntabilitas pengelolaan Dana Desa di Desa Punagaya di Kecamatan Bangkala Kabupaten Jenoponto. Faktor akuntabilitasDana Desa terbatas pada keterampilan, keinginan dan tingkat partisipasi. Perencanaan program DD (Dana Desa) di Desa Punagaya secara bertahap telah melaksanakan konsep pembangunan partisipatif masyarakat desa. 1. Metode PenelitianAdapun tempat penelitian ini dilakukan di Desa Lembah Beringin Kecamatan Nanga Mahap Kabupaten Sekadau. Kemudian data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah data primer dan data sekunder. Sumber data yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai berikut:Responden, yaitu pegawai desa dan kepala keluarga atau anggota keluarga yang berusia diatas 17 tahun, dan hanya ada satu responden untuk setiap keluarga. Responden diambil secara purposive sesuai dengan kriteria yang telah ditentukan di Desa Lembah Beringin yang terdiri dari 4 dusun.Literatur, yaitu data kepustakaan yang memiliki hubungan dengan penelitian.Metode analisis yang digunakan pada penelitian ini adalah analisis persentase dan disajikan dalam bentuk tabel dengan menggunkan skala Likert. 2. Hasil dan pembahasanDistribusi Dana Desa di Desa Lembah Beringin Kecamatan Nanga Mahap Kabupaten Sekadau Tahun 2016-2018, berdasarkan tahun dan sektor dalam hal ini telah berhasil melaksanakan dan merealisasiakan sesuai dengan program dan kebijakan secara nyata maupun data pada sektor pembangunan dan pertanian. Hal ini sesui dengan teori Dana Desa yang mana belanja desa dipergunakan dalam rangka mendanai penyelenggaraan kewenangan desa dalam setiap bidang. Kemudian ini sejalan dengan penelitian Riyani (2016) yang hasil penelitianya menunjukan bahwa analisis Dana Desa di Singopuran Kecamatan Kartasura Kabupaten Sukoharjo sudah tersampaikan untuk pembangunan dengan baik sesuai dengan rencana namun ada evaluasi yang perlu diperbaiki.Pembangunan Desa Lembah Beringin di bidang pertanian pada tahun 2016-2018 telah mengalami peningkatan yang cukup besar. peningkatan tersebut sesuai dengan hasil data peneliti dari sudut pandang masyarakat dan aparat desa serta tokoh masyarakat. Hal ini sejalan dengan teori pembangunan pertanian yang menyebutkan, untuk meningkatkan pembangunan pertanian maka diperulakan alokasi anggaran untuk pembangunan sarana dan prasarana. Hasil penelitian ini juga sejalan teori pembangunan pertanian yang mana, dalam menjadikan komoditas pertanian yang berdaya saing tinggi bisa dihasilkan dengan meningkatkan kemampuan produktifitas dan efisiensi, baik ditingkat pra-produksi, proses produksi, dan pengelolahan serta pemasaran melalui aplikasi teknologi tepat guna dan manajemen professional.Pembanguna desa khusunya dalam bidang pertanian, sebetulnya telah dilaksanakan dari tahun-tahun sebelumunya, yakni sebelum adanya Dana Desa. Akan tetapi pembangunan tersebut belum begitu cepat seperti tahun setelah adanya Dana Desa. Pembangunan dalam bidang pertanian masih berjalan lamban dan hanya memberikan anggaran untuk pengadaan yang prioritas saja. Hal ini dapat dilihat dari distribusi anggaran dari tahun sebelmunya, yakni tampak hanya sedikit bidang pertanian mendapat anggaran. Setelah adanya Dana Desa, pembangunan pertanian lebih maju dan mulai berkembang. Tidak hanya dalam produksi pertanian, melainkan pola fikir masyarakat dalam menanam juga telah berubah. Hal ini didukung dengan anggaran dari pemerintah desa, seperti hal nya memberikan bibit untuk masyarakat yang bercocok tanam. Maka dapat dikatakan, untuk distribusi anggaran setiap tahun dan sektor sudah cukup baik.Sektor pertanian merupakan bagian dari pekerjaan dan sumber penghasilan masyarakat Desa Lembah Beringin. Dengan adanya bantuan atau program pemerintah desa dalam mengembangkan sektor pertanian, maka lebih memudahkan masyarakat dalam memproduksi hasil pertanian. Seperti halnya bantuan berupa alat berat untuk masyarakat, dengan harapan hasil panen semakin meningkat. Akan tetapi disisi lain, hasil panen tersebut hanya cukup untuk kebutuan sehari-hari. Tidak bisa dijadikan sumber penghasilan pemerintah desa, sepeti halnya di ekspor. Hal ini ada beberapa penjelasan yang perlu peneliti kemukakan, yakni luas lahan yang biasanya ditanami hanya itu-itu saja dan sebagian besar masyarakat tidak menambah luas lahan untuk ditanami. Akses menuju ke kota juga cukup jauh, dan kalaupun bisa dijual ke luar kota maka memerlukan biaya yang cuku besar.Tata kelola pemerintah Desa Lembah Beringin dalam mengembangkan sektor pertanian, dinilai masyarakat sudah lebih baik. Karena beberapa program dan kebijakan pemerintah desa, sangat membantu masyarakat. Dengan bantuan tersebut, menjadikan masyarakat memiliki pengetahuan tentang anggaran dalam sektor pertanian. Karena anggaran yang diberikan pemerintah, ialah merata dibagikan kesetiap kelompok pertanian yang telah di bentuk. Dengan keikutsertaan masyarakat dalam kelompok tersebut, maka sudah tentu anggota atau masyarakat tersebut mengetahui anggaran dan program yang sedang direncakan atau telah direalisasikan. Karena setiap program kelompok tani tersebut, tentu merupakan hasil dari musyawarah yang telah dilaksanakan. Hal ini juga membantu aparat desa sebagai pengelola dalam mengawasai, membina dalam membangun sektor pertanian lebih baik lagi. Berdasarkan kuisioner yang telah dibagikan kepada masyarakat dan aparat desa, sebagian besar adalah pertani. Bertani merupakan mayoritas pekerjaan yang dikerjakan masyarakat. Berdasarkan karakterisitik responden masyarakat 65% adalah petani atau sebanyak 30 responden, sedangkan aparat desa sebanyak 40% atau 4 responden yang merupakan petani. Berdasarkan hal tersebut, maka pemerintah desa dalam pengelolaan anggaran Dana Desa dari tahun 2016-2018 cukup banyak mengeluarakan anggaran untuk pembangunan pertanian. Sebab pertanian merupakan perhatian kedua pemerintah Desa Lembah Beringun setelah infrastruktur dalam hal realisasi anggaran Masyarakat Desa Lembah Beringin sebagian besar memiliki pengetahuan tentang Dana Desa, tujuan, sosialisasi serta sebab diberikanya Dana Desa. Namun, disisi lain masyarakat kurang berpartisipasi dalam memberikan bantuan dan sumbangan baik dalam bentuk tenaga maupun peralatan dalam setiap pogram Dana Desa. Hal ini sejalan dengan penelitian Nasehatun & Anisa yang membahas pengelolaan keuangan desa, dengan hasil penelitian bahwa secara garis besar pengelolaan keuangan telah mencapai hasil yang positif, namun disisi lain masih perlu pendampingan untuk mewujudkan pengelolaan yang lebih baik.Pengetahuan dan partisipasi dalam penelitian ini, merupakan bentuk atau cara peneliti untuk mendalami program dan kegiatan desa, dalam mengelola anggaran yang diberikan pemerintah pusat. Karena masyarakat menyaksikan langsung dan bahkan terlibat dalam sebuah keputusan atau kebijakan aparat desa. Jika masyarakat memiliki pengetahuan dalam kebijakan desa, terutama dalam pengelolaan Dana Desa, maka pemerintah desa telah menjalankan tugas dengan benar, namun sebaliknya jika masyarakat tidak sama sekali mengetahui akan penggunaan anggaran, maka hal ini bisa dikatakan pemerintah desa telah gagal dalam pengelolaan. Sebab suatu sistem keuangan yang baik, ialah sistem yang mengedepankan transapari, seperti yangterdapat dalam teori keuangan daerah.Dalam tata kelola kebijakan yang dinilai dari perencanaan, pelaksanaa dan evaluasi secara keseluruah telah melaksanakan tugas dengan baik. Hal ini dinilai dari data yang diterima peneliti maupun data lapangan yang peneliti peroleh. Sehingga hal ini sejalan dengan teori pembangunan derah yang menyebutkan, pembangunan yang dilakukan harus berkolaborasi antara pemerintah daerah dan masyarakat dalam mengelola sumberdaya yang ada. Sejalan dengan hasil penelitian Fahri, yang hasil penelitianya menunjukan bahwa pelaksanaan kebijakan Dana Desaberpengaruh secara nyata dan positif terhadap manajemen keuangan desa dan efektifitas program pembangunan desa.Beberapa dampak dalam pembangunan yang dilakukan pemerintah Desa Lembah Beringin yang bersumber dari Dana Desa, ialah untuk mengetahui persebaran anggaran Dana Desa dalam setiap bidang. Terutama dalam kesejahteraan masyarakat Desa Lemah Beringin, yang mana sebagian besar merasakan perbedaan tersebut. Begitu pula dalam masalah, yang juga bisa diatasi seletelah adanya Dana Desa. Permasalahan tersebut misalnya akses jalan, yang dahulunyasusah kini sudah mudah dilalui. Dengan begitu maka potensi daerah semakin berkembang, dengan mudahnya trasnportasi yang dilalui masyarakat. Peneliti juga melihat dengan adanya pembangunan yang dilakukan, tampak masyarakat sebagian besar menggunakan pembangunan tersebut, terutama dalam hal infrastruktur. Akan tetapi tidak semua masyarakat meraskan sepenuhnya akan hal itu, ada juga masyarakat bahkan tidak merasa sejahtera, masalah tidak teratasi dan potensi desa tidak berkembang, ialah masyarakat yang bertolak belakang dengan kebijakan pemerintah desa. Hal tersebut disebabkan karena masyarakat tersebut tidak mendapatkan bagian dari setiap program desa. Kesimpulan, Rekomendasi dan keterbatasan Penggunaan Dana Desa sebagian besar digunakan untuk pembangunan dan pertanian. Kemudian dalam tatakolola sebagian telah berjalan sesuai dengan perencanaan dan pelaksanaan. Namun disisi masyarakat, dikatakan belum maksimal baik dalam kebijakan ataupun pelaksaanya. Saran:Pemerintah bisa melihat kembali tata kelola dan penggunaan Dana Desa (DD) baik dalam perencanaan, pelaksanaa maupun evaluasi. Agar semua sektor yang ada memiliki dampak yang positif.Pemerintah harus bisa memanfaatkan sumber daya yang ada baik dari kekayaan alam maupun masyarakat yang ada,untuk bersama-sama membangun daerah.Rekomendasi Rekomendasi dalam penelitian ini yang dapat membantu dalam membuat kebijakan terhadap pembangunan di Desa Lembah Beringin Kecamatan Nanga Mahap Kabupaten Sekadau. Adapun rekomendasi yang dapat diberikan adalah sebagai berikut:Pengembangan modal usaha dalam hal ini tidak memiliki dampak dari setelah adanya Dana Desa. Maka pemerintah desa bisa membuat anggaran khusus dalam hal ini, karena dari beberapa masyarakat atau responden dalam penelitian ini menginginkan hal itu.Partisipasi masyarakat untuk terlibat dalam program Dana Desa yang kurang dalam hasil penelitian ini, maka pemerintah desa bisa membuat program setiap bulan atau setiap beberapa bulan sekali mengadakan gotong royong atau melibatkan dengan memberikan anggaran untuk membangun fasilitas umum seperti jalan gang atau lainya, karena beberapa tahun terkahir partisipasi memang dirasakan kurang.Dalam rangka meningkatkan pendapatan desa dan memanfaatkan sumber daya yang ada, maka pemerintah desa dalam hal ini bisa menindaklanjuti UU No.6/2014 tentang BUMDesa dengan tujuan untuk memfasilitasi masyarakat yang memiliki jiwa kewirausahaan dan menampung kereatifitas massyarakat.Meskipun pertanian telah mengalami peningkatan, namun dilapangan masih banyak yang kurang dan belum maksimal dalam pengelolaannya, maka pemerintah desa harus memberikan anggaran yang lebih untuk sektor pertanian, hal ini seperti menambah alat produksi dan peralatan penunjang lainya.Dalam tata kelola kebijakan Dana Desa pemerintah bisa melibatkan masyarakat dalam segala bidang baik itu perencanaan, pelaksanaan maupun evaluasi. 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LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration, Fermi GBM, INTEGRAL, IceCube Collaboration, AstroSat Cadmium Zinc Telluride Imager Team, IPN Collaboration, The Insight-HXMT Collaboration, ANTARES Collaboration, The Swift Collaboration, AGILE Team, The 1M2H Team, The Dark Energy Camera GW-EM Collaboration and the DES Collaboration, The DLT40 Collaboration, GRAWITA: GRAvitational Wave Inaf TeAm, The Fermi Large Area Telescope Collaboration, ATCA: Australia Telescope Compact Array, ASKAP: Australian SKA Pathfinder, Las Cumbres Observatory Group, OzGrav, DWF (Deeper, Wider, Faster Program), AST3, and CAASTRO Collaborations, The VINROUGE Collaboration, MASTER Collaboration, J-GEM, GROWTH, JAGWAR, CaltechNRAO, TTU-NRAO, and NuSTAR Collaborations, Pan-STARRS, The MAXI Team, TZAC Consortium, KU Collaboration, Nordic Optical Telescope, ePESSTO, GROND, Texas Tech University, SALT Group, TOROS: Transient Robotic Observatory of the South Collaboration, The BOOTES Collaboration, MWA: Murchison Widefield Array, The CALET Collaboration, IKI-GW Follow-up Collaboration, H.E.S.S. Collaboration, LOFAR Collaboration, LWA: Long Wavelength Array, HAWC Collaboration, The Pierre Auger Collaboration, ALMA Collaboration, Euro VLBI Team, Pi of the Sky Collaboration, The Chandra Team at McGill University, DFN: Desert Fireball Network, ATLAS, High Time Resolution Universe Survey, RIMAS and RATIR, and SKA South Africa/MeerKAT ; On 2017 August 17 a binary neutron star coalescence candidate (later designated GW170817) with merger time 12:41:04 UTC was observed through gravitational waves by the Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo detectors. The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor independently detected a gamma-ray burst (GRB 170817A) with a time delay of $\sim 1.7\,{\rm{s}}$ with respect to the merger time. From the gravitational-wave signal, the source was initially localized to a sky region of 31 deg2 at a luminosity distance of ${40}_{-8}^{+8}$ Mpc and with component masses consistent with neutron stars. The component masses were later measured to be in the range 0.86 to 2.26 $\,{M}_{\odot }$. An extensive observing campaign was launched across the electromagnetic spectrum leading to the discovery of a bright optical transient (SSS17a, now with the IAU identification of AT 2017gfo) in NGC 4993 (at $\sim 40\,{\rm{Mpc}}$) less than 11 hours after the merger by the One-Meter, Two Hemisphere (1M2H) team using the 1 m Swope Telescope. The optical transient was independently detected by multiple teams within an hour. Subsequent observations targeted the object and its environment. Early ultraviolet observations revealed a blue transient that faded within 48 hours. Optical and infrared observations showed a redward evolution over ~10 days. Following early non-detections, X-ray and radio emission were discovered at the transient's position $\sim 9$ and $\sim 16$ days, respectively, after the merger. 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Yesterday, the U.S. Senate passed after extensive debate a
bill greenlighting the construction of the Keystone XL Pipeline. The final vote
was 62-32 in favor, two votes more than the 60 vote threshold required to avoid
a filibuster. The Senate version of the bill will either go back to the House
where they can pass it as is, or the House can request a conference committee to
hash out the differences. If the House goes the conference route, the committee
will produce a report subject to a straight up-down vote in both chambers. In
either case, everyone anticipates that some form of Keystone legislation will
be sent to the president within the next week.









But, it really doesn't matter. Because President Obama has
indicated he will veto any Keystone XL bill, as he believes that Congress is
intruding on his presidential powers by authorizing an infrastructure project
crossing an international boundary. And, as there are not enough votes in either
chamber to override his veto, Keystone XL will be again delayed and remain
unbuilt unless and until Obama gives the project his assent.



The political realities of Keystone did not prevent political
gamesmanship in the wake of the vote here in Montana though. Republicans have
been chomping at the bit to get this legislation passed, giving it the
designation of Senate Bill 1 to signal the importance of the issue. But the legislation
has been debated for weeks now and subject to scores of amendments. To expedite
the bill's passage earlier this week, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell
filed a cloture motion to end debate on the bill and prevent additional
amendments from being considered. As you all know, a cloture motion is used
either to prevent or stop an ongoing filibuster, and if it passes, places
strict limits on further discussion before moving to a vote on final passage.



This cloture motion failed 53 to 39 (again, the motion
needed 60 votes), with Montana Senator Jon Tester voting against cloture. Montana's
freshman senator, Steve Daines, supported McConnell and voted to end debate. 






 (Caption: Montana's congressional delegation, presumably before the vote on Keystone XL)




 Freshman Congressman Ryan Zinke immediately took the
opportunity to blast Tester. "To me, a vote against the Keystone is a vote
against Montana," he said. "I'm a proud co-sponsor of the House bill to build
the Keystone XL Pipeline because it is proven to be safe and in the best interest
of Montana. I will always put Montana before raising money from special
interests in Washington, D.C." (Full story here).



Zinke implied, of course, that Tester's a flip-flopper
and in the pocket of special interests—special interests that are opposed to
the construction of Keystone and the production of good paying Montana jobs.



Yesterday's press release from Montana's State Republican Party
was much more hyperbolic than Zinke's statement. Here is what they sent via
e-mail to those subscribing to their list:

"Last November,
Tester voted to build the
Keystone XL pipeline.
On Monday, Tester joined Senator Democrats' delay tactics and voted against the
Keystone XL pipeline. 

Tester claimed he wanted more amendments and debate but last
November- when Tester voted for the Keystone XL pipeline- there were no
amendments allowed and just 6 hours of
debate. 
Under the
Republican-led Senate, there have already been "more amendment votes than in all of 2014 under Democratic
control" on the Keystone bill alone.  And,
the Senate has spent 3 weeks debating the bill. 


On Wednesday, Tester voted to support President Obama's latest land power grab, allowing Obama to
declare land in Phillips County a national monument and immediately halt
construction of the Keystone XL pipeline."



Both Congressman Zinke and the Montana Republican Party, in
their eagerness to score political points, are pushing a narrative spun of
cynicism and obfuscation instead of an honest consideration of the facts. And
this, I find as a political scientist, quite disturbing. 



Let's consider reality for a moment.



Tester supports construction of Keystone XL, but with some
qualifications, and as he has since the project was proposed. I spoke with him
about Keystone XL and energy development in the Bakken on Veteran's Day in 2011
as we flew between Billings and Helena—an interview I conducted as part of the
research for my book, Battle
for the Big Sky. Here is the transcript verbatim:



David:                  Do you have any problems
with more development in the Balkan?

Sen. Tester:          No. 


David:                  No?

Sen. Tester:          No. 
As long as it's done right.  It's
kind of like the Keystone pipeline, as long as it's done right, you can do
it.  Now, I'm going to tell you
what.  There's a lot of times that this
stuff isn't done right and taxpayers for generations and generations to come
have to fix the problem.  Take a look at
a lot of the abandoned mines around. 
Yeah, they create a bunch of jobs and then when they left, it becomes a
Superfund site the taxpayers have to pick up. 
That isn't a false choice.  That
should have been -- the rules should have been dictated early and that's what
I'm saying is make sure we get the playing field established so that it is done
right so that it isn't a false choice.

David:                Are you confident with the
rules and regulations in place now that the Bakken can be drilled safely?

Sen. Tester:          Yeah. 


David:                Well then let me ask the
follow-up question to that.  If we sit
and put our eggs in the Bakken basket, don't we risk basically having Butte
part 2 over again?  All this development
happens, big towns happen, oil's gone, it collapses.  How do we, as a state, look beyond that?

Sen. Tester:          I don't know that I say we put all our
eggs in the Bakken basket.  I think we've
got incredible opportunities in wind and solar and renewable energies across
the board, but we also need to do right because they can be done wrong, but do
those right and expand upon those.  I
think the Bakken [play], if that's all we're going to look at for energy
future, big mistake, big mistake.  I
think if we developed the Balkan right, there are going to jobs there for many,
many years and there can be a level of energy security there for many, many years. 

David:                      But what about the environmentalist
movement?  There's a number of folks that
are really opposed to the pipeline, opposed to drilling the Bakken and
ostensibly those people are going to be people who are probably going to want
to vote for you and not Denny Rehberg [Tester's opponent in 2012], isn't there
a risk that they're not going to show up and turn out to help you?

Sen. Tester:          I always think common sense is going
to be the deciding factor when it comes to elections and I think, if you
develop in a common sense way, everybody can win.  That's the basis of my Forest Jobs bill.  And there's going to be people on the hard
right and the hard left that want it all their way, but that's not practical
and it's not common sense.  So you've got
to be thoughtful about it.  You've got to
make sure you do it right.  You've got to
make sure that folks follow the rules.

                              And if agency
folks don't follow the rules, by the way, I don't care if you're talking about
benefits for veterans or you're talking about drilling in the Bakken or
whatever, that's an important part of the equation.  So but no, I think enviros in the end can
take a look at what I stand for.  You
know, it is a good choice, it is a clear choice for them because you've got, on
the one hand, the guy [Rehberg] who built the Keystone pipeline, come hell or
high water and I'm saying let's use our heads about this.  Let's do it right if we're going to do
it.  And the same thing with drilling in
the Balkan, let's do it right. 

I searched Tester's Senate press releases, available on his
Senate website, for the term "Keystone XL" to further understand his position
on Keystone XL.  The first mention of the
project came in 2010, when Tester questioned TransCanada's request to operate
the proposed pipeline at a higher than standard pressure—a request which TransCanada
withdrew at Tester's urging. The press release aptly portrays Tester's position
on Keystone XL: He wants it built, but with certain restrictions. Completely in
step, mind you, with what he told me in fall of 2011 more than a year later.



That's the same pattern you see when reviewing Tester's
votes on amendments to Senate Bill 1. Tester supported some amendments mandating
that the pipeline to be built with American material and labor. He voted for an
amendment clarifying that products produced from tar sands would be subject to
federal petroleum excise taxes. He supported an amendment requiring a renewable
standard for electricity production. He opposed an amendment requiring the
federal home heating assistance program to be funded at a minimum level, and
another restricting the transportation of petroleum coke. 



Most of these amendments, including those Tester favored,
failed. And despite the fact Tester has long supported amendments requiring the
use of American labor and material in the construction of Keystone XL, he
supported the bill on final passage. To be clear, Tester did not get his ideal
Keystone XL bill. But he voted for it anyway—figuring, I suspect, that half a
loaf was better than none.

You can see all the roll call votes on the Senate website here.



So, where's the alleged flip flop? As far as I can tell, in
my review of previous pieces of legislation and Senate amendments concerning
Keystone XL going back to 2011, Tester has always supported the construction of
Keystone XL.



The "flip flop" is because Tester did not vote in favor of
cutting off debate on Senate Bill 1 says the Montana Republican Party. He's not
a Keystone XL "purist" because he favored more debate and more amendments.



Well, a funny thing happens when a party moves from the
minority to the majority. Because all of the sudden, positions the party once
took become, shall we say, inconvenient. 



When Republicans served in the Senate minority in the last
Congress, they expressed indignity when Senator Reid did not allow them the
courtesy of considering Republican amendments to Democratic-crafted bills. Democrats
did not allow the amendment process to run its full course, they said, and they
felt debate was rushed and did not consider the minority party's point of view.



Here's Republican Senator Orrin Hatch in a National Journal piece on Harry Reid's
ironclad control over the Senate floor agenda, achieved by filling the
amendment tree (thereby shutting out the minority party in the amending of
legislation): "When the Senate Democratic leadership decides to bring a
bill to the floor, far more often than not we are blocked from offering any
amendments," Sen. Orrin Hatch, R-Utah, said on the floor last week." You
can access the article here.
Republicans, of course, vowed to allow more amendments and greater debate if
only voters gave them a majority in the Senate.



Majority status means majority control, and it often means
that in order to get things done, you have to shut down debate and control what
can and cannot be discussed. It also means limiting the amending process. I'll
bet you good money that we'll see far less amend-a-thons on future bills in the Republican-led
Senate. The Republicans, while in the minority, doth protest too much.



On this point, the Republican Party's press release was disingenuous.
But what followed next was either disturbing or laughable. Take your pick.



One of the amendments voted upon by the Senate AFTER cloture
failed was Senator Steve Daines' Senate Amendment 132, which expressed the
"sense of Congress" that restrictions should be placed on the president's
ability to create National Monuments. You can read the text of the amendment here.



Tester voted no on that amendment—a vote which he never
would have taken had the cloture petition succeeded—the same cloture petition
that Tester was criticized for voting against in the same press release! 



So Tester's faulted for voting against cloture, and then he
is criticized for endorsing "President Obama's latest land power grab, allowing Obama
to declare land in Phillips County a national monument and immediately halt
construction of the Keystone XL pipeline." At least, that's what is
spun in the press release. Don't believe it.



Facts are stubborn things. Had Daines' amendment passed, it
would have done nothing to change existing statute.



There is no land grab in Phillips County—and even if there
was or is, Senator Tester's vote on Senate Amendment 132 certainly didn't
express his views on it. At best, Tester voting no suggests that he believes
that the executive branch has and should have the power to protect land by
declaring it a national monument under the Antiquities Act. Every president
since has created at least one National Monument—including Gerald Ford and
Ronald Reagan. It does not mean he wants President Obama to drop a national
monument in Phillips County and stop Keystone XL because HE WANTS KEYSTONE XL
BUILT.



The process of legislating is messy, tortuous, and
complicated. To truly understand it requires taking each and every vote and
placing it into its proper context. To do otherwise represents a gross
distortion of the how the Senate and House operate, and at its core, represents
elevating a politically-driven narrative at the expense of what Stephen Colbert
termed as "truthiness." 



Perhaps more importantly, no piece of legislation is
perfect. To expect our legislators to vote for the perfect bill asks the
impossible. No legislator can or should be held to that standard. But the way
in which political operatives abuse roll call records, they aim to make us think
there is only one way—the true way—to represent a political position and the
interests of a place or a people. Everything else is craven and suspect. I
fundamentally object to this standard, and to this particular misrepresentation
of legislating. We ought to expect better of civic discussion and discourse.



One final point. Using the logic of the Montana Republican
Party as expressed in their press release, I guess Senator Mitch McConnell
hates Keystone, too, because he voted against his own cloture motion! He
flip-flopped!



Don't believe me? Go look it up here. 



No, of course not. He voted against it as a procedural
matter so that he could later introduce a possible motion to reconsider on the
bill. But hey, context doesn't matter, right?

ABSTRAKLahirnya Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 tentang Desa membuat kebijakan tentang desa dalam memberi pelayanan, peningkatan peran serta dan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa yang ditujukan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Lahirnya otonomi daerah serta dalam era globalisasi, maka pemerintah daerah dituntut memberikan pelayanan yang lebih prima serta memberdayakan masyarakat sehingga masyarakat ikut terlibat dalam pembangunan untuk kemajuan daerahnya, karena masyarakatlah yang lebih tahu apa yang mereka butuhkan serta pembangunan yang dilakukan akan lebih efektif dan efisien, dan dengan sendirinya masyarakat akan mempunyai rasa memiliki dan tanggung jawab. Penelitian dengan topik Peranan Pemerintah Desa Dalam Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian, bertujuan untuk Untuk mengetahui dan menganalisis peranan Pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di bidang pertanian serta mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mendorong dan menghambat pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah pendekatan kualitatif yang menekankan unsur manusia sebagai instrumen penelitian. Berdasarkan hasil penelitian yang telah dilakukan,maka penulis dapat menarik kesimpulan bahwa peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian dapat dilihat dari beberapa indikator, yakni: Peranan pemerintah desa dalam pembinaan. Pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat desa dilakukan oleh kepala desa dengan menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari masyarakat sendiri. Peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberikan pelayanan dan pengembangan kepada masyarakat seperti dalam kegiatan disektor pertanian maka kontribusi yang sangat besar dalam bidang pertanian adalah aktivitas usaha tani. Berdasarkan hasil wawancara dilapangan menunjukkan bahwa pemerintah sangat berperan dalam memberikan pemberdayaan kepada masyarakat khususnya dibidang pertanian.Kata Kunci : Pemerintah Desa, Pemberdayaan MasyarakatPENDAHULUANPelaksanaan otonomi daerah yang telah dimulai sejak 2001 mengandung konsekuensi yang cukup "menantang" bagi daerah. Di satu sisi, kebebasan berkreasi membangun daerah 1 Merupakan Skripsi Penulis 2 Mahasiswa Jurusan Ilmu Pemerintahan FISIP UNSRAT Manadobenar - benar terbuka lebar bagi daerah. Namun demikian, di sisi yang lain telah menghadang setumpuk masalah yang harus diselesaikan. Masalah yang sangat mendasar adalah perubahan pola pengelolaan daerah dari sentralistik menjadi desentralisasi, misalnya sumber dana untuk membiayai pembangunan, sumber daya manusia sebagai aparat pelaksana seluruh aktivitas pembangunan, dan masih banyak yang lain. Pembangunan nasional dan daerah merupakan bagian yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari kegiatan pembangunan desa. Desa merupakan basis kekuatan sosial ekonomi dan politik yang perlu mendapat perhatian serius dari pemerintah. Perencanaan pembangunan selama ini menjadikan masyarakat desa sebagai objek pembangunan bukan sebagai subjek pembangunan. Lahirnya Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 tentang Desa membuat kebijakan tentang desa dalam memberi pelayanan, peningkatan peran serta dan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa yang ditujukan bagi kesejahteraan masyarakat. Konsep yang sering dimunculkan dalam proses pemberdayaan adalah konsep kemandirian dimana program-program pembangunan dirancang secara sistematis agar individu maupun masyarakat menjadi subjek dari pembangunan. Kegagalan berbagai program pembangunan perdesaan di masa lalu adalah disebabkan antara lain karena penyusunan, pelaksanaan dan evaluasi program-program pembangunan yang tidak melibatkan masyarakat. Proses pembangunan lebih mengedepankan paradigma politik sentralistis dan dominannya peranan negara pada arus utama kehidupan bermasyarakat. Suatu pembangunan akan tepat mengenai sasaran, terlaksana dengan baik dan dimanfaatkan hasilnya apabila pembangunan yang dilakukan tersebut benar-benar memenuhi kebutuhan masyarakat. Untuk memungkinkan hal itu terjadi, umumnya pembangunan perdesaan, mutlak diperlukan pemberdayaan masyarakat desa mulai dari keikutsertaan dalam perencanaan sampai pada hasil akhir dari pembangunan tersebut. Pembangunan wilayah pedesaan tidak terlepas dari peran serta dari seluruh masyarakat diwilayah tersebut, sehingga kinerja seorang kepala desa sebagai kepala pemerintahan desa harus dapat menjalankan tugas pokok memimpin dan mengkoordinasikan pemerintah desa dalam melaksanakan sebagian urusan rumah tangga desa, melakukan pembinaan dan pembangunan masyarakat, dan membina perekonomian desa. Namun dalam kenyataannya menunjukkan bahwa penilaian kinerja kepala desa oleh masyarakat dalam memberikan pelayanan serba lamban dan berbelit-belit serta formalitas. Inilah yang menarik dari uraian di atas, bahwa pemberdayaan untuk menanggulangi kemiskinan dan mensejahterahkan masyarakat adalah hal yang menarik dimana berbagai program penanggulangan kemiskinan terutama di bidang pertanian di masyarakat belum dapat mengatasi persoalan-persoalan yang ada. Sebagaimana yang terjadi di desa Tumaratas bahwa ada banyak program-program pemerintah di bidang pertanian, masih belum dapat mengatasi banyaknya persoalan. Karena itu konsep pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian yang akan membuat masyarakat petani dapat mandiri dan berdaya mengatasi kesulitan-kesulitan ekonominya. Desa Tumaratas sebagai wilayah yang memiliki potensi pertanian yang tinggi, kemudian mata pencaharian masyarakat sebagian besarnya adalah petani. Berbagai program pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian selalu dilakukan oleh pemerintah seperti pembentukan kelompok tani, pemberian modal usaha, bantuan bibit pertanian, penyuluhan pertanian, dan lain sebagainya. Permasalahannya, banyak bantuan yang diberikan tidak terkelola dengan baik, malahan ada bantuan yang menyimpang, misalnya dana yang diberikan tidak digunakan sebagaimana mestinya. Kemudian sebagian masyarakat tidak menerima bantuan, tidak diperhatikan. Padahal pentingnya sektor pertanian sebagai penyangga bagi pemenuhan kebutuhan masyarakat, dan mengingat semakin terus bertambahnya kebutuhan akan pangan yang disebabkan oleh meningkatnya jumlah penduduk di desa Tumaratas yang menjadi sasaran penelitian, maka dalam upaya menanggulangi kemiskinan penting kiranya membicarakan cara efektif dalam memberdayakan masyarakat petani. Pemberdayaan masyarakat yang perlu dilakukan dalam menyikapi kemiskinan ini adalah dengan mendorong masyarakat untuk menyadari bahwa sektor pertanian adalah sektor kebutuhan yang paling vital bagi masyarakat Sulut. Kian hari jumlah masyarakat yang masih memilih bertani semakin kecil. Masyarakat saat ini lebih tertarik untuk bekerja sebagai karyawan disebuah perusahaan dan di instansi-instansi pemerintah serta swasta lainnya. Sektor pertanian dianggap tidak menjanjikan lagi. Maka dalam proses pemberdayaan ini diperlukan sinergi kelompok-kelompok seperti sekolah menengah dan sekolah tinggi pertanian, Lembaga Swadaya Masyarakat, Koperasi Unit Desa dan Pemerintah melalui Departemen Pertanian. Lembaga-lembaga ini yang nota bene mempunyai banyak pengetahuan dan skill dibidang pertanian dapat memberikan penyuluhan, pelatihan dan pendampingan kepada masyarakat tentang pertanian padat karya. Sedang Koperasi Unit Desa dapat menjadi penyalur bagi bahan, alat dan hasil-hasil pertanian padat karya tersebut. Perlu dicatat bahwa paradigma partnership adalah hal mendasar yang paling utama dalam melakukan pemberdayaan masyarakat petani. Tanpa anggapan bahwa semua sektor adalah mitra bagi psetani, pemberdayaan ini tak akan berhasil dengan baik. karena itu pemberdayaan merupakan hal yang baru dalam membangunan masyarakat terutama di bidang pertanian. Dan mencari tahu bagaimana pertanian sebagai mata pencaharian utama dari masyarakat Desa Tumaratas, dapat berkembang dengan baik. Kemudian melihat peran pemerintah desa sebagai pihak yang paling bertanggung jawab untuk memberdayakan masyarakat desa. Oleh karena itu, Berdasarkan latar belakang pemikiran diatas maka dalam penelitian ini penulis mengangkat beberapa permasalahan yaitu:Bagaimana peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di bidang pertanian serta Faktor-faktor apa yang mendorong dan menghambat Pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa ?METODOLOGI PENELITIAN Metode yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah metode penelitian kualitatif. Sesuai dengan permasalahan yang dikemukakan maka fokus penelitian ditekankan pada Fokus penelitian adalah mendeskripsikian dan menganalisis peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di era otonomi daerah ditinjau dari pembinaan terhadap masyarakat, pelayanan pada masyarakat dan pengembangan pada masyarakat serta faktor pendukung dan penghambat yang muncul dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Kabupaten Minahasa. Teknik pengumpulan dan pengolahan data dalam penelitian ini dapat dilakukan dalam berbagai bentuk yaitu melalui : Observasi/pengamatan, dan wawancara. Dalam penelitian ini pihak yang dijadikan informan adalah yang dianggap mempunyai informasi (key-informan) yang dibutuhkan di wilayah penelitian. Sedangkan teknik analisis data yaitu data yang telah terkumpul dari hasil wawancara dan studi kepustakaan atau dokumentasi akan dianalisis dan ditafsirkan untuk mengetahui maksud serta maknanya, kemudian dihubungkan dengan masalah penelitian. Data yang terkumpul disajikan dalam bentuk narasi dan kutipan langsung hasil wawancara.HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANA. Visi Dan Misi Desa Tumaratas VISI : "MEWUJUDKAN DESA TUMARATAS MENJADI DESA MANDIRI MELALUI BIDANG PERTANIAN "MISI :- Meningkatkan usaha pertanian dengan mengundang pihak yang berkompeten dalam hal pertanian atau Pemerintahan Kabupaten melalui dinas pertanian - Meningkatkan dan mengelola Pendapatan Asli Desa untuk kesejahteraan rakyat - Mewujudkan Pemerintahan yang baik dan bersih serta memberikan pelayanan yang maksimal kepada masyarakatB. Peranan Pemerintah Desa Dalam Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian Di Desa Tumaratas Berdasarkan hasil penelitian dapat dideskripsikan tentang peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat di desa Tumaratas bidang pertanian dapat dijabarkan sebagai berikut ; 1. Pembinaan terhadap Masyarakat Pembinaan merupakan salah satu unsur yang sangat penting dalam proses pemberdayaan masyarakat, baik itu pembinaan bagi perangkat desa maupun bagi masyarakatnya. Tujuannya adalah agar perangkat desa dan warga masyarakat tahu dan mengerti apa yang harus dikerjakan serta timbul kemauan untuk ikut aktif dalam setiap program pemberdayaan masyarakat. Aktivitas pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat dilakukan oleh kepala desa melalui nilai-nilai kearifan lokal dan modal sosial yang dari dahulu memang dianut oleh warga desa yakni semangat gotong royong yang saat ini sudah mulai terkikis untuk dibangkitkan kembali. Tujuan dari pemberdayaan ini adalah perubahan sikap dan perilaku menjadi lebih baik melalui pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat. Dalam praktiknya kepala desa menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari dalam masyarakat itu sendiri untuk berubah menjadi lebih baik. Pembinaan ini memiliki cakupan yang cukup banyak, akan tetapi yang jelas pembinaan mengandung arti pemberdayaan masyarakat yaitu mengubah sesuatu sehingga menjadi baru dan memiliki nilai yang lebih tinggi dan juga mengandung makna sebagai pembaruan, yaitu usaha untuk membuat sesuatu menjadi lebih sesuai dengan kebutuhan, menjadi lebih baik dan lebih bermanfaat. Dalam hubungannya dengan pembinaan, Talidzuhu Ndraha mengungkapkan bahwa yang menjadi sasaran pembinaan khususnya dalam membina kehidupan masyarakat adalah mentalitasnya. Mentalitas yang belum sadar harus dibangunkan, yang tidak sesuai dengan pembangunan dan pemberdayaan masyarakat harus diubah, yang melenceng atau menyalahi aturan harus ditertibkan dan yang masih kosong harus diisi. Menghadirkan kembali semangat gotong royong diantara warganya. Baik itu dalam kehidupan sehari-hari maupun dalam kegiatan pemberdayaan masyarakat. Sebagai desa yang penduduknya sebahagian besar adalah berprofesi sebagai seorang petani, kegiatan-kegiatan dalam pertanian pun dilakukan secara bergotong- royong. Pemberdayaan masyarakat dalam bidang pertanian memiliki makna meningkatkan kualitas kehidupan sosial dan ekonomi masyarakat yang tercermin peningkatan pendapatan dan kesejahteraan masyarakat termasuk masyarakat miskin.2. Pelayanan Dan Pengembangan Terhadap Masyarakat Pemberian pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat diharapkan menjadi lebih responsive terhadap kepentingan masyarakat itu sendiri,dimana paradigm pelayanan masyarakat yang telah berjalan selama ini beralih dari pelayanan yang sifatnya sentralistik ke pelayanan yang lebih memberikan focus kepada pengelolaan yang berorientasi kepuasaan masyarakat.Dilain pihak pelayanan yang diberikan oleh aparatur pemerintahan kepada masyarakat diharapkan juga memiliki : a. Memiliki dasar hukum yang jelas dalam penyelenggaraannya, b.Memiliki perencanaan dalam pengambilan keputusan c. Memiliki tujuan sosial dalam kehidupan bermasyarakat d. Dituntut untuk akuntabel dan transparan kepada masyarakat e. Memiliki standarisasi pelayanan yang baik kepada masyarakat. Undang-undang No 32 Tahun 2004 tentang otonomi daerah dan Undang-Undang no 6 tahun 2014 tentang desa,masyarakat memiliki kedaulatan yang cukup luas untuk menentukan orientasi dan arah kebijakan pembangunan yang dikehendaki.Adapun bentuk pelayanan pemerintah desa kepada masyarakat di desa Tumaratas yaitu apabila masyarakat yang bersangkutan membutuhkan pelayanan misalnya perbaikan dibidang pertanian maka aparat pemerintah desa berupaya semaksimal mungkin untuk memberikan pelayanan terbaik kepada warganya.Disamping kemampuan aparatur pemerintah desa dalam memberdayakan masyarakat, besar kecilnya partisipasi masyarakat merupakankan faktor penting dalam proses pembangunan, karena pada kenyataannya pembangunan desa sangat memerlukan adanya keterlibatan aktif dari masyarakat. Keikutsertaan masyarakat tidak saja dalam perencanaan tetapi juga pelaksanaan program-program pembangunan di desa.Sehingga penilaian terhadap aparatur desa tidak negatif dalam menjalankan tugas utama untuk memberikan pelayanan terhadap masyarakat dan pelaksanaan pembangunan. Persepsi akan timbul bila mana dalam menjalankan tugas tidak sesuai dengan harapan masyarakat desa. Prosedur yang dipersulit dijadikan kepentingan pribadi atau komunitas yang dipergunakan untuk kepentingan pribadi.C. Faktor-faktor Pendukung Dan Penghambat Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian DiDesa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Barat Terdapat dua faktor yang mempengaruhi peranan kepala desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat Desa Tumaratas yaitu faktor pendukung dan faktor penghambat. Untuk lebih jelasnya dapat dilihat sebagai berikut: 1. Faktor Pendukung Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian a. Kekuasaan Kekuasaan adalah kekuatan, legalitas, dan otoritas yang memberikan wewenang kepada pemimpin guna mempengaruhi dan menggerakkan bawahan untuk berbuat sesuatu. Tanpa kekuasaan bagaimana mungkin seorang pemimpin mampu menjalankan tugasnya karena hanya dengan kewenanganlah seseorang berhak memerintah orang lain. b. Sistem Pendidikan Formal yang maju Pada dasarnya pendidikan memberikan nilai-nilai tertentu bagi individu,untuk memberikan wawasan serta menerima hal-hal baru juga memberikan bagaimana caranya dapat berpikir secara ilmiah.Pendidikan juga mengajarkan kepada individu untuk dapat berpikir secara objektif c. Sistem terbuka pada lapisan masyarakat Artinya masyarakat menyadari bahwa semua orang memiliki kedudukan yang sama dan harus diperlakukan sama didepan pemerintah.Oleh karena itu pemerintah mampu menjangkau seluruh lapisan masyarakat di Desa Tumaratas.d. Adanya orientasi untuk maju ( Masa depan) Terdapatnya pemikiran-pemikiran yang mengutamakan masa yang akan datang,dapat berakibat mulai terjadinya perubahan-perubahan dalam system sosial yang ada. Karena apa yang dilakukan harus diorientasikan pada perubahan dimasa yang akan datang e. Adanya Sinergitas yang baik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat Budaya Mapalus (gotong royong) sangat melekat di kehidupan masyarakat Desa Tumaratas,oleh karena itu apa yang dilakukan pemerintah selalu didukung oleh masyarakat terutama program pemberdayaan masyarakat di bidang pertanian yang sangat membantu masyarakat.Pemerintah juga selalu berupaya untuk memberikan yang terbaik kepada masyarakat sesuai dengan Visi-Misi Desa Tumaratas.2. Faktor Penghambat Terhadap Pengembangan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat Di Bidang Pertanian Pemberdayaan masyarakat di berbagai bidang tidak terlepas dari berbagai hambatan yang menyertainya.Hambatan yang sering muncul antara lain : a. Kelompok kepentingan Kelompok kepentingan dapat menjadi salahsatu penghambat dalam upaya pemberdayaan masyarakat.Misalnya,upaya pemberdayaan petani di desa Tumaratas tidak dapat dilaksanakan karena ada kelompok kepentingan tertentu yang bermaksud membeli lahan pertanian untuk mendirikan usaha peternakan.Kelompok pertanian ini akan berupaya akan lebih dulu agar lahan pertanian tersebut jatuh ke tangan mereka. b. Kualitas Sumber daya manusia pemerintah desa Sebagaimana terlihat sumber daya manusia atau aparat yang bertugas pada organisasi kantor tersebut secara kuantitas jumlah pegawai yang ada pada kantor desa Tumaratas sudah cukup namun secara kualitas sumber daya aparat desa di desa Tumaratas belum cukup baik,hal ini dapat dilihat dari kemampuan kerja dan mengkoordinir program didesa yang masih terlihat kurang. PENUTUPA. Kesimpulan Berdasarkan uraian hasil penelitian dan pembahasan pada bab sebelumnya,maka penulis dapat menarik kesimpulan tentang peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian dapat dilihat dari beberapa indikator, yakni:Peranan pemerintah desa dalam pembinaan.Pembinaan kehidupan masyarakat desa dilakukan oleh kepala desa dengan menggunakan konsep kesadaran dan kemauan dari masyarakat sendiri. Kegiatan sehari-hari dilakukan dengan cara bergotong royong terlebih dibidang pertanian dimana masyarakat sebelum musim kemarau tiba membangun tempat penampungan air.Peranan pemerintah desa dalam memberikan pelayanan dan pengembangan kepada masyarakat seperti dalam kegiatan disektor pertanian maka kontribusi yang sangat besar dalam bidang pertanian adalah aktivitas usaha tani. Aktifitas Usaha Tani adalah kegiatan-kegiatan yang dilakukan oleh petani pada sebidang lahan yang ditanami dengan berbagai jenis tanaman yang menghasilkan. Aktivitas usaha tani yang dilakukan oleh masyarakat petani khususnya di desa Tumaratas dapat dilakukan melalui aktivitas usaha tani padi sawah dan padi ladang. Aktivitas usaha tani padi sawah sangatlah beragam mulai dari cara pengolahan tanah, pembersihan, pembibitan, pemupukan bahkan sampai pada proses hasil panen. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi peranan pemerintah desa dalam pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian terdiri atas factor pendukung,yaitu : Kekuasaan, system pendidikan formal yang maju, system terbuka kepada seluruh lapisan masyarakat, adanya orientasi untuk maju, serta adanya sinergitas yang baik antara pemerintah dan masyarakat.Faktor Penghambat yaitu : Kelompok kepentingan, dan kualitas sumber daya aparatur desa.B. Saran Berdasarkan kesimpulan diatas,maka penulis dapat memberikan saran sebagai berikut : - Peranan Pemerintah desa terlebih khusus Kepala Desa terhadap pemberdayaan masyarakat dibidang pertanian didesa Tumaratas Kecamatan Langowan Kabupaten Minahasa hendaknya dilakukan secara konsisten dan berkesinambungan. - Perlu dilakukan pengawasan yang secara rutin terutama terhadap kegiatan masyarakat yang menunjukkan adanya kegiatan pembangunan. - Selain penyuluhan dan pelatihan bagi warga masyarakat, pelatihan juga perlu diadakan bagi aparat desa guna meningkatkan SDM dan memberikan pelayanan yang optimal bagi warga desa. - Melalui hasil penelitian ini disarankan hendaknya pemerintah lewat dinas pertanian, memberikan perhatian secara sungguh-sungguh bagi para petani dalam membina dan membantu para petani dalam proses kesinambungan usaha mereka.Daftar Pustaka Ali Mufiz, Drs,1995, Pengantar Administrasi Negara, Universitas Terbuka.Andy Sutardy, MBA, Drs. Engkoem Damini, 1973, Pokok-pokok Ilmu Administrasi dan Manajemen, PT. Ikhtiar Baru, JakartaAtmosudirdjo, Prajudi, 1978, Dasar-dasar Administrasi, Balai Aksara, JakartaBayu Suryaningrat, 1979, Desa dan Kelurahan, Rineka Cipta, JakartaDedy Supriady Bratakusuma, Ph.D. Dadang Solihin, MA. 2002, Otonomi Penyelenggaraan Pemerintahan Daerah, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, JakartaDepdikbud RI, 1989, Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia, Balai Pustaka, JakartaHandayaningrat, Soewarno, 1982, Pengantar Studi Ilmu Administrasi dan Manajemen, Gunung Agung, JakartaIbnu Syamsi, Drs. 1983, Pokok-pokok Organisasi dan Manajemen, Bina Aklsara, JakartaJoko Prakoso, SH, 1987, Hukum Asuransi Indonesia, BandungKoentjaraningrat, 1990, Kebudayaan Mentalitas dan Pembangunan, Gramedia Pustaka, JakartaLembaga Administrasi Negara RI, 1997, Sistem Administrasi Negara RI, Gunung Agung, JakartaMakagansa.H.R.2008.Tantangan Pemekaran Daerah.Yogyakarta.FUSPADMoleong.2010.Metodologi penelitian kualitatif.Bandung:PT Remaja Rosdakarya.Moenir A.A., 1987, Pendekatan Manusia dan Organisasi Terhadap Pembinaan Kepegawaian, Gunung Agung, JakartaNainggolan, 1984, Pembinaan Pegawai Negeri Sipil, Depdikbud, Jakarta Peraturan Daerah Kabupaten Umum, 2001, Lembaran Daerah Kabupaten Umum, Tentang Pembentukan Badan Perwakilan Desa.PTN dan PTS Se-Sulawesi Selatan, 1997, Pedoman Pembinaan Desa dam Pengelolaan Sumber- sumber Pendapatan Desa, Biro-Bina Pemdes Makassar S.P. Siagian, MPA, 1983, Filsafat Administrasi, Gunung Agung Jakarta Saksono, S, 1988, Administrasi Kepegawaian, Karnisius, Yogyakarta Soetjitro, Ir. 1988, Pembinaan Ketahanan Masyarakat Desa, Jakarta Sugiyono, 2002, Metode Penelitian Administrasi, Alfabeta, BandungSulastomo, 1999, Asuransi Kesehatan (Sebuah Kapitas Selekta), JakartaSurachmad, Winarno, 1972, Dasar-dasar Tehnik Research, Tarsito, BandungThe Liang Ge, 1984, Administrasi Perkantoran Modern, Nur Cahaya, YogyakartaWidjaja, HAW., Prof. Drs.,2003, Pemerintahan Desa / Marga, PT. Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.Sumber-Sumber lain Undang-undang Nomor 22 Tahun 1999 Tentang Otonomi Daerah Undang-undang Nomor 32 Tahun 2004 Tentang Pemerintahan Daerah Undang-Undang Nomor 6 Tahun 2014 http:/www.forumdesa.org/mudik/mudik3/mudik2.php,4 juli 2007

"Una gran parte de la población sigue encerrada en la jaula de la melancolía, (…). El priísmo es una enfermedad política y muchos mexicanos son portadores del virus."(…) "En México (…) creció una cultura política que definió un carácter nacional sumergido en la desidia, la zozobra, el relajo, el sentimentalismo, el resentimiento y la evasión. En esta cultura no había espacio para la dignidad. El pueblo era definido como una masa de indios agachados y de pelados albureros. En esta cultura cantinflesca (donde) no cabía la dignidad democrática (se) legitimó al autoritarismo nacionalista del que surgió esa patología, ese morbo melancólico que engendró el régimen de la revolución institucionalizada"ROGER BARTRA"La Jaula Abierta"Noviembre 2011I.- Situación GeneralLa prensa internacional ha hecho amplio eco a la desaparición y presumible ejecución de 43 normalistas rurales provenientes del poblado de Ayotzinapan, Guerrero, cuando manifestaban en la ciudad de Iguala, en el mismo Estado. Quizás menos conocida para los lectores sea otra matanza que se llevó a cabo unos días previos en Tlatlaya, Estado de México, de 22 personas, hasta donde se sabe inocentes de todo crimen, en manos de elementos del ejército mexicano.Los casos de Iguala y Tlatlaya "son las peores atrocidades que hemos visto en México en años, pero no se trata de incidentes aislados", dijo José Miguel Vivanco Director Ejecutivo para las Américas de Human Rights Watch. El Director Ejecutivo Vivanco es muy joven o está mal informado.La historia del PRI y del régimen populista mexicano es la historia de, cómo mínimo, cuarenta años de un autoritarismo sangriento, sólo superado en el mundo, eso sí, por los totalitarismos comunistas stalinistas-maoistas, los nazi-fascistas o los regímenes dictatoriales militares que pulularon en América Latina.La memoria popular cotidiana de la ciudadanía mexicana indica claramente que, arrancando por la monumental (e incomensurada hasta hoy) masacre de Tlatelolco en 1968 (era necesario "preservar la imagen de México" porque venían las Olimpíadas para lo cual los soldados ametrallaron a mansalva a miles de estudiantes), siguiendo por la muerte sistemática, año tras año, de periodistas que colocan a México en el top más peligroso del ranking americano de la organización Reporteros Sin Fronteras ("México es uno de los países más peligrosos del mundo para los periodistas; las amenazas y los asesinatos a manos del crimen organizado –incluso de las autoridades corruptas– son cosa de todos los días. Este clima de miedo, junto con la impunidad que prevalece, genera autocensura, perjudicial para la libertad de información". http://es.rsf.org/report-mexico,184.html), o las más de 5000 mujeres asesinadas en Ciudad Juárez en los últimos años, o las muchas centenas de asesinatos masivos llevados a cabo en los Estados del Norte del país, el régimen priísta ha sido históricamente uno de los más represivos.Un solo ejemplo más del año 2010. En agosto de ese año, 72 trabajadores migrantes fueron acribillados en San Fernando, estado de Tamaulipas, presumiblemente por los narco-traficantes de la banda de Los Zetas. Cuatro años después sólo 12 cadáveres han sido identificados.Y podríamos terminar disgustando al lector con una macabra enumeración de muertos, fosas comunes, asesinatos masivos, arreglos de cuentas entre facciones políticas, sindicales, amaneceres en los pueblos con cadáveres colgando de los puentes, traficantes de vidas humanas, de armas, de drogas y de todo lo que sea posible imaginar.Así que, lo que sí es pertinente de lo que denuncia recientemente Human Rights Watch, es que "…no son incidentes aislados…", aunque estén muy lejos de ser "las peores atrocidades".Como sucede casi de rutina, el gobierno mexicano es sistemáticamente reticente a investigar. En el caso que nos interesa ahora, por reciente y actual, las autoridades llevaron a cabo investigaciones tardías y, hasta ahora, ineficaces sobre las desapariciones forzadas de los 43 estudiantes en Iguala, Guerrero y sobre el asesinato de 22 personas en Tlatlaya, Estado de México. Human Rights Watch denuncia que, en el caso de Tlatlaya, los ministerios públicos estatales procuraron encubrir la actuación de militares obteniendo testimonios coaccionados de las testigos de los hechos.No solamente las procuradurías estatales no colaboran ni intentan aclarar lo acontecido: "Por el contrario, estos homicidios y desapariciones forzadas reflejan un patrón más amplio de abusos y son en buena medida consecuencia del persistente fracaso de las autoridades mexicanas para abordar este problema" (HRW). La situación no es muy distinta en lo referente a la Procuraduría a nivel federal. "No obstante, la respuesta inicial de la Procuraduría General de la República (PGR) a estos casos ha estado marcada por demoras significativas". (HRW)II.- Los dos casos recientes (en base a Informe de Human Rights Watch)A.- En el caso de Iguala, las autoridades iniciaron la investigación 10 días después de que los estudiantes desaparecieran."Estas demoras inexcusables han dañado fuertemente la credibilidad de la PGR y han generado una presión creciente para que este organismo muestre resultados", sostuvo Vivanco. "Pero sería un grave error que la PGR pasara de hacer poco o nada sobre estos casos a apurarse a llegar a conclusiones infundadas para dar respuestas sin sustento a los casos".En Iguala, cerca de 30 miembros de la policía municipal abrieron fuego sin previo aviso el 26 de septiembre contra tres autobuses que llevaban aproximadamente 90 normalistas de Ayotzinapa, hiriendo a más de 15 estudiantes, incluido uno que recibió un disparo en la cabeza y se encuentra en estado vegetativo. Durante este incidente y uno posterior en el cual personas no identificadas dispararon en contra de los estudiantes y otros civiles, seis personas perdieron la vida.Los estudiantes estaban regresando luego de haber tomado autobuses en Iguala con el propósito de viajar al Distrito Federal para participar en las manifestaciones conmemorativas del 2 de octubre, aniversario de la ya mencionada matanza de Tlatelolco.Los policías ordenaron a los estudiantes del tercer autobús que bajaran y los golpearon y los obligaron a punta de pistola a acostarse al costado del camino, dijeron testigos a Human Rights Watch. Luego, los policías obligaron a los estudiantes a subir a por lo menos tres autos de la policía, en los cuales se los llevaron. Aún se desconoce el paradero de 43 estudiantes.Las autoridades federales y estatales no intervinieron para proteger a los estudiantes, a pesar de que grupos locales de derechos humanos alertaron al gobierno del estado sobre los incidentes en el momento que estaba ocurriendo, y los autobuses fueron parados a 100 metros de una base militar.Más de 50 personas han sido detenidas y más de 20 han sido consignadas por su presunta participación en los hechos en Iguala. En sus sucesivas conferencias de prensa, el Procurador General de la Nación no ha aportado más que obviedades o generalidades salvo en lo que concierne a la evidente connivencia entre las autoridades municipales de Iguala que aparecen comprometidas y el gobernador de Guerrero (que ya comienza a "desaparecer" del caso) con el grupo del crimen organizado "Guerreros Unidos", con el que hay una notoria complicidad. Es de hacer notar que en la búsqueda de los 43 normalistas desaparecidos han aparecido varias fosas comunes de cuya existencia no se tenía conocimiento. Y se han encontrado cadáveres, calcinados algunos, en bolsas arrojadas a un río, otros que no coinciden con los desaparecidos. Todo indica que en los alrededores de Iguala están asentadas muchas fosas comunes o enterraderos de cadáveres de los que no se tenía el menor conocimiento.B.- En el episodio de Tlatlaya, la PGR tardó tres meses en intervenir.Los militares mataron a 22 personas que se encontraban dentro de una bodega vacía el 30 de junio. Según testigos y un informe de la Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos (CNDH), al menos 12 de ellos fueron ejecutados extrajudicialmente.Fiscales detuvieron a dos de las tres testigos, las golpearon, asfixiaron repetidamente con una bolsa y amenazaron con abusar sexualmente para forzarlas a confesar que tenían vínculos con las personas asesinadas en los incidentes y a señalar que los militares no eran responsables de los asesinatos, determinó la CNDH. Una tercera testigo, quien vio cómo los militares ejecutaban a su hija, también fue amenazada y maltratada. Además, policías obligaron a las tres testigos a firmar documentos, cuyo contenido no pudieron leer.Durante semanas, la Secretaría de la Defensa Nacional, el gobernador del Estado de México, y el Procurador General de Justicia del Estado de México sostuvieron la versión oficial, según la cual las personas ejecutadas habían muerto en un enfrentamiento y los militares habían actuado de forma adecuada.La PGR sólo intervino en la investigación de las presuntas ejecuciones tres meses después, luego de que la revista Esquire publicara el 17 de septiembre una entrevista a una de las testigos con su versión de los hechos.El 25 de septiembre detuvieron a 24 soldados y un teniente que presuntamente participaron en los incidentes, y consignó a ocho de ellos por violaciones a la disciplina militar. El 30 de septiembre, la PGR consignó a siete soldados y al teniente de "ejercicio indebido del servicio público". Tres de ellos además fueron acusados de "abuso de autoridad, homicidio calificado en agravio de ocho personas y alteración ilícita del lugar y vestigios del hecho delictivo".C.- En febrero de 2013, Human Rights Watch publicó un informe titulado "Los desaparecidos de México: el persistente costo de una crisis ignorada", donde se documentan 149 casos de desapariciones forzadas en los cuales existe evidencia convincente de la participación de agentes de todas las fuerzas de seguridad en los hechos, cometidos durante el gobierno de Felipe Calderón. Nadie ha sido condenado en estos casos de desaparición forzada ni en ningún otro cometido después de 2006, según información oficial. Estamos a fines de 2014 y la situación es la reseñada.III.- De la naturaleza del régimen mexicanoEl 11/10/1990, la Revista "Vuelta" organizó, bajo el título "La experiencia de la libertad", una serie de eventos televisivos en México donde concurrieron un buen número de intelectuales y periodistas. En la última entrega del ciclo (ciclo organizado, conviene precisarlo, en homenaje a la caída del Muro de Berlín y el desmantelamiento del comunismo del bloque soviético), Mario Vargas Llosa pronunció su conocida expresión: "El PRI es la dictadura perfecta". (Ver https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rvHQIn21HJQ)Las anécdotas a próposito de esa caracterización, más bien imprecisa y algo efectista, los conflictos que ella desató entre Vargas Llosa, Octavio Paz y Enrique Krauze, entre otros, no son de particular interés aquí. Lo que conviene retener en esta nota editorial era que Vargas Llosa estaba utilizando un lenguaje equivocado para designar un estado de cosas brutalmente autoritario pero que no podía ser llamado "dictadura". De lo que Vargas Llosa hablaba era de un régimen populista y, como tal, brutalmente autoritario, como acaban de demostrar los acontecimientos hoy tratados por toda la prensa mundial.Nada de esto es nuevo. Ni siquiera la denominación que usamos que, quizás, lo único que aporta es una cierta precisión.El proceso de enquistamiento del populismo en México se relaciona con la historia posterior a la Revolución de 1910 en ese país. Si bien durante el siglo XIX, desde la Independencia hasta la caída de Porfirio Díaz, México padeció, por períodos, los clásicos procesos de caudillismo y autoritarismo que caracterizaron a toda América Latina, también es cierto que la lucha contra la ocupación francesa y el intento imperial de Maximiliano de Austria le dan a la historia mexicana de ese período una marcada originalidad.Entre otras, destaca el papel de Benito Juárez, en más de un sentido fundador y punto de partida del poderoso pensamiento liberal del México decimonónico, probablemente uno de los más significativos de América Latina.En un ya clásico y descollante texto ("México. A Biography of Power. A History of Modern México, 1810-1996", 1997, HarperCollins, NY.), Enrique Krauze da cuenta del paulatino proceso de distorsión y adulteración del liberalismo juarista a lo largo del extenso período porfiriano que terminará capturado por el positivismo (como sucedió en el Brasil, por ejemplo). Así y todo, tal era la fuerza del pensamiento liberal en México que la propia Revolución estallará como una reivindicación liberal y democrática en la voz de su primer líder y "Apóstol de la democracia", Francisco I. Madero.Al mismo tiempo Krauze explica cómo, algo más tarde, asesinado Madero, el régimen populista emergido de la Revolución del 10 reinventará e impondrá por la fuerza una historia antiliberal y autoritaria destinada a borrar el origen liberal y democrático de la Revolución y publicitará un relato caudillesco, autoritario, sanguinario, revanchista y antidemocrático que será la base de la tragedia populista mexicana hasta la fecha.El populismo mexicano se instauró, entonces, como la peor de las salidas políticas posibles a la Revolución iniciada en 1910. Luego de casi 20 años de guerra civil, la idea de construir una "solución política" que terminase con la hobbesiana "guerra de todos contra todos" que reinaba, se abre camino y se echan las bases del populismo mexicano. En lugar de intentar continuar en el camino de algunos tibios intentos de construir instituciones jurídicas civilizadas (como lo intenta Carranza), la solución para "detener la Revolución" tomará la forma de la construcción de un enorme aparato-partido corporativo, vertical y prácticamente único que se erigió en "El conductor" de la siempre castigada sociedad civil mexicana.La vigencia de este Leviatán populista va, al menos, de 1929 a la fecha. El nacimiento del Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), en 1929 bajo Calles, luego su mutación, en 1938, en el Partido de la Revolución Mexicana (PRM) de Cárdenas y, finalmente, a partir de 1946, se verá emerger el increíble nombre de "Partido Revolucionario Institucional o PRI" que refleja, en su semántica intrínsecamente contradictoria, el carácter particularmente perverso ("la revolución institucionalizada") del régimen que describe Roger Bartra en nuestro acápite. Como se sabe, el PRI perderá las elecciones en el 2000 y, sorprendentemente, cederá el poder, permitiendo una alternancia política pacífica sorpresiva, luego del larguísimo período de autoritarismo populista resumido. Sin embargo, en 2012, el primer "tele-presidente" de México como acaba de bautizarlo Juan Villoro (redesquintopoder.com/villoro-reinodeoz/) asume el poder con la ya añeja tradición populista del PRI sobre sus esmirriados hombros.A diferencia de los recientes neo-populismos de circunstancia que nos aquejan hoy en América Latina, desde que fracasó el retorno de la democracia (chavismos, kirchnerismos, "correísmos", "orteguismos" y otros populismos parvenus), el populismo mexicano tiene más de 80 años cumplidos y es bastante "mayor" que el también sobreviviente peronismo. A diferencia de éste, el populismo mexicano en ocho décadas transformó a México en una sociedad altamente desigual, a la vez tradicional-campesina por un lado y moderna y razonablemente avanzada por el otro, al punto que es la socia comercial principal de los EE.UU. en la actualidad.Sin embargo, aunque el PRI fue un actor clave en la construcción de México que se visualiza a sí mismo como "moderno", nada de democráticamente muy rescatable hay en este desempeño histórico político.Comparte las características de muchos populismos (corrupción generalizada, carencias fundamentales en el funcionamiento del Estado de derecho, pervivencia de modalidades particularmente inciviles de manejo del Estado con la sociedad civil y una larguísima lista de problemas para gerenciar democráticamente al país) que están y siguen presentes en México. En la última década, el crimen organizado, que está destruyendo sectores enteros de la sociedad, es un proceso que, sin dudas, guarda relación con la raigambre populista del México post-revolucionario. Esto se ha transformado en una patología dentro de la patología política mexicana en la medida en que la élite política del país está en proceso de imbricación con los sectores sociales del crimen organizado.El ejemplo mexicano y sus probables derroteros son relevantes porque es el único caso, en América Latina, en el que el populismo se ha entronizado en "régimen". Si, en otros casos, el populismo puede concebirse como meras "formas de hacer política", "procesos de transición", "coyunturas fundacionales", o "intervenciones" populistas, en México el populismo se instaló como un verdadero régimen político cuya estabilidad/permanencia descansa (no en las instituciones del Estado de derecho) en las reglas consuetudinarias no escritas de la clase política "revolucionaria" emergente de la Revolución mexicana.La multiplicación de autoritarismos populistas a lo largo y a lo ancho de América Latina (y también más allá, pero eso no nos compete aquí) y el evidente retroceso de las formas democráticas republicanas, liberales y representativas nos obligan a vigilar al régimen mexicano con particular atención.N. de EditorialistaEn el momento de la redacción de esta nota, el régimen de Peña Nieto ha optado por detener y acusar de delincuencia organizada, motín, terrorismo y tentativa de homicidio a 11 estudiantes manifestantes detenidos en el desalojo del Zócalo de la Capital. No han tenido acceso a otro abogado que un defensor de oficio y ya han sido trasladados a cárceles de alta seguridad, sin juicio alguno, en Veracruz, los hombres, y en Nayarit, las mujeres.

El marco general en que se inscribe mi investigación es el de la llamada filosofía de la liberación. En efecto, encuentro en ella un importante debate en relación con las formas de justificar el "sujeto latinoamericano" en su vinculación con las diversas modalidades de la praxis concreta, en los diferentes ámbitos (ético, político, etc.). Este concepto se define claramente como colectivo, un sujeto al que la sociabilidad le es propia, y en la que se encuentra anclada su historicidad. Este tema, que constituye un tópico central para la filosofía de la liberación, encuentra en los trabajos de Enrique Dussel un desarrollo tan extenso como relevante. El autor presenta un significativo tratamiento teórico en el que es posible discernir una tensión entre filosofía y praxis, tensión que no desaparece ni encuentra una conciliación definitiva, toda vez que se hace sensible en términos de una señalada preponderancia de la dimensión ética por sobre la política. Es en virtud de la relevancia que esta prioridad reviste - en el amplio y variado horizonte de la filosofía de la liberación en general y en los textos de Dussel en particular - que considero justificado profundizar en su estudio. A partir de la lectura de la totalidad de la obra de Enrique Dussel, es decir, su producción entre 1964 y 2010, se podría afirmar que el tratamiento de los puntos neurálgicos de su obra se acomoda a la forma de una elipsis. Concentra en sus primeras producciones tesis teológico-políticas en las que es posible rastrear una compleja malla de referencias textuales que mostrarían el entramado teórico en el que se construyen las relaciones entre lo que defino como el sujeto pobre en tensión con una narración filosófica claramente eticista. Al mismo tiempo esta trama constituye la estructura vital que precisa para la "invención" de la historia en América Latina. Enrique Dussel si bien pretende hacerse de un lugar en el seno del discurso filosófico, le resulta casi imposible evitar las huellas en las que se sostiene su pensamiento desde la cultura del cristianismo. Es claro a todas luces, sobre todo en los primeros trabajos a los que me aboco, que no ha podido clausurar las íntimas relaciones entre teología y filosofía presentes en su obra. El texto de 1974, Método para una filosofía de la liberación, y especialmente el tratamiento de la categoría de dialéctica-ana-léctica, estaría marcando un deslinde, motivo de esta investigación, entre una perspectiva claramente eticista de la narración filosófica y una perspectiva teológico-política radical. En dicho texto ensaya un andamiaje teórico claramente diferente de los anteriores, iniciando así una segunda etapa, la cual presenta una decidida apuesta a favor de la arquitectónica de una ética. Al mismo tiempo que se aproxima a las perspectivas universalistas-racionalistas de la tradición habermasiana en su correlato universalista, se distancia de la tradición de pensamiento de la teología política con la que había compartido cierta agenda de preocupaciones en sus trabajos liberacionistas. Mi trabajo, en líneas generales, consiste en exponer las complejidades que presenta la indeterminación de las dimensiones de la teología y de la filosofía, que reportan un beneficio para la comprensión de la obra del autor en relación con la hipótesis de esta investigación. Indago, desde la difícil tarea que resulta explicitar tal indistinción considerando la ambigüedad propia de la producción de Dussel en este período. En algún sentido, tal ambigüedad marcaría la complejidad de concebir modos de pensamientos "sintéticos" de la cultura en Latinoamérica, que lo mostrarían a Dussel en un proceso pendular. Es decir que, en esta etapa primera, que considero nodal, se encontrarían las condiciones de posibilidad de su discurso que, en relación con las tesis liberacionistas, pretende ser una crítica superadora de los postulados de la modernidad. Específicamente, esta indagación, dirigida a precisar la delimitación de las mencionadas dimensiones y el alcance y sentido de la tensión entre ellas con el resultante predominio de la dimensión ética, estará principalmente centrada en los textos de los inicios de su producción (1965-1975), considerando la íntimas relaciones con textos de producción posterior, específicamente los que tratan los tópicos de sujeto e historia, cuestiones que quizás puedan seguir siendo exploradas en su etapa más actual. La investigación está guiada principalmente por la siguiente hipótesis: el aporte teórico dusseliano sobre la comprensión filosófica del sujeto latinoamericano se ve afectado en aspectos importantes de su desarrollo por el desequilibrio que suscita una marcada preponderancia de la condición ética en menoscabo de la condición política, que le concede la propia tradición de la teología cristiana de los teólogos de la liberación. En otras palabras, entiendo que la apuesta teórica de Dussel a favor del campo de la ética, a pesar de ser a todas luces necesaria, pareciera que es por sí sola insuficiente para la comprensión del sujeto, ya que neutraliza la relación política en la que se encuentra anclada la peculiaridad de lo latinoamericano. La contingencia histórica pensada en relación con la politicidad de la praxis disipa su significación al afirmarse en el discurso de la universalidad ética en la narración de la Historia universal. En este sentido, los textos de Dussel nos permiten explicar las limitaciones que parecen definir al sujeto desde la eticidad, sin perder de vista las implicaciones que él mismo tiene en relación con el horizonte crítico al que pertenecen dichas intervenciones teóricas. El problema aquí es precisar si con este anclaje en la universalidad de la esfera ética no se incurre nuevamente en el espacio del paradigma moderno eurocéntrico de la "racionalidad" -especialmente criticado por diversos desarrollos de la propia filosofía de la liberación-, en detrimento de la posibilidad de comprender las formas contingentes y diferenciales con las que se construyen las "identidades latinoamericanas" en la contemporaneidad, formas que exhiben, precisamente, una peculiar impronta política. En tal sentido, surgen interrogantes difícilmente eludibles, sea para la filosofía de la liberación en general, sea para pensadores centrales de dicha tradición como nuestro autor. De este modo, estas reelaboraciones teóricas, ¿no implicarían un compromiso de disolución de la dimensión de diferencia que hacía posible justificar una comprensión "latinoamericana" de los sujetos? Además de comprometer el paradigma moderno del fundamento, al determinar cómo necesaria la relación entre racionalidad y eticidad, dicha disolución ética desplaza uno de los alcances más importantes que compartían las propuestas de la filosofía de la liberación en relación con la praxis política, en el sentido de concebirla como una práctica social de transformación y, por ello, anclada en la contingencia de la historicidad propia del sujeto político. Por otra parte, las definiciones del sujeto latinoamericano caracterizado como oprimido han sido sostenidas de una u otra manera con base en el paradigma moderno de la emancipación, que implicaba necesariamente una filosofía de la historia sobre la cual se edificaba el sentido teleológico de dicho sujeto como un deber ser o proyecto liberador. ¿En qué medida las concepciones de sujeto pobre definido por el autor no están necesitando también un anclaje en una filosofía de la historia? Y si esto es así, ¿en qué medida las aludidas concepciones eticistas del filósofo de la liberación han hecho lugar a un real descentramiento del paradigma moderno? En íntima relación con esto, encontramos la preocupación por las consecuencias de pretender conferir unidad al campo de la filosofía de la liberación a partir de y desde el interior de la reflexión ética, cuestión que en los años setenta se encontraba en disputa. Debe repararse en que no estamos planteando la posibilidad -ni siquiera la necesidad- de un abandono de la tradición del pensamiento de occidente, como tampoco sugiriendo supuestas ventajas de una posición relativista extrema; pero sí la aspiración a que se reconozcan las peculiaridades y especificidades de las experiencias sociales latinoamericanas como diferencias. Es precisamente en el interior de una filosofía latinoamericana íntimamente vinculada con la praxis política que resulta posible señalar y hacer visible el riesgo teórico de sobrevalorar la universalidad en desmedro de la particularidad, sabiendo que la supresión de las diferencias pone en entredicho la pluralidad y la contingencia de lo político. La racionalidad de lo "universal" a la que apelan los autores latinoamericanos entraña en algún sentido este mismo peligro, ya que sus propuestas se asientan en una "universalidad ética" que funciona justificando el accionar colectivo, quedando en un segundo plano la importancia de la acción política misma y el porqué de dicha acción. ¿Podríamos afirmar que estos presupuestos liberacionistas consiguen un equilibrio entre los principios de "totalidad" y "clausura" que caracterizaron la modernidad y la propuesta nihilista de dispersión y diferencia propia de la posmodernidad? También este interrogante encuentra su lugar en el marco de nuestra investigación. Por una parte, a lo largo de mi trabajo me concentro en identificar y analizar las fuentes en las que Dussel ha encontrado materiales y estímulos para la elaboración de una posición propia, la que adoptará perfiles definidos hacia mitad de los setenta del siglo XX. Localizo tales fuentes, pertenecientes a un espectro definido del mundo de lecturas del autor, y las analizo en su relación con los motivos que han suscitado su recepción por parte de aquél. De este modo, procuro determinar la constelación básica de ideas y perspectivas que actúan en la génesis de su posición, sea integrándola de diversas maneras, sea definiéndola por vía negativa, en la medida en que el autor se confronta con ellas y las rechaza parcial o totalmente. Se trata de una reconstrucción en procura de iluminar las articulaciones argumentativas, los alcances y el sentido de su posición a partir del examen de su génesis y del análisis de sus aristas más relevantes de cara al problema filosófico de fondo - el sujeto latinoamericano definido como el pobre- ponderando su coherencia, originalidad y relevancia. Por otra parte, me detengo, precisamente, en la dimensión de la historia, porque considero que ha sido el meollo vital que ha mantenido la coherencia y la consistencia, no sólo en este primer período sino en los distintos momentos de la obra dusseliana. Es decir, que es posible advertir en forma embrionaria esta lógica de la historia, ya sea, desde los primeros textos, que estudio en forma detenida en este trabajo, como así también en sus últimas producciones. Por último, como ya afirmamos, resulta difícil, por no decir casi imposible, un seguimiento cronológico de su desarrollo teórico. El autor escribe en un momento y publica en otro, realizando constantes intervenciones en las nuevas ediciones, razón por la que no siempre es posible precisar claramente las modificaciones más sensibles. Como si se tratara de una estructura vacía -la de la trama de la historia-, el autor va trocando los nombres de las categorías sin variaciones sustanciales en su sistema teórico. Esto me permite también especular que dichos trastocamientos, realizados por el mismo autor, nos indican una consistencia y una coherencia en el desarrollo de su obra que se presenta como invariable a pesar de las modificaciones en ciertas categorías que aparecerían como paradigmáticas. Precisamente, en este punto es en el que hago hincapié porque lo considero relevante como contribución metodológica, en la construcción de las narrativas locales de nuestra propia "Historia de las Ideas". Esta perspectiva presupone una determinada forma de concebir la cultura en la que se asientan los "sentidos" de aquellas construcciones de "la narración poética de la Historia de las Ideas" . En tal dirección, cobra mayor relevancia la pregunta de Elías Palti: "¿cómo abordar la cuestión relativa a la naturaleza periférica de la cultura local, tematizar la peculiaridad de la dinámica que dicha condición le impone a las ideas en la región, sin recaer por ello en los dualismos y, en última instancia, en los esencialismos propios de las corrientes nacionalistas?" La cuestión, entonces, no es tratar de argumentar en pro de la necesidad de la condición periférica como deficiencia, en los términos de carencia, sino más bien, como formulación propia, como "escritura", como las ideas propias de un filosofar latinoamericano. En esta perspectiva es que indago la idea de historia y su relación con la filosofía así como el sujeto pobre por el que la trama cobra sentido en la obra de Enrique Dussel. En el capítulo uno, me detengo en tres campos intelectuales en los que Dussel ha participado de los debates, de las lecturas e interpretaciones teóricas fundamentales y que le sirvieron para pensar el concepto de sujeto ético como pobre. Teniendo presente claramente que el horizonte de comprensión en el que despliega con mayor fuerza su obra y ancla su producción es el de la filosofía de la liberación, este será mi primer registro. En el segundo, desarrollo las derivas del debate de los hegelianos en esta localización realizada por los latinoamericanos como dimensión filosófica más específica. Y en el tercer registro me interesa explicitar las fuentes más cercanas en relación a los autores más trabajados por el autor en este período de preocupación por una filosofía cristiana, particularmente Tresmontant y Daniélou. En el segundo capítulo, expongo más bien las trayectorias de los mundos intelectuales con relación a la cuestión teológica en la que se conciben las preocupaciones de Enrique Dussel. En primer término, me detengo brevemente en la perspectiva de los modernistas cristianos, especialmente de Erich Przywara, quien hilvana una interpretación cristiana de lo teológico con relación a la categoría de dialéctica-analéctica. Teniendo como horizonte de comprensión el problema de la secularización de la cristiandad en América Latina y las implicancias del Concilio Vaticano II y Medellín, describo en qué medida Dussel es deudor de este espacio de producción teológico-filosófica, más específica que promueve la Revista Stromata en ese particular período. Para ello, señalo la relevancia de dichas intervenciones, especialmente en el entramado textual de la obra de Dussel. En último término desarrollo en forma más detallada lo que en ese período de su obra se trató y tematizó como teología de la liberación. Subrayo lo que considero que en esta perspectiva teológica constituyen los puntos nodales con relación a la perspectiva de Dussel para evaluar el alcance de dicha propuesta liberacionista en los términos de una radicalización política. De esta forma, en este capítulo procuro exponer el modo pendular de escritura que sigue el autor desde una filosofía cristiana a la teología de la liberación. En el tercer capítulo, expongo las coordenadas teóricas en las que es posible concebir el eje central de la hipótesis de esta investigación: la constitución del sujeto pobre en la obra temprana de Dussel. Para ello, primero desarrollo las tensiones problemáticas presentes en el interior de la filosofía cristiana, especialmente en relación con las definiciones de cultura latinoamericana, sin perder de vista la definición del "núcleo ético-mítico" de Paul Ricoeur como la perspectiva hermenéutica en la que se encuentra el autor. Finalmente, me detengo en las variaciones que desarrolla desde la dialéctica a la ana-léctica, en vistas a elaborar la noción de "Otro", considerando los alcances y los beneficios de la noción de "cara a cara" de Emmanuel Levinas en la configuración del sujeto pobre de Dussel. En el capítulo cuatro, exploro la dimensión de la historicidad que le sirve de fundamento en la construcción de su Historia de América Latina en la Historia universal. En este último capítulo retomo lo tratado con relación al "núcleo ético-mítico" con el fin de evaluar su fecundidad en el tratamiento de la historia. Al mismo tiempo, indago en la forma de la narración filosófica que constituye la trama que le permite al autor establecer las vinculaciones entre la cultura cristiana y el sujeto pobre, que resultan inescindibles de "la imaginación histórica" que sustenta la narración de la historia en la filosofía de la liberación en sentido restringido. Todo esto, en vistas a evaluar la eficacia de las fuentes teóricas en relación con uno de los puntos neurálgicos que se pretendía "liberar" en su crítica a la modernidad. ; Fil: Gramaglia, Paola. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Filosofía y Humanidades. Secretaría de Posgrado; Argentina. ; Otras Filosofía, Étnica y Religión

AMÉRICA LATINALa OEA y las pandillas dialogan para pacificar El Salvador. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/tregua-entre-pandillas-de-el-salvador-deja-descenso-en-homicidios_12032596-4 http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78653.html http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/13/actualidad/1342144200_552454.htmlEmbajador ante OEA: 'No hay motivos para sancionar a Paraguay' Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/embajador-de-paraguay-ante-oea-dice-que-no-hay-motivos-para-sancin_12035679-4Paraguay pedirá observadores internacionales para elecciones de 2013. Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/observadores-internacionales-para-elecciones-en-paraguay_12040201-4 http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/4DCF7AF2-3B30-4637-AF34-D03B49A3C9E9.htm?id={4DCF7AF2-3B30-4637-AF34-D03B49A3C9E9}La campaña en Venezuela: Chávez continúa como favorito, pero Capriles recorta la ventaja. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/ong-denuncia-abusos-de-poder-cometidos-no-governo-de-chavez-5497867#ixzz20vof29uR http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78654.html http://gauche.blog.lemonde.fr/2012/07/16/m-melenchon-transporte-au-pays-de-hugo-chavez/ http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490994-chavez-continua-como-favorito-pero-capriles-recorta-la-ventaja#comentar http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490577-la-imagen-de-capriles-crece-pero-no-logra-detener-los-ataques-aliados#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/chvez-aventaja-por-15-puntos-a-capriles-revela-encuesta-en-venezuela_12034305-4 Los indígenas de Colombia se rebelan contra la violencia de las FARC. Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/11/actualidad/1342004330_713460.html Toma de tierras genera alarma en Honduras.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78659.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/11/world/americas/honduras-operation-anvil/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 Apoyo a Ollanta Humala cae a 40% por conflictos sociales. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/FCF675B8-2300-43FF-81C8-475FB6CDCA6D.htm?id={FCF675B8-2300-43FF-81C8-475FB6CDCA6D} El enfoque de la política exterior de Peña Nieto. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/E277E1CC-F566-46EC-B579-E05281D2592C.htm?id={E277E1CC-F566-46EC-B579-E05281D2592C} Criminalidad en México: Calderón dice que bajó tasa de homicidios. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/44BA4A79-F832-47A1-9A71-40B7BB83550F.htm?id={44BA4A79-F832-47A1-9A71-40B7BB83550F} http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/14/actualidad/1342286287_360991.html "CNN" analiza situación de migrantes centroamericanos en México. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/14/world/americas/mexico-immigrant-shelter/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Importante fugitivo estadounidense capturado en México.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/14/12743433-fugitive-on-us-most-wanted-list-is-captured-in-mexico?lite La pelea entre Santos y Uribe divide a la derecha colombiana. Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/16/actualidad/1342442039_118336.html Chile: dos oficiales, procesados por las torturas y asesinato del padre de la ex presidenta Bachelet. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/chile-tortura-matou-pai-de-michelle-bachelet-5504223#ixzz20voTe8qi http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1491183-chile-dos-oficiales-procesados-por-las-torturas-y-asesinato-del-padre-de-la-ex-presidenta-ba#comentar Cuba emprende lucha contra brote de cólera en su territorio.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/12/world/americas/cuba-cholera-doctors/index.html?hpt=wo_bn8 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/latinoamerica/cuba-emprende-lucha-contra-brote-de-clera-en-su-territorio_12033758-4 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/americas/economists-question-cubas-commitment-to-privatizing-businesses.html?_r=1&ref=world&gwh=AEF489DED953829F7206F8C93F7BC84E "El País" de Madrid analiza relación actual del movimiento sindical con la presidenta argentina. Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/13/actualidad/1342139368_040972.html Dilma Rousseff lanza paquete de incentivos para potenciar la industria militar brasileña. Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/_portada/noticias/E9BE7D4D-0931-4437-97DE-4CCD36D4A411.htm?id={E9BE7D4D-0931-4437-97DE-4CCD36D4A411} Pierde fuerza en Brasil la cruzada anticorrupción.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490735-pierde-fuerza-en-brasil-la-cruzada-anticorrupcion#comentar Cardoso: "Brasil es menos influyente". Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490736-cardoso-brasil-es-menos-influyente#comentar"Los Ángeles Times" analiza realidad social haitiana tras el terremoto de 2010.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-haiti-housing-20120715,0,979717.storyESTADOS UNIDOS / CANADÁEstados Unidos en plena campaña presidencial.Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/18/content_15592741.htm http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490747-los-rebeldes-le-reprochan-a-obama-su-pasividad#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/elecciones-en-estados-unidos-equipo-de-obama-ataca-a-romney_12030788-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/barack-obama-no-ofrecer-disculpas-a-mitt-romney_12033752-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2012/07/17/les-etats-unis-connaissent-leur-pire-secheresse-depuis-plus-de-50-ans_1734505_3244.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/70F54CE7-CCC2-4206-8B03-EF5FDAD8FD6F.htm?id={70F54CE7-CCC2-4206-8B03-EF5FDAD8FD6F} http://elpais.com/tag/elecciones_eeuu_2012/a/Un barco militar de Estados Unidos abre fuego contra un bote en aguas del golfo Pérsico.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/16/actualidad/1342458571_053421.html http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-us-india-apology-20120718,0,466917.story http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587828.htm http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/middleeast/united-states-navy-ship-fires-on-boat-off-coast-of-united-arab-emirates.html?ref=world&gwh=580D5EDDD2F62CB1C518ADF9B5EBF3CA Acusan a menores en Estados Unidos de matar a golpes a inmigrante mexicano.Para más información: www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/acusan-a-menores-en-eeuu-de-matar-a-golpes-a-inmigrante-mexicano_12036626-4Tiroteo dos muertos y 19 heridos en Toronto. Para más información: http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/tiroteio-deixa-dois-mortos-19-feridos-em-toronto-no-canada-5495171#ixzz20vojS5mUEstados Unidos rechaza la oferta de Annan de que Irán participe en la transición en Siria.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/11/actualidad/1342037410_130149.html El Senado de Estados Unidos acusa a HSBC de blanqueo de dinero del narcotráfico.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/17/actualidad/1342508679_820810.html http://www.lemonde.fr/economie/article/2012/07/17/lutte-anti-blanchiment-un-rapport-parlementaire-americain-pointe-les-carences-d-hsbc_1734511_3234.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587732.htmEUROPAEl futuro del euro atado al ajuste en España.Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-18094883 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1491011-el-futuro-del-euro-atado-al-ajuste-en-espana#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/espaa-a-la-espera-del-temido-septiembre_12032083-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490546-advierten-que-espana-deberia-pedir-un-segundo-rescate-a-europa#comentarCrece el malestar social contra Rajoy por los recortes.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1491010-crece-el-malestar-social-contra-rajoy-por-los-recortes#comentar http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/86BC79C3-A361-45D5-8C58-9E1C14B08A1D.htm?id={86BC79C3-A361-45D5-8C58-9E1C14B08A1D} Servicios secretos alemanes advierten de nuevo terrorismo de ultraderecha.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/servicios-secretos-alemanes-advierten-nuevo-terrorismo-ultraderechista_12041501-4 Seguridad de los Olímpicos estaría en vilo.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/europa/seguridad-de-los-olmpicos-estara-en-vilo_12032087-4 http://edition.cnn.com/2012/06/28/travel/heathrow-airport-london-olympics/index.html?hpt=wo_c1 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/world/europe/british-parliament-investigates-olympics-chaos.html?ref=world&gwh=E21F104A68E99F62E93B5BA6DF2F2914 Unión Europea entrena fuerzas nigerianas contra su lucha con Al Qaeda. Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/16/12773236-european-union-mission-to-train-niger-forces-to-fight-al-qaida?lite Hollande presenta el consejo de sabios que "limpiará" la vida pública.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/16/actualidad/1342452210_585106.html http://www.lemonde.fr/politique/article/2012/07/16/regle-d-or-et-constitution-mais-comment-compte-faire-hollande_1734329_823448.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/18/content_15592821.htmEncuentran en Hungría al criminal nazi más buscado del mundo. Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2012/07/17/radovan-karadzic-accuse-de-genocide-danger-pour-tous_1734254_3232.html http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/07/17/le-criminel-nazi-laszlo-csatary-aurait-fui-son-domicile_1734521_3214.html http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/0D556C10-24BB-4277-BDC0-38EE3F5149EA.htm?id={0D556C10-24BB-4277-BDC0-38EE3F5149EA} http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18884106. http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/nazista-mais-procurado-do-mundo-encontrado-em-budapeste-5482845 Rusia acusa a Occidente de hacer chantaje con la misión de la ONU.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/16/actualidad/1342461553_894080.html Annan en Moscú por conflicto en Siria. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/16/content_15583063.htmAprobada la conflictiva división del distrito de Bruselas.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/13/actualidad/1342201123_461591.htmlHSBC se disculpa por casos de lavado de dinero.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/estados-unidos/hsbc-se-disculpa-por-casos-de-lavado-de-dinero_12041301-4Atentado en Sofía deja al menos 7 muertos.http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1491431-atentado-en-bulgaria-contra-una-comitiva-de-turistas-israelies http://www.lemonde.fr/europe/article/2012/07/18/attentat-meurtrier-contre-des-israeliens-en-bulgarie_1735418_3214.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/19/world/europe/explosion-on-bulgaria-tour-bus-kills-at-least-four-israelis.html?_r=1&hp&gwh=97A160EA3577E658088E69075D477BA1Rusia y la ONU analizan posibles soluciones para el conflicto en Siria.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/17/actualidad/1342506302_589902.htmlASIA- PACÍFICO/ MEDIO ORIENTEContinúan las matanzas indiscriminadas en Siria: Damasco sufre los peores combates.Para más información: http://worldnews.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/17/12794303-syrian-general-tlas-in-france-following-defection?lite http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/confrontos-chegam-ao-centro-de-damasco-apenas-2km-do-palacio-5495574#ixzz20vqvx9un http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-syria-damascus-fighting-20120718,0,1068141.story http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587727.htm http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/middleeast/new-fighting-in-damascus-after-syria-denies-attack-on-civilians.html?ref=world&gwh=9CA06F0BDA70FC8EE10DE27FCF32E5D9 http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/17/actualidad/1342519414_504170.html http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/07/17/damas-en-guerre-tournant-dans-la-revolte-contre-le-pouvoir-d-assad_1734518_3218.html http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/07/17/les-divergences-s-accentuent-entre-russes-et-occidentaux-sur-la-syrie_1734557_3218.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/16/world/meast/syria-unrest/index.html?hpt=wo_c2Irán se ofrece como mediador en conflicto sirio. Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/15/world/meast/iran-syria/index.html?hpt=wo_bn11 El Comité Internacional de la Cruz Roja declaró que el conflicto ha alcanzado tal amplitud y gravedad que ya puede considerarse como una "guerra civil". Para más información: http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/_portada/noticias/4262DBC3-C8B9-42FD-A78B-C3477719A344.htm?id={4262DBC3-C8B9-42FD-A78B-C3477719A344} Ministro de Defensa sirio muere en explosión en Damasco.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/ministro-defensa-sirio-muere-en-explosion-en-damasco-tv-estatal_12041541-4 http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/rebeldes-sirios-anuncian-gran-ofensiva-contra-las-fuerzas-de-asad_12036961-4 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18882149 Más de 112.000 refugiados sirios viven en Líbano, Turquía, Jordania e Irak.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/16/actualidad/1342460935_768958.html 'No actuar en Siria es darles licencia para matar': Ban Ki-moon.Para más información: www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/onu-condena-masacre-de-150-personas-en-siria_12030421-4ONU trata de ayudar a Siria pero no logra satisfacer las necesidades.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/onu-trata-de-ayudar-a-siria-pero-no-logra-satisfacer-las-necesidades_12034047-4Kim Jong-Un nombra a un nuevo alto mando del Ejército.Para más información: http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-north-korea-dismissal-20120717,0,4588711.story http://diario.elmercurio.com/2012/07/16/internacional/internacional/noticias/ABCDE3E9-4298-43E8-8666-D34D18692C78.htm?id={ABCDE3E9-4298-43E8-8666-D34D18692C78} http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/15/world/asia/north-korea-army-chief/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/07/17/pyongyang-nomme-un-nouveau-vice-marechal-de-l-armee_1734513_3216.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587763.htmHyon Yong-Chol será una pieza clave del presidente norcoreano para controlar totalmente a las Fuerzas Armadas.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/17/actualidad/1342509346_084341.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/18/world/asia/shifts-in-north-korea-may-be-attempt-to-rein-in-military.html?ref=world&gwh=76401E3CBC4CC41356FB4B51058553C4 Kim empieza a imponer su estilo en Corea del Norte.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490978-kim-empieza-a-imponer-su-estilo-en-corea-del-norte#comentar http://oglobo.globo.com/mundo/para-especialistas-saias-de-norte-coreanas-dizem-muito-sobre-pais-5492829#ixzz20vqz6FsfAtentado en una boda en Kabul: 23 muertos.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490538-atentado-en-una-boda-en-kabul-23-muertos#comentar http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/al-menos-17-muertos-en-un-ataque-suicida-en-una-boda-en-afganistn_12030541-4 http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1490464-al-menos-veintitres-muertos-en-un-ataque-suicida-contra-una-boda-en-el-norte-de-afganistan#comentar20 muertos y 230.000 evacuados en Japón por lluvias torrenciales.Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/asia/floods-in-japan-displace-hundreds-of-thousands.html?ref=world&gwh=94150277955BA2AEBC85448E35CADBCE http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/14/actualidad/1342268011_634794.html http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/16/world/asia/japan-floods/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 Clinton visita Israel. Para más información: http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587683.htm http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/asia/thousands-gather-in-tokyo-to-protest-nuclear-restart.html?ref=world&gwh=00C9D8719334275AF674614A576C5B8FJaponeses contra la energía nuclear.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78656.html http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2012-07/17/content_15587765.htm China en guardia ante la crisis.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/15/actualidad/1342373596_639513.html http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-china-gdp-20120713,0,783927.storyViudas de la guerra levantan un barrio con sus propias manos en Kabul.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/viudas-de-la-guerra-levantan-un-barrio-con-sus-propias-manos-en-kabul_12038483-4 Condenado a muerte el soldado afgano que mató a 5 militares franceses.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/condenado-a-muerte-el-soldado-afgano-que-mat-a-5-militares-franceses_12036781-4 http://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2012/07/17/le-soldat-afghan-meurtrier-de-cinq-militaires-francais-condamne-a-mort_1734527_3216.htmlAumenta número de deslizamientos de tierras al sur de Asia. Para más información: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-18872398ÁFRICAHillary Clinton expresó su apoyo a 'transición completa' en Egipto.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/medio-oriente/hillary-clinton-expres-su-apoyo-a-transicin-completa-en-egipto_12033750-4 http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-egypt-clinton-20120715,0,376110.story Clinton insta a la Junta militar egipcia a cooperar con el presidente Morsi.Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/15/actualidad/1342363915_980700.html Naciones Unidas condena actos de grupos rebeldes en Congo. Para más información: http://photoblog.msnbc.msn.com/_news/2012/07/17/12787052-un-condemns-congo-attacks-as-rebel-advance-threatens-goma?liteHistórica decisión de la Unión Africana. Para más información: http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/07/17/bamako-annonce-des-concertations-pour-un-gouvernement-d-union_1734502_3212.html http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/africa/a-historic-choice-for-the-african-union.html?ref=world&gwh=EE0AA064539A838437181EF67899E531 Mubarak continúa hospitalizado.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/16/world/africa/egypt-mubarak/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/middleeast/egypts-former-leader-mubarak-is-transferred-back-to-prison.html?ref=world&gwh=BC8A1852D8F47652373D75A8BC4E3D92 Egipto: liberan a turistas estadounidenses.Para más información: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/16/world/meast/egypt-americans-kidnapped/index.html?hpt=wo_c2 http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/middleeast/egypt-american-tourists-released.html?ref=world&gwh=475BFF001B0C5D8E348B7E3970805224 http://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2012/07/16/egypte-liberation-de-deux-touristes-americains-enleves-dans-le-sinai_1734447_3212.html Cruz Roja envía alimentos a Mali. Para más información: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/17/world/africa/mali-red-cross-prepares-food-aid.html?ref=world&gwh=01D96D2AF203E05076AC0E1F6E0C09C4 Morsi vs. Corte, una nueva lucha de poder en Egipto.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/morsi-vs-corte-una-nueva-lucha-de-poder-en-egipto_12032085- Sudán del sur, un país que continúa en construcción.Para más información: http://www.eltiempo.com/mundo/africa/sudn-del-sur-un-pas-que-contina-en-construccin_12032081-4 OTRASAdvertencia del FMI por China y Brasil.Para más información: http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1491012-advertencia-del-fmi-por-china-y-brasil#comentar"En todos los casos de la Corte Penal Internacional aparece la violencia sexual".Para más información: http://internacional.elpais.com/internacional/2012/07/14/actualidad/1342281593_350369.html ONU lanza campaña contra crimen organizado.Para más información: http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/internacional/78650.html"The Economist" presenta su informe semanal: "Business this week". Para más información: http://www.economist.com/node/21558323

Ali E. Abbas (" Decomposing the Cross Derivatives of a Multiattribute Utility Function into Risk Attitude and Value ") received the M.S. degree in electrical engineering, the M.S. degree in engineering economic systems and operations research, the Ph.D. degree in management science and engineering, and the Ph.D. (minor) degree in electrical engineering, all from Stanford University, Stanford, California. He was a lecturer in the Department of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford. He previously worked for Schlumberger Oilfield Services, where he held several international positions in wireline logging, operations management, and international training. He was also involved with several consulting projects for mergers and acquisitions in California, and was a co-teacher of several executive seminars on decision analysis at Strategic Decisions Group, Menlo Park, California. He is currently an associate professor in the Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Champaign. His research interests include utility theory, decision making with incomplete information and preferences, dynamic programming, and information theory. Dr. Abbas is a member of INFORMS, a senior member of the IEEE, an associate editor for Decision Analysis and Operations Research, and an editor of the DA column in education for Decision Analysis Today. Address: Department of Industrial and Enterprise Systems Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, 117 Transportation Building, MC-238, 104 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801; e-mail: aliabbas@uiuc.edu . Vicki M. Bier (" Deterring the Smuggling of Nuclear Weapons in Container Freight Through Detection and Retaliation ") holds a joint appointment as professor in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering and the Department of Engineering Physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she chairs the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering. She has directed the Center for Human Performance and Risk Analysis (formerly the Center for Human Performance in Complex Systems) since 1995. She has more than 20 years of experience in risk analysis for the nuclear power, chemical, petrochemical, and aerospace industries. Before returning to academia, she spent seven years as a consultant at Pickard, Lowe and Garrick, Inc. While there, her clients included the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the U.S. Department of Energy, and a number of nuclear utilities, and she prepared testimony for Atomic Safety and Licensing Board hearings on the safety of the Indian Point nuclear power plants. Dr. Bier's current research focuses on applications of risk analysis and related methods to problems of security and critical infrastructure protection, under support from the Department of Homeland Security. She is also currently serving as a special term appointee for the Infrastructure Assurance Center at Argonne National Laboratory. Address: Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, 1513 University Avenue, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI 53706; e-mail: bier@engr.wisc.edu . Robert F. Bordley (" Using Bayes' Rule to Update an Event's Probabilities Based on the Outcomes of Partially Similar Events ") is an INFORMS Fellow and a winner of the best publication award from the Decision Analysis Society as well as five major application awards from General Motors. He is a General Motors Technical Fellow with experience in research, planning, quality, marketing, corporate strategy, and procurement. He is also an adjunct professor at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and was formerly program director of Decision, Risk and Management Sciences at the National Science Foundation. Dr. Bordley has published 75 papers in decision analysis, marketing, and operations management. He has also served as chair of the American Statistical Association's Risk Analysis Section (which now has 1000 members), vice president of the Production and Operations Management Society, and a member of the INFORMS Board and the Decision Analysis Society Council. He earned a Ph.D. and M.S. in operations research and an M.B.A. in finance from the University of California, Berkeley. His primary interests have been in theoretical developments enabling high-impact application of decision analysis in a wide variety of corporate contexts (e.g., engineering design, corporate strategy, procurement, program management, etc.). Address: General Motors, Pontiac Centerpoint Campus North, 585 South Boulevard, Pontiac, MI 48341; e-mail: robert.bordley@gm.com , rbordley@umich.edu . Heidi M. Crane (" Whether to Retest the Lipids of HIV-Infected Patients: How Much Does Fasting Bias Matter? ") is an assistant professor of medicine at the University of Washington (UW) School of Medicine and the associate director of Clinical Epidemiology and Health Services Research at the UW Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), which promotes research comparing the effectiveness of management strategies for HIV-infected patients in routine clinical practice. She is co–principal investigator (PI) of a PROMIS (Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information Systems) National Institutes of Health Roadmap initiative U01 on measuring patient reported outcomes in clinical care for HIV-infected patients and PI of a National Institute of Mental Health R01 project on measuring and improving adherence for HIV-infected patients in clinical care. She is also medical director of the Madison HIV Metabolic clinic, PI of an American Heart Association grant on myocardial infarction and metabolic complications among patients with HIV, and PI of an Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality grant on comparative effectiveness of antihypertensive and lipid-lowering medication among HIV-infected patients. She provides care and training in the clinical care of HIV-infected individuals, and she also mentors junior investigators in HIV research in the UW Division of Infectious Diseases. Dr. Crane is a member of the Data Management Centers for the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases–funded CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems (CNICS) research platform of real-time electronic health record data for 22,000 patients from eight CFARs across the United States, and the International Epidemiological Databases to Evaluate AIDS project's North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD), which merges data on 110,000 HIV-infected individuals in care at 60 sites across the United States and Canada. Dr. Crane leads the CNICS Patient Reported Outcomes Committee and the CNICS and NA-ACCORD myocardial infarction event adjudication teams. Dr. Crane's research focuses on methods to improve clinical care for HIV-infected individuals as well as metabolic and other chronic comorbidities of HIV. She received her internal medicine residency training from Barnes and Jewish Hospitals, and her B.A., B.S., M.D., M.P.H. and Infectious Disease Fellowship training from the UW. Address: Harborview Medical Center, 325 9th Avenue, Box 359931, Seattle, WA 98104; e-mail: hcrane@u.washington.edu . Naraphorn Haphuriwat (" Deterring the Smuggling of Nuclear Weapons in Container Freight Through Detection and Retaliation ") is a researcher at the National Metal and Materials Technology Center in Thailand. She applies tools including optimization, decision analysis, and process simulation to improve production processes and operations for small and medium enterprises. She earned her Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering in August 2010. During her doctoral study, she was supported by the Center for Risk and Economic Analysis of Terrorism Events (CREATE) at the University of Southern California, where she conducted game-theoretic studies in the applications of security. She also received an honorable mention in the 2004–2005 University Book Store Academic Excellence Award Competition for a project related to computer security. Address: 114 Thailand Science Park, Paholyothin Road, Klong 1, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand; e-mail: naraphoh@mtec.or.th . Joseph B. Kadane (" Whether to Retest the Lipids of HIV-Infected Patients: How Much Does Fasting Bias Matter? ") is Leonard J. Savage University Professor of Statistics and Social Sciences, Emeritus, at Carnegie Mellon University. His research focus is on both foundational issues of Bayesian analysis and applications in many settings. These currently include physics, phylogenetics, air pollution, Internet security, law, and medicine, as well as Internet auctions. He also serves as an expert witness in legal matters. Address: Tepper School of Business, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213; e-mail: kadane@andrew.cmu.edu . L. Robin Keller (" From the Editors: Deterrence, Multiattribute Utility, and Probability and Bayes' Updating ") is a professor of operations and decision technologies in the Merage School of Business at the University of California, Irvine. She received her Ph.D. and M.B.A. in management science and her B.A. in mathematics from the University of California, Los Angeles. She has served as a program director for the Decision, Risk, and Management Science Program of the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF). Her research is on decision analysis and risk analysis for business and policy decisions and has been funded by NSF and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Her research interests cover multiple-attribute decision making, riskiness, fairness, probability judgments, ambiguity of probabilities or outcomes, risk analysis (for terrorism, environmental, health, and safety risks), time preferences, problem structuring, cross-cultural decisions, and medical decision making. She is currently Editor-in-Chief of Decision Analysis, published by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences (INFORMS). She is a Fellow of INFORMS and has held numerous roles in INFORMS, including board member and chair of the INFORMS Decision Analysis Society. She is a recipient of the George F. Kimball Medal from INFORMS. She has served as the decision analyst on three National Academy of Sciences committees. Address: The Paul Merage School of Business, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697-3125; e-mail: lrkeller@uci.edu . Mari M. Kitahata (" Whether to Retest the Lipids of HIV-Infected Patients: How Much Does Fasting Bias Matter? ") is professor of medicine at the University of Washington (UW) School of Medicine, director of Clinical Epidemiology and Health Services Research at the Center for AIDS Research (CFAR), and principal investigator of the UW HIV Cohort. She has provided care and training in the clinical management of HIV-infected individuals for two decades, and she mentors investigators in HIV research in the UW Division of Infectious Diseases. Dr. Kitahata studies the outcomes of care for persons with HIV infection, and her research has elucidated key determinants of increased survival, including care managed by physicians with HIV expertise and earlier initiation of antiretroviral treatment. The need for observational research to complement the invaluable information provided by randomized controlled trials has grown tremendously, which is why she established the CFAR Clinical Epidemiology and Health Services Research program at UW in 1995 and was among the first CFARs in the United States to do so. Dr. Kitahata developed the structure and methods to merge comprehensive HIV patient data and biological specimens from multiple settings into a powerful resource for researchers conducting basic, translational, clinical outcomes/comparative effectiveness, and behavioral/prevention research. She has led efforts to establish networks of national and international HIV research collaborations to address the most pressing questions regarding treatment and outcomes for HIV-infected individuals that cannot be answered through smaller cohort studies. Dr. Kitahata directs the Data Management Centers for the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases–funded CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems (CNICS) research platform of real-time electronic health record (EHR) data for 22,000 patients from eight CFARs across the United States, and the International Epidemiological Databases to Evaluate AIDS project's North American AIDS Cohort Collaboration on Research and Design (NA-ACCORD), which merges data on 110,000 HIV-infected individuals in care at 60 sites across the United States and Canada. Dr. Kitahata serves on the Board of Directors for the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) HIV Medicine Association, the U.S. Public Health Service/IDSA Guidelines Committee for Prevention of Opportunistic Infections, and the International Training and Education Center on HIV (I-TECH), where she developed a national EHR system for the Haitian Ministry of Health. Dr. Kitahata received her B.S. from Yale University, M.D. from the University of Pennsylvania, internal medicine residency training at the University of California, San Francisco, and M.P.H. and Fellowship training at the University of Washington, where she was a Robert Wood Johnson Clinical Scholar. Address: University of Washington Medical Center, 1959 NE Pacific Street, UW Box 356423, Seattle, WA 98195-6423; e-mail: kitahata@u.washington.edu . Sanjeev R. Kulkarni (" Aggregating Large Sets of Probabilistic Forecasts by Weighted Coherent Adjustment ") is a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Princeton University. He is also an affiliated faculty member in the Department of Operations Research and Financial Engineering and the Department of Philosophy. Prior to joining Princeton, he was a member of the technical staff at MIT Lincoln Laboratory. During his time at Princeton, he has held visiting or consulting positions with Australian National University, Susquehanna International Group, and Flarion Technologies. Professor Kulkarni has served as an associate editor for the IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, and he is a Fellow of the IEEE. His research interests include statistical pattern recognition, nonparametric statistics, learning and adaptive systems, information theory, wireless networks, and image/video processing. Address: School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544; e-mail: kulkarni@princeton.edu . Daniel N. Osherson (" Aggregating Large Sets of Probabilistic Forecasts by Weighted Coherent Adjustment ") earned his Ph.D. in psychology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1973. Since then he has taught at Stanford University, the University of Pennsylvania, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Università San Raffael, Rice University, and Princeton University. His work centers on probability judgment and learning. Address: Department of Psychology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544; e-mail: osherson@princeton.edu . H. Vincent Poor (" Aggregating Large Sets of Probabilistic Forecasts by Weighted Coherent Adjustment ") is dean of the School of Engineering and Applied Science at Princeton University, where he is also the Michael Henry Strater University Professor of Electrical Engineering. He holds a Ph.D. from Princeton. His research interests are in the areas of statistical signal processing, stochastic analysis, and information theory, and their applications to wireless networks and related fields. Among his publications in these areas are the recent books Quickest Detection (Cambridge University Press, 2009) and Information Theoretic Security (NOW Publishers, 2009). Dean Poor is a member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, and he is a Fellow of the IEEE, the Institute of Mathematical Statistics, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Royal Academy of Engineering of the United Kingdom. A former Guggenheim Fellow, recent recognition of his work included the Institution of Engineering and Technology Ambrose Fleming Medal, the IEEE Eric E. Sumner Award, and an honorary D.Sc. from the University of Edinburgh. Address: School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544; e-mail: poor@princeton.edu . Guanchun Wang (" Aggregating Large Sets of Probabilistic Forecasts by Weighted Coherent Adjustment ") received an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering at Shanghai Jiao Tong University. He is currently a Ph.D. student in the Department of Electrical Engineering at Princeton University. His research interests include statistical learning, information retrieval, and judgment aggregation. He also worked as a summer associate for McKinsey's technology practice. Address: School of Engineering and Applied Science, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544; e-mail: guanchun@princeton.edu . Henry H. Willis (" Deterring the Smuggling of Nuclear Weapons in Container Freight Through Detection and Retaliation ") is a professor of policy analysis at the Pardee RAND Graduate School and the associate director of the RAND Homeland Security and Defense Center. His research has applied risk analysis tools to resource allocation and risk management decisions in the areas of public health and emergency preparedness, terrorism and national security policy, energy and environmental policy, and transportation planning. Dr. Willis serves on the editorial board of the journal Risk Analysis and served on the National Academies of Science Committee on Evaluating Testing, Costs, and Benefits of Advanced Spectroscopic Portals. He earned his Ph.D. from the Department of Engineering and Public Policy at Carnegie Mellon University and holds degrees in chemistry and environmental studies from the University of Pennsylvania (B.A.) and in environmental science from the University of Cincinnati (M.A.). Address: RAND Corporation, 4570 Fifth Avenue, Suite 600, Pittsburgh, PA 15213; e-mail: hwillis@rand.org . Xiting (Cindy) Yang (" Whether to Retest the Lipids of HIV-Infected Patients: How Much Does Fasting Bias Matter? ") completed her Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University in the area of elicitation, specifically focusing on elicitation of expert knowledge on phylogenies in the format of rooted trees. She is currently a statistical reviewer at the Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Her current research focuses on clinical trials and elicitation. Address: U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Building 66, Room 2223, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002; e-mail: xiting.yang@fda.hhs.gov .

'It is a lesson which all history teaches wise men, to put trust in ideas, and not in circumstances'.Ralph Waldo Emerson'It is precisely in times of national emergencies that civil liberties must be defended and protected most forcefully. If not, then governments will be given incentives to constantly create crises, or perceptions of crises, and declaring "official states of emergency" in order to grab more and more power and money and destroy more and more liberty and prosperity'.United States Supreme Court (Ex Parte Milligan. 1866)IntroductionSince the September 11 attacks, the notion of state of exception has been used in order to coin the legal and political repercussions of the 'War on Terror'. These, by being labeled within the state of emergency's legal -or extralegal- framework, have been able to be constitutionally justified and, also, ethically criticized. Proponents of draconian measures consider that, in certain circumstances, necessity dictates policies aimed at protecting the State from terrorist attacks. They deem terrorism an imminent and serious threat capable of destroying the institutions that give political cohesion to society. Denying, suspending and limiting certain individual rights amount to a lesser evil; compared to the, apparently, almost certain greater evil that terrorists embody. On the other hand, advocates of the inviolability of the rule of law believe that under any situation a democratic government should allow urgency and peril prevail over the constitutionally recognized political and human rights. For them, counterterrorism should not rely on extralegal actions 'legitimized' by the state of exception. The State already has the legal and adequate tools, provided by the police and criminal justice, to persecute terrorists. Democracies that recur to lesser evil arguments to fight terrorism always end up committing more damage that the one they were trying to prevent.This essay will analyze the state of exception by studying the legal and the political-social natures of it. Various arguments, in favor and against the exception, will be showcased by continuously referring to the War on Terror and its effects on the legal system and democracy. Lastly, a conclusion will address the importance of this debate in current politics and society. The State of ExceptionThe state of exception or emergency can be studied under two different kinds of views: the legal and the political-social ones. The former defines the state of emergency, within the various constitutional frameworks of current modern democracies, as a temporary measure that limits or suspends certain individual freedoms within the territory of the State . It is prompted by a critical and imminent, domestic or foreign, threat to the State's existence. Under this scenario, necessity overcomes the 'normal' rule of law. Consequentially, individual freedoms are limited while police, security and military agencies' powers are enhanced. The debate regarding the state of exception's legal aspect circles around the constitutionality of its enactment, the variety of faculties attributed to the State's security forces and, more importantly, the personal rights suspension's lawfulness. Politically and socially, the state of emergency is conceived either as the pivotal attribute that defines the sovereign body as such; or, either as the transitional step required for -'legitimately'- transforming a democracy into a dictatorship. The former perception links the state of exception with the concept of sovereigntyunderstood as the State's existence as an organized polity . The latter one considers any type of restriction to individual freedoms as a permanent damage to the fabrics of democracy . The Legal Nature of the State of Exception The legal, and political, origin of the state of emergency is to be found in ancient Roman law. According to the lex de dictatore creando, whenever the Roman Republic was in grave danger, the Senate designated an extraordinary magistrate that was invested with absolute and total authority over the Republic . Subsequently, a provisional dictatorship was instituted that lasted for six months or until the threat passed. The republican and the dictatorship authorities, to the Romans, were complementary; quite the opposite of how democracies and authoritarian regimes are understood today. However, Roman dictators quickly learned how to indefinitely prolong their authority by perpetuating foreign wars through the creation of an Empire.The institution of the Roman provisional dictatorship is the historical legal inception of the various types of state of emergency that are currently present within modern constitutions. Broadly speaking, in every constitution the state of exception is declared by the head of the executive power whenever the normal functions of the State's institutions are no longer guaranteed because of foreign attack or domestic unrest. Fundamental liberties and rights -such as habeas corpus, freedom of movement and public gathering among others- are suspended or severely restricted. In most cases, the executive is entitled to order the arrest of individuals and to set military commissions for their trials. The security forces' faculties are enhanced and the military is allowed to take on police activities. Depending on the country, the state of emergency could be declared to last for days, months or years and it can even be extended indefinitely number of times . The debate concerning the state of exception's legal aspect comprises three main issues: its constitutionality; the amount of power given to the security forces; and, the limits set on fundamental freedoms, individual rights and constitutional guarantees. The state of emergency's constitutional validity considers under which cases it can be declared. As stated before, it is necessity that calls for the establishment of exception. It is necessary to give to the executive branch of government extraordinary powers and authority in order to prevent the State's breakdown from an imminent and grave danger. This peril can be prompted by a domestic or foreign threat. The latter are not sufficiently, and narrowly, defined by modern constitutions. Normally, they invoke a military invasion by a foreign country or an internal insurrection; but both of them are broad cases and can be loosely interpreted. Taking the U.S. Constitution, for example, the state of emergency is only referred to in Article I, Section 9 where it states: 'The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.'Therefore, only in the cases of rebellion –domestic threat- and invasion –foreign threat- the state of exception can be enacted. Regrettably, the Constitution does not define what constitutes a rebellion or an invasion. The task was left for legal experts and the Judiciary to tackle; but, it has not been easy or even coherent.The Supreme Court had the opportunity to take on the constitutionality of the state of emergency after President Lincoln had declared it in 1861 . In Ex Parte Milligan, it was decided that the suspension of the habeas corpus and the setting of military tribunals for citizens was unconstitutional because, even if a rebellion was in course, civilian courts were still operating. Additionally, the Supreme Court went even further by declaring that the theory of necessity, which justifies the state of exception, was false. It was argued that under the rule of law, guaranteed by the Constitution, the powers needed to protect the State's institutions are already set in place. Lastly, the Justices regarded the state of exception as a dangerous instrument that could only lead to despotism . Nevertheless, the Court did not pronounce itself about the issue of defining what constitutes a rebellion or invasion. Interestingly, even if it was deemed –correctly- that necessity never justifies the suspension of the rule of law, by not defining what constitutes an emergency, the Court considered the issue a political, and not a legal, matter . Rebellion and invasion remain broad, undefined, cases open to interpretation and to malleability by politics. In subsequent cases, the Supreme Court refrained itself from approaching the issue .The question of the security forces' enhanced powers, during the state of emergency, is a thornier one when compared to the former. Moreover, it is also deeply intertwined with the problem regarding limitations to fundamental liberties. During the state of exception the police and other security agencies are given extraordinary faculties aimed at facilitating the expedient resolution of the crisis. Therefore, they are allowed to search within premises without warrants, to arrest suspects without a court order, to hold individuals for a long period of time with no access to a lawyer or judge, to carry out aggressive interrogations, to set up wiretapping and close surveillance with no Judiciary control. Furthermore, it could also be the case that intelligence agencies and the military would be empowered to perform police and judicial activities. Since the declaration of the state of emergency by President George W. Bush, following 9/11, numerous enhanced and new attributes have been granted to the United States' security forces and agencies. Their faculties were augmented by several executive decrees and the three Patriot Acts. These pieces of legislation were said to be justified by the imminent and severe danger that terrorism embodied. But, are these prerogatives really needed to prevent future terrorist attacks? This is, of course, an endless debate; and one that again points out to the relationship between law and politics. As implied by the Supreme Court in Ex Parte Milligan, terrorists can be persecuted without declaring the state of emergency, by applying 'plain' criminal law and by letting the F.B.I -not the military- take the lead. To sum up, the 'normal' rule of law is perfectly suited for the task. However, depending on how terrorism is considered, as a war act or as a criminal one, is still a political issue.Just like in both the question of the constitutionality of the state of exception and the empowerment of security agencies, the concern regarding the suspension or restriction of fundamental liberties is one that is ascribed within the lesser evil debate. Legally, the selection between continuing the 'normal' rule of law or enacting the state of exception weights the possible damage that not acting would cause against the harm that limiting individual freedoms would produce . It is here where the legal concept of necessity comes into play. It is necessary to inflict or withstand a lesser evil in order to prevent a greater evil. This is the pragmatic view of constitutional freedoms: the risk of harming individual freedoms is a lesser one when compared to the possibility of not having any State that protects those liberties . The moral point of view argues that, by restricting constitutional freedoms, the State is causing an irreversible damage that may, quite possibly, be greater than the one that necessity is trying to avoid . When a state of exception is enacted the fundamental liberties that are suspended are, normally, the right to habeas corpus; freedom of movement; the right to public and private gathering; and the right to due process among others. The United States Government, during both the Bush and the Obama Administrations, restricted and suspended several individual freedoms and constitutionally guaranteed rights in order to effectively and speedily fight terrorism and avert further attacks. The rights to habeas corpus, to due process, to unnecessary cruel punishment and to trial by jury have been gravely and irreversibly hampered by the legalization of indefinite detention, targeted killing, aggressive interrogation and military tribunals respectively. In nearly all these cases, there is no chance of contradictory or revisionary procedures that would allow the dismissal of their establishment by proving their unfairness or unconstitutionality . The issue, maybe, is that they are not only unfair, but that they are unnecessary and cause permanent damage. Targeted killing and aggressive interrogation, which would be better labeled as targeted assassination and torture, are completely detrimental to the rule of law and set up dangerous precedents for the future. Since both measures have to be sanctioned, in each case, by the President and there is no possibility of revision, it could be argued that the executive is taking on the exclusive attributes of the other two branches of government. The check and balances system, designed to avoid despotic power, is totally disregarded in these cases . Here, the effects of necessity are clearly the greater evil.Depending on the country, the state of emergency or exception is labeled as martial law or state of siege (état de siège or estado de sitio). Both, however, share the same objectives and are justified by necessity. See Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 25-28. Schmitt, Carl; Political Theology. Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty; Chicago University Press; Chicago; 2005; pp. 5-6. See, Arendt, Hannah; 'Personal Responsibility under Dictatorship'; in Responsibility and Judgment; Kohn, Jerome (Ed.); Schocken Books; New York; 2003.Lintott, Andrew; The Constitution of the Roman Republic; Oxford University Press; Oxford; 1999; pp. 110.For example, in France l' état de siège can only last for 12 days, although the President is allowed to extend it for more time with the Parliament's confirmation. In the United States, the National Emergency Acts can only last for no more than two years, but the President is entitled to extend it for one more years indefinitely number of times by only notifying Congress of his decision. For the French case see Article 16 of the Constitution, available at http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte-institutions/institutions/approfondissements/pouvoirs-exceptionnels-du-president.html ; for the American case see the U.S. Code, Title 50, Chapter 34, available at http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode50/usc_sup_01_50_10_34.html .See the United States Constitution, available at http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=138See Neely, Mark; The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties; Oxford University Press; New York; 1991; pp. 179-184. See Ex parte Milligan, 71 U.S. 2 (1866); available at http://supreme.justia.com/us/71/2/case.htmlSee, Roche, John; Executive Power and Domestic Emergency: The Quest for Prerogative'; Western Political Quarterly; Vol. 5; N. 4; December 1952. See Ex Parte Quirin , 317 U.S. 1 (1942), which declared constitutional the military trials of German saboteurs during the Second World War in U.S. soil, available at http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&vol=317&invol=1 ; Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944), which determined constitutional the Japanese Americans internment camps, available athttp://supreme.justia.com/us/323/214/case.html ; and, Boumediene v. Bush, 553 U.S. 723 (2008), where it was decided that all Guantanamo detainees had the right of habeas corpus, available at http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/06-1195.pdf The national emergency was declared through Proclamation 7463 available athttp://ra.defense.gov/documents/mobil/pdf/proclamation.pdfSee Ignatieff, Michael; The Lesser Evil: Political Ethics in an Age of Terror; Princeton University Press; New York; 2004; pp. 40-44.See, Posner, Richard; Law, Pragmatism and Democracy; Harvard University Press; Cambridge; 2003. It is also interesting to consider here Margaret Somers' Arendtian view of political rights versus human rights because the former are recognized and protected by the State. See Somers, Margaret; Genealogies of Citizenship: Markets, Statelessness, and the Right to Have Rights; Cambridge University Press; Cambridge; 2008.See Dworkin, Ronald; Freedom's Law: The Moral Reading of the Constitution; Harvard University Press; Cambridge; 1996.Only regarding the cases of the restriction of habeas corpus and the setting up of military tribunals has the Supreme Court been able to declare their unconstitutionality and illegality. See Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507 (2004) and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006); both available athttp://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=03-6696&friend andhttp://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/05pdf/05-184.pdf respectively.For a better and more detailed analysis of the legality or illegality of targeted killings and torture see Banks, William; 'Targeted Killing and Assassination: the U.S. Legal Framework'; University of Richmond Law Review; Vol. 37; N. 667; 2002-2003; Dershowitz, Alan; 'When All Else Fails, Why not Torture?'; American Legion Magazine; July 2002; Blum, Gabriella, and Heymann, Philip; 'Law and Policy of Targeted Killing'; The Harvard National Security Journal; Vol. 2, Issue 2; 2010; and Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557 (2006). *Estudiante de Doctorado, New School for Social Research, New YorkMaestría en Estudios Internacionales, Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos AiresÁrea de Especialización: Procesos de formación del Estado moderno, sociología de la guerra, terrorismo, genocidio, conflictos étnicos, nacionalismos y minorías.

IntroducciónLa administración de George W. Bush (20 de enero de 2001-20 de enero de 2009) ha sido incapaz de comprender el alcance del proceso de declinación relativa en la que se encuentra inmerso EE.UU. La dificultad para entender un proceso lento y complejo contribuyó a una sucesión de errores estratégicos en la toma de decisiones. Dos ejemplos relevantes han sido la focalizada guerra en Irak y la imposible de focalizar guerra contra Al Qaeda. En este trabajo, mencionaremos las principales características de estos actores centrales y lo relacionaremos con el mencionado proceso de declinación en marcha.Los límites del ImperioEn su libro Colossus, el historiador escocés Niall Ferguson describe a un país con afanes imperiales, un poder predominante que se afirma como tal con el ocaso de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. La caída del muro de Berlín en 1989 marcó un hito como símbolo del poderío del Imperio. Sin embargo, hechos recientes como la caída de las torres gemelas nos hacen dudar, o por lo menos reflexionar, sobre el alcance de este poder hegemónico ¿Estamos presenciando el fin de una era Imperial? ¿Existen nuevos actores en la escena internacional con más peso político? (1) Después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el 50% de las reservas de oro se encontraban en los bancos de EE.UU. y las potencias que hasta entonces eran líderes en la escena internacional -países europeos como Gran Bretaña y Francia- estaban fuertemente endeudados con la nueva potencia. Posteriormente, dicha deuda se acrecentó con el European Recovery Program (Plan Marshall). La Conferencia de Bretton Woods en 1944 dio vida a dos grandes agentes de las finanzas (Banco Mundial y Fondo Monetario Internacional) cuyas sedes se encuentran en Washington DC. Además, re-estableció el sistema de Patrón Oro, que determinaba que la moneda emitida por los países debía respaldarse en ese metal. En 1971 se abandona el Patrón Oro por decisión del presidente Richard Nixon. Comienza así la era del dólar (2). En la actualidad, el PIB de Estados Unidos asciende a $14.582 trillones y representa más del 20% del PIB mundial ($63.049 trillones) (3).Por otra parte, el fin de la Segunda Guerra mostró que EE.UU. no solo era una potencia hegemónica en el ámbito económico –cuyo más cercano "competidor" era la devastada URSS- sino que también lo era en los ámbitos políticos y, obviamente, militares. Hoy, Estados Unidos es la primera potencia nuclear y mayor potencia militar de la historia de la humanidad, destinando tan solo el 4,7% de su PIB a la Defensa. Sin embargo, esa fuerza se compara a la del resto del mundo unido (4).A partir del atentado contra las torres gemelas el 11 de setiembre de 2001, la hegemonía de EE.UU. comenzó a cuestionarse severamente. Era impensable que la "policía del mundo" sufriera un atentado en las mismas puertas de su casa. El análisis sobre un mundo unipolar para el corto-mediano plazo, luego de la caída del muro de Berlín y de la posterior implosión del régimen comunista, demostró ser geopolítica y analíticamente limitado (5). Para distintos analistas, EE.UU se enfrenta a un mundo con múltiples y nuevos actores y hasta el momento no ha sabido cómo enfrentarlos en forma eficiente. El Imperio de Ferguson se encuentra con enemigos que no son visibles -como los tradicionales Estados- tales como los terroristas. Por su parte, en el ámbito político-filosófico es posible marcar que la administración Bush ha fracasado en su aspiración de impulsar la democracia liberal como proyecto universal. China y Rusia son dos ejemplos contundentes que el sostenido crecimiento económico puede darse en un marco institucional donde no se respete la división de poderes clásica. El Profesor y periodista Fareed Zakaria desarrolla el problema de las democracias iliberales en "The rise of iliberal democracy", donde se argumenta que en la mitad de las democracias del mundo no se respetan los derechos constitucionales y/o derechos humanos (6).Al Qaeda y la difícil lucha contra un enemigo sin lugar La organización conocida mundialmente como Al Qaeda tiene sus inicios en la Guerra Fría, más específicamente en la liberación de Afganistán de la ocupación soviética. Cuando en 1989 las fuerzas de la URSS se retiran del país, el líder revolucionario Osama Bin Laden crea la organización basado en su interpretación de la Yihad, dentro del Corán. La Yihad, o "lucha espiritual" aparece en los textos del Corán llamando a la defensa de la religión islámica frente a los no creyentes. La visión personal del líder es que la posible expansión de la democracia es sinónimo de amenaza a las costumbres islámicas, e interpreta que la mejor defensa puede ser el ataque. Esta interpretación es inculcada a sus miembros y es la que determina el particular modo de accionar del grupo. La ideología del grupo se basa en la necesidad de unir a los musulmanes y echar a los infieles de las tierras de Alá. Sin embargo, emprender acciones directas contra Occidente no estaba dentro de las posibilidades de Bin Laden, por lo que desde el inicio preparó a los miembros de Al Qaeda para una guerra del terror, buscando infundir pánico a través de actos tales como atacar civiles indefensos. Estas acciones, catalogadas como actos terroristas, son la base de la existencia de grupos extremistas tales como Al Qaeda. Tras el atentado a las Torres Gemelas, el 11 de setiembre de 2001, EE.UU. lanza un ataque militar a Afganistán con el fin de dispersar a la organización terrorista, allí asentada. Sin embargo, el efecto producido no fue el esperado. El grupo se dispersó en pequeños focos que muchas veces actuaban por su cuenta, no recibiendo órdenes directas del líder del grupo. Al ser pequeños grupos que trabajan en la clandestinidad es difícil localizarlos y se estima que sus actividades se realizan no solo en el mundo árabe, sino que también en muchos países del "Primer Mundo". De la misma manera, existen otros tipos de ataque no directos de los cuales se vale Al Qaeda para desprestigiar la imagen de sus enemigos. La propaganda es una de estas herramientas, y la utilizan tanto para difundir sus ideas como para atacar. Por ejemplo, resaltando las muertes de los soldados que participaron en las guerras de Oriente ("They have dispatched your sons and daughters to die lonely deaths in the burning deserts of Iraq and the unforgiving mountains of Afghanistan.") como también las víctimas de torturas que el gobierno de Estados Unidos mantenía cautivas en Guantánamo. Según Luis Alberto Villamarín, autor de "Conexión Al Qaeda: del islamismo radical al terrorismo Nuclear", como el grupo terrorista se encuentra tan dividido y cada una de sus partes es auto gestionable, el asesinato de su líder no desmoronaría la estructura del mismo (7).Podemos concluir que al Qaeda resta de ser un grupo desorganizado y sin líder. El ataque que realiza a su enemigo no es directo, por lo cual la respuesta no puede ser convencional. Por su parte, este tipo de ataques ha resultado mayormente inefectivo, tal como se demostró en la guerra de Afganistán. Algunos autores como Villamarín especulan que formas más eficientes de contra-atacar al terrorismo podrían ser la cooperación internacional para evitar los flujos comerciales ilegales tales como la droga o el tráfico de armas, fuentes de ingreso de los grupos terroristas. A su entender, la eficacia con la que actúan estos grupos está correlacionada con la falta de acción a nivel global, como por ejemplo la ineficacia con que los organismos internacionales (como la ONU) enfrentan y, en alguna medida, entienden el terrorismo. Pero en el corto plazo, para evitar tragedias como los atentados del 11 de setiembre, las democracias liberales de hoy en día se enfrentan a la disyuntiva entre eficacia y resguardo de las libertades individuales. Soluciones "eficientes", como la tortura de prisioneros, son ilegales además de ser éticamente incorrectas. Por otra parte, las libertades individuales permiten el florecimiento de pequeños focos extremistas en el seno de los países occidentales, aumentando las posibilidades de accionar del terrorismo.Guerra en Irak: la peor manera de exportar la democraciaEn el año 1990 las fuerzas iraquíes invaden a su país vecino, el pequeño emirato petrolero de Kuwait. Este hecho fue el desencadenante de la primera Guerra del Golfo, que se inicia un año después (17 de enero de 1991) con la operaciónTormenta del Desierto, respaldada por la ONU. 12 años y dos meses después, luego de los sucesivos incumplimientos por parte del régimen de Irak ante las sanciones económicas impuestas por la Asamblea General y frente a una supuesta amenaza de posesión ilegal de armas nucleares, EE.UU. inicia la segunda guerra contra Irak. Esta invasión constituyó una grave violación al Derecho Internacional.Las tropas estadounidenses y británicas (principales actores de la coalición) irrumpen en territorio iraquí dando inicio a la segunda Guerra del Golfo. En cuestión de semanas toman la capital y derrocan el gobierno de Saddam Hussein. Como mencionamos, el gobierno de EE.UU. actúa sin el consentimiento del Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas. El argumento estadounidense era el incumplimiento por parte del régimen iraquí de la resolución 687, que imponía la eliminación de toda arma de destrucción masiva en suelo iraquí. Sin embargo, con el propósito de inspeccionar la eliminación de armas de destrucción masiva (entre tantas otras sanciones impuestas por la Asamblea General) ya habían sido creadas las comisiones UNSCOM y posteriormente en 1999, UNMOVIC (Comisión de las Naciones Unidas de Vigilancia, Verificación e Inspección). Otro de los argumentos expuestos por la administración Bush era el de legítima defensa preventiva, alegando una supuesta relación entre el régimen de Hussein y la organización terrorista Al Qaeda (8). Además, y debido a esta relación, es que el gobierno estadounidense alega la necesidad de restaurar la paz y seguridad de la zona mediante la democratización del país. El ataque a Irak se inició el 20 de marzo con el lanzamiento de 40 misilesTomahawk sobre la capital iraquí, violando los derechos que estipula la Convención de Ginebra relativa a la protección debida a las personas civiles en tiempo de guerra, que prohíbe la destrucción de bienes muebles e inmuebles a menos que sea absolutamente necesario. De igual manera, se utilizaron bombas prohibidas, las llamadas bombas racimo, las cuales contienen sub-municiones que se esparcen cuando la bomba se encuentra a cierta altura, por lo cual no es posible calcular los daños colaterales. Por otra parte, las tropas estadounidenses fueron responsables en diversas ocasiones por violaciones a los derechos humanos. Estos delitos no se limitan simplemente a la muerte de civiles debido al fuego cruzado, sino que también incluyen detenciones arbitrarias a personas que no participaban del conflicto, torturas a los prisioneros de guerra mantenidos cautivos en la cárcel de Abu Ghraib o la destrucción de hogares de miles de familias. Esto se ve agravado por la cantidad de civiles heridos por los efectos de las mencionadas bombas racimo. Durante el período de la guerra en Irak se llega al máximo de detenidos en Guantánamo. Colateralmente, debido a la falta de medicamentos y agua potable como consecuencia de la guerra, hubo una proliferación de enfermedades tales como el cólera y la diarrea (el 72% de la población infantil llegó a padecer diarrea durante el transcurso de la guerra). En síntesis, la segunda guerra de Irak (2003- al presente) no ha podido conciliarse con la aplicación de sanciones en contra de un supuesto incumplimiento de las resoluciones de la Asamblea General de Naciones Unidas. Por otra parte, tampoco se puede argumentar la búsqueda de la democratización para salvar al pueblo iraquí de una tiranía, tal como ha sido expresado en su momento por el Chairman (Speaker of the House) de la Cámara de Representantes del Congreso de los EE.UU., Dennis Hastert (quién sostuvo que "…aquí hay un país que ha estado bajo un régimen terrible de un dictador que asesinó, saqueó, hizo cualquier cosa para él mismo, y ahora la gente tiene una oportunidad para construir un gobierno para ellos mismos…"1), debido a los incontables quebrantamientos de los derechos humanos cometidos en tan solo semanas de guerra.Aun hoy en día, cuando las últimas tropas estadounidenses abandonan el territorio ocupado siguiendo órdenes del presidente Barack Obama a fines de 2010, las repercusiones de la guerra siguen presentes: inseguridad en las calles debido a atentados terroristas, incontables bienes materiales que no se han podido reconstruir desde la guerra, inestabilidad política y sobre todo un creciente sentimiento antiimperialista y anti americanista que en parte facilita el trabajo de organizaciones terroristas como Al Qaeda. La victoria militar fue rotunda, pero el éxito de la operación es, al menos, dudoso. La dificultad de lidiar con Al Qaeda y la incapacidad de llevar a cabo la reconstrucción de Irak son dos ejemplos relevantes de la creciente debilidad de los EE.UU. Obviamente, la aparición de China como actor global en la última década ha terminado de confirmar que la democracia liberal como aspiración universal era solo un sueño superficial de la Administración Bush.(1) Ferguson, Niall: "Colossus. The Price of America´s Empire". Penguin, New York. 2004. Ferguson ha devenido un profesor de Harvard con la capacidad de atraer la atención de millones de personas. Su último libro, "Civilization. The West and the Rest" profundiza sobre las razones que llevaron a Occidente a alcanzar 500 años de preeminencia (1500-2000) y, mas aún, sobre las razones que explican el fin de ese período. Penguin Press. 2011(2) En un breve y profundo artículo, Carl Menger argumenta la lógica del proceso que da lugar a la aparición de un bien como moneda. Ver, "El origen del dinero". Libertas número 2. Mayo 1985.Buenos Aires.(3) Google Public Data Explorer: http://www.google.com/publicdata/directory(4) Ídem(5) En este marco, es posible criticar como reduccionistas tanto las profecías optimistas de Fukuyama como las profecías pesimistas de Huntington. Ver, Francis Fukuyama: "The end of history and the last man". Free Press. 1992. Ver Samuel Huntington: "The Clash of Civilazation and the remaking of world order", Simon / Shuster. 2011(6) Zakaria, Fared: "The Rise of Iliberal Democracy". Foreign Affairs. Noviembre-Diciembre 1997. El libro posterior se llama "The Future of Freedom. The Rise of Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad" y fue publicado en 2003 por W.W. Norton. En su tesis doctoral, Zakaria analiza la lógica de la consolidación del Estado americano hacia finales del siglo XIX. El riguroso estudia se llama "De la Riqueza al Poder" y ha sido publicado en español por Gedisa en el año 2000. Por otro parte, el autor ha escrito en 2008 un análisis mas superficial sobre la declinación americana, titulado "The Post-American World", publicado por W.W. Norton.(7) Ver Villamarín, Luis Alberto: "Conexión Al Qaeda: del islamismo radical al terrorismo Nuclear". Nowtilus. 2005(8) George W. Bush presentó la doctrina del ataque preventivo en un ya clásico discurso en la Academia Militar de West Point. Es posible leer dicho discurso aquí: http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/01/international/02PTEX-WEB.html?pagewanted=all.*Estudiante de la Licenciatura en Estudios Internacionales.FACS - Universidad ORT UruguayBibliografíaFerguson, Niall: "Colossus. The Price of America´s Empire". Penguin, New York. 2004Ferguson, Niall: "Civilization. The West and the Rest". Penguin Press. 2011.Fukuyama, Francis: "The End of History and the Last Man". Free Press. 1992. Google Public Data Explorer: http://www.google.com/publicdata/directory Huntington, Samuel: "The Clash of Civilazation and the Remaking of World Order", Simon / Shuster. 2011.Menger, Carl: "El Origen del Dinero". Libertas número 2. Mayo 1985. Buenos Aires.Villamarín, Luis Alberto: "Conexión Al Qaeda: del Islamismo Radical al Terrorismo Nuclear". Nowtilus. 2005Zakaria, Fared: "The Rise of Iliberal Democracy". Foreign Affairs. Noviembre-Diciembre 1997.Zakaria, Fared: "The Post-American World". W.W. Norton. 2008.http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltConsulta?TIPO_BUS=3&LEMA=terrorismo http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/specials/newsid_3051000/3051163.stm http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/cfr092807 http://books.google.es/books?id=hry5iIjtogUC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Investigation/story?id=1115448&page=1 http://projects.nytimes.com/guantanamo/

Diane Call ; The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection include interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, WeberState University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories cover various topics and chronicle the personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ; 8p.; 29cm.; 2 bound transcripts; 4 file folders. 1 video disc: digital; 4 3/4 in. ; i Oral History Program Diane Call Interviewed by Rebecca Ory Hernandez 7 November 2011 ii Oral History Program Weber State University Stewart Library Ogden, Utah Diane Call Interviewed by Rebecca Ory Hernandez 7 November 2011 Copyright © 2012 by Weber State University, Stewart Library iii Mission Statement The Oral History Program of the Stewart Library was created to preserve the institutional history of Weber State University and the Davis, Ogden and Weber County communities. By conducting carefully researched, recorded, and transcribed interviews, the Oral History Program creates archival oral histories intended for the widest possible use. Interviews are conducted with the goal of eliciting from each participant a full and accurate account of events. The interviews are transcribed, edited for accuracy and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewees (as available), who are encouraged to augment or correct their spoken words. The reviewed and corrected transcripts are indexed, printed, and bound with photographs and illustrative materials as available. Archival copies are placed in Special Collections. The Stewart Library also houses the original recording so researchers can gain a sense of the interviewee's voice and intonations. Project Description The Weber and Davis County Communities Oral History Collection includes interviews of citizens from several different walks of life. These interviews were conducted by Stewart Library personnel, Weber State University faculty and students, and other members of the community. The histories date back to the early settlement of North Ogden, and cover various topics including the History of Fort Buenaventura, city government affairs, controversial issues, Latinos in Ogden, personal everyday life experiences and other recollections regarding the history of the Weber and Davis County areas. ____________________________________ Oral history is a method of collecting historical information through recorded interviews between a narrator with firsthand knowledge of historically significant events and a well-informed interviewer, with the goal of preserving substantive additions to the historical record. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a spoken account. It reflects personal opinion offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as such it is partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable. ____________________________________ Rights Management All literary rights in the manuscript, including the right to publish, are reserved to the Stewart Library of Weber State University. No part of the manuscript may be published without the written permission of the University Librarian. Requests for permission to publish should be addressed to the Administration Office, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, Utah, 84408. The request should include identification of the specific item and identification of the user. It is recommended that this oral history be cited as follows: Diane Call, an oral history by Rebecca Ory Hernandez, 7 November 2011, WSU Stewart Library Oral History Program, University Archives, Stewart Library, Weber State University, Ogden, UT. Diane Call ca. 2010 1 Abstract: The following is an oral history interview with Diane Call (b. 1931.) This interview was conducted on November 7, 2011 by Rebecca Ory Hernandez at the Call residence in St. George, Utah. The interview covers Diane's life and her experiences with Weber State University. Diane graduated from Weber State University in 1983 and spent time working in the Women's Career Center on campus. Diane is retired from Weber State University and lives with her husband, Dr. Howard C. Call in St. George, Utah. ROH: We're speaking with Mrs. Diane Call in her home in Washington, Utah on November 7, 2011. We're going to talk about your time at Weber State University. Tell us about your interviews with prospective nursing students DC: Here's a little background, first. I graduated from Weber in 1983 with a Bachelor of Integrated Studies. A few years later I was hired by the Career Center after working with Tony Wait as a secretary while she was dean. I worked as a secretary in the Women's Center, as well. Then I was hired as a career coordinator in the Career Center with Dr. Steven Eichmeier. My duties included interview perspective teachers and doing mock interviews for them. I also met with school districts. We had a career fair with the school districts every year with the University of Utah, BYU, USU and Weber. One of the things I enjoyed the most was a seminar that I held in the Nursing Department with the Radiology Department and other health departments and the Education Department to tell people about what we would expect when they were going in for interviews and 2 how to write resumes and what things were necessary on a resume and how to present themselves as well as possible. It was my feeling that you always dressed better than the job you were seeking. Working with Weber State was a fun experience for me because I had raised my family—I think I had one child left at home—and everything just fell into place. I thoroughly enjoyed the years I was there. We used to give forms to all of the graduating seniors when they would come to pick up their caps and gowns. They were told they had to fill out the form before they could walk away with the cap and gown. The form was to tell us whether they were working and if they were working in their field. We may have asked for information on salary, but we wanted to know how the employment situation was affecting students in our university. Not only was I in charge of getting those to the seniors, but I also had to make a chart that went into our annual report that showed all of those things. Math is my least comfortable subject, so it was a challenge. It showed what school they were graduating in, what their major was, how old they were, how long they'd been in school, if they'd come to the Career Center. ROH: When did you start at Weber State? DC: 1985. I retired in 1996. ROH: What made you decide to retire then? DC: I was old enough. [Laughter] ROH: Did you ever work with your husband's dental practice? DC: A little bit. I filled in when he needed a receptionist once in a while, but not very often. 3 ROH: What were the areas of emphasis in your Bachelor of Integrated Studies? DC: Education, psychology, and history. ROH: Do you have any fun stories from the time when you were advising students? DC: One girl was very pleasant to look at and dressed well, but she had a habit of giggling—the uncomfortable, self conscious kind of giggling that people do. I always felt nervous about criticizing anyone, so I was trying to make it a suggestion and I said to her, "You're doing a fine job, but I would like to point out that you have this nervous laugh. I think you might want to work on that." She told me her family background and it was good to know why she had this habit. She did not grow up in a happy home and she was really nervous about herself. Years later I opened the newspaper and she had a by-line in the newspaper. I like that because success comes even to people who don't graduate in their field. That was one of the things I talked about when I did classes in the Career Center. We would have classes of sophomores or freshmen who either had a desire to be something in the future and weren't sure, or other students who had no idea what they wanted to do. It was rewarding because if we didn't pinpoint something that was really going to work for them, quite often they found out in the courses or classes that they weren't cut out to do that particular thing. They had to interview people in the field. We had guests come and talk about those particular fields, and that was another gratifying part of the program. Some people would come into the Career Center and talk to me about their plans and they would have some reservations about something or they were enthusiastic about something and they wanted to share. I started having them do portfolios, 4 which wasn't something that was done when I first started. They put together pictures of themselves maybe doing their student teaching or projects that they had put together for their student teaching. One young man who came in quite often had an offer from Moab to teach school down there. He was very nervous about it and I said, "Just go. It will give you experience and put your foot in the door." A couple years later we were on a trip with some friends in Moab and there was a flea market going on. We were walking around and someone said, "Mrs. Call, is that you?" It was that young man. He said, "If it wasn't for you, I wouldn't have come and I absolutely love it here." I think I did a pretty good job and in some ways I'm sorry I left as soon as I did, but there were other things I wanted to do. Did Howard ever tell you anything about the I.C.L. program down here? ROH: No. What is it? DC: I.C.L. is the Institute for Continued Learning. It's associated with Dixie State College. We use their classroom and we have forty to fifty classes every semester that are taught mostly by retired professors on a volunteer basis. We have 650 members who are mostly retired. It costs them forty dollars a year to attend any number of these classes that they want to. There are no requirements for grades, homework, no tests. These people are just so enthusiastic. We have computer classes, geology classes, psychology, art, history, dance, yoga. There is no one I know who doesn't think these are the greatest thing. I think it works so well down here because there are so many retired people with time on their 5 hands. I think Weber did something similar when they had that campus down in the mall. ROH: Weber does have a Continuing Education Department, but the community classes that were offered were cut during the last budget cuts. DC: I think Weber's professors were paid, too. We have a professor who teaches folklore and mythology and digital photography. We're getting a real bargain. ROH: Have you heard of anyone in Ogden who is interested in these types of classes? DC: The friends we have in Ogden always go to classes with us when they come down to visit. I think the distance is a problem in Ogden. I know the University of Utah had a program like this but it costs a lot more. The school gave us an office in the old alumni building to use. They take good care of us. We painted and redecorated. ROH: The retired persons run it yourselves? DC: Yes. ROH: Do you go out and find the instructors? DC: We don't have to. They submit a proposal and we have a council that selects from those. ROH: Where were you born? DC: In Ogden in 1931. ROH: How did you and Howard meet? DC: I lived in North Ogden until I was eighteen. We moved back to Ogden and went to Weber for two years. I wasn't very aware of my neighbors because I was busy with school and I was going to church up at school. I didn't meet Howard for a 6 while. When I graduated from Weber, I worked for a year and then I went to the University of Utah. Low and behold, we lived in the same building. He also lived five houses from me in Ogden. Our paths just hadn't crossed before. ROH: What year did you get married? DC: In 1953. ROH: What kind of things did you do together? Did you go to campus events? DC: Yes, and he took me skiing. At that time, Snow Basin didn't have a chair lift on the bunny hill. You had to take a hold of a J-bar to get up the hill and when I did, I fell off. Howard held out his ski pole to drag me up. I thought it was very gallant. ROH: What made you decide to do a B.I.S. degree? DC: My main reason was because I loved to learn and when I worked in the Women's Center, I dealt a lot with returning women. Someone gave me a paper that talked about a woman who had gone back to college. She said, "I didn't know anything. I didn't know history or people or countries. I was hungry to learn." That was the way I have always been. To go back to college meant I was learning for a reason. I wasn't really thinking about a career at all, I just wanted a degree. When I found out about the B.I.S. degree, I thought it was perfect. I already had an Associate's degree because I had been taking classes off and on over the years. ROH: What was your Associate's in? DC: An Associate of Arts degree required basic classes in academic fields. I went to the University of Utah for a year after that because Weber was only a two year school. The B.I.S is good for people who have eclectic interests and aren't 7 looking to stick to one thing that they majored in. With the B.I.S. they can come in and learn about things that interest them and maybe it will lead to a job. I found out in the course of my schooling that a large percentage of people who were successful in their working lives are not necessarily working in the field they have a degree in. I also think the B.I.S. is great for a woman who has a husband and feels like she wants to learn and progress in her life. When I was teaching the career development classes, quite often I had young ladies who I could tell were there to find a husband and couldn't care less about getting a degree. It became a desire of mine to inspire these girls that they may need to get a job someday and have something to say to an interviewer about their education. When you get an education, you are generally the next in line over someone who doesn't have a degree. I have seen many times, women whose husbands have left them, or their husbands died, or they divorced. My daughter has a friend who is fifty-two years old and her husband's business has fallen. She has no college at all and she wants to go into the nursing program. ROH: Would you talk a little about Weber State and your time there as a student? Are there any professors who stick out in your mind? DC: Oh yes—Gene Sessions and Dr. Sadler, some of the psychology professors. and everybody in the Education Department. Most of them I worked with in the capacity of my job. When I started doing seminars for the graduating seniors, I would invite the directors or the teachers of the senior classes to come in and see what I was doing. I really had some excellent teachers and advisors. Tony Waite was a friend of my brothers. She called and asked if I would work for her 8 while her secretary was taking a maternity leave. Another dean had a secretary who was pregnant and I substituted for her for another three months. By then, I was very comfortable on campus. There is no place in the world that an old person can go and feel as comfortable as on a college campus. You get more smiles on a college campus than you do in church. I love the feeling of the young people who are growing up gracious and enthusiastic. ROH: Who was president when you were there? DC: Dr. Nadauld. He's the president here now. ROH: Did you teach classes? DC: Only at the Career Center. They were called Career Development. It was a three-hour elective course. They came to class three days a week. I think the most important part was that we invited people from the community to talk about the expectations that student would be facing if they went out into that career field. ROH: You would have experienced some of the recession while you were at Weber in the late 1980s. Did you see it affect Ogden? DC: My feeling is that the women who were coming back were not coming because their husbands had been laid off. I think we're seeing a lot of that now—that's why Dixie has had such an increase in their attendance. When I was working in the Women's Center, I don't remember talking to a lot of women who were there because they had to be the breadwinner. I think they wanted to work and it was important to them to get a job, but it wasn't the desperation that we're seeing now. ROH: Thank you. It's been a pleasure talking with you.

Not Available ; The land resource inventory of Tavargere microwatershed was conducted using village cadastral maps and IRS satellite imagery on 1:7920 scale. The false colour composites of IRS imagery were interpreted for physiography and these physiographic delineations were used as base for mapping soils. The soils were studied in several transects and a soil map was prepared with phases of soil series as mapping units. Random checks were made all over the area outside the transects to confirm and validate the soil map unit boundaries. The soil map shows the geographic distribution and extent, characteristics, classification, behavior and use potentials of the soils in the Microwatershed. The present study covers an area of 516 ha in Koppal taluk and district, Karnataka. The climate is semiarid and categorized as drought - prone with an average annual rainfall of 662 mm, of which about 424 mm is received during south –west monsoon, 161 mm during north-east and the remaining 77 mm during the rest of the year. An area of about 93 per cent is covered by soil, four per cent by rock out crops and three per cent by water bodies, settlements. The salient findings from the land resource inventory are summarized briefly below  The soils belong to 8 soil series and 30 soil phases (management units) and 5 land use classes.  The length of crop growing period is 150cm) soils.  About 14 per cent is sandy (loamy sand), 75 per cent loamy (sandy loam and sandy clay loam) and 5 per cent has clayey (sandy clay) soils at the surface.  About 65 per cent of the area has non-gravelly (200mm/m) in available water capacity.  An area of about 57 kg/ha) in 37 per cent of the soils.  Available potassium is medium (145-337 kg/ha) in an entire area of the soils.  Available sulphur is low (20 ppm)in 4 per cent area of the soils.  Available boron is low (4.5 ppm) in 64 per cent of the area.  Available zinc is deficient (0.6 ppm) in 23 per cent of the microwatershed.  Available manganese and copper are sufficient in the entire area.  The land suitability for 28 major agricultural and horticultural crops grown in the microwatershed was assessed and the areas that are highly suitable (class S1) and moderately suitable (class S2) are given below. It is however to be noted that a given soil may be suitable for various crops but what specific crop to be grown may be decided by the farmer looking to his capacity to invest on various inputs, marketing infrastructure, market price, and finally the demand and supply position. Land suitability for various crops in the microwatershed Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Crop Suitability Area in ha (%) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Highly suitable (S1) Moderately suitable (S2) Sorghum 19(4) 15 (3) Pomegranate - 85(17) Maize - 37 (7) Guava - 66(13) Bajra 15(3) 135(26) Jackfruit - 66(13) Redgram - 34(3) Jamun - 85(17) Bengal gram 19(4) 77(15) Musambi 19(4) 66(13) Groundnut 15(3) 315 (61) Lime 19(4) 66(13) Sunflower 19 (4) 15 (3) Cashew - 171(33) Cotton 19(4) 15(3) Custard apple 34(7) 444(86) Chilli - 15(3) Amla 15(3) 463 (90) Tomato - 15(3) Tamarind - 20(4) Drumstick - 260(50) Marigold - 34(7) Mulberry - 416(81) Chrysanthemum - 34 (7) Mango - - Jasmine - 15(3) Sapota - 66(13) Crossandra - 34(7)  Apart from the individual crop suitability, a proposed crop plan has been prepared for the 5 identified LMUs by considering only the highly and moderately suitable lands for different crops and cropping systems with food, fodder, fibre and other horticulture crops.  Maintaining soil-health is vital for crop production and conserve soil and land resource base for maintaining ecological balance and to mitigate climate change. For this, several ameliorative measures have been suggested to these problematic soils like saline/alkali, highly eroded, sandy soils etc.,  Soil and water conservation and drainage line treatment plans have been prepared that would help in identifying the sites to be treated and also the type of structures required.  As part of the greening programme, several tree species have been suggested to be planted in marginal and submarginal lands, field bunds and also in the hillocks, mounds and ridges. That would help in supplementing the farm income, provide fodder and fuel, and generate lot of biomass which in turn would help in maintaining the ecological balance and contribute to mitigating the climate change. SALIENT FINDINGS OF THE SURVEY  The data indicated that there were 114 (60%) men and 76 (40%) women among the sampled households.  The average family size of landless farmers' was 4, marginal farmers' was 4.09, small farmers' was 4.6, semi medium farmers' was 5 and medium farmers' was 6.28.  The data indicated that, 33 (17.37%) people were in 0-15 years of age, 76 (40%) were in 16-35 years of age, 65 (34.21%) were in 36-60 years of age and 16 (8.42%) were above 61 years of age.  The results indicated that Tavaregere had 34.21 per cent illiterates, 24.74 per cent of them had primary school education, 6.32 per cent of them had middle school education, 16.32 per cent of them had high school education, 7.37 per cent of them had PUC education, 2.11 per cent of them did ITI, and 6.32 per cent of them had degree education.  The results indicate that, 65 per cent of households practicing agriculture, 20 per cent of the households were agricultural labourers, 12.50 per cent were general labourers.  The results indicate that agriculture was the major occupation for 46.84 per cent of the household members, 17.37 per cent were agricultural laborers, 9.47 per cent were general labour, 1.05 per cent were in private, 20.53 per cent were students, 2.11 per cent were housewives and 2.11 per cent were housewives.  The results show that 100 per cent of the population in the micro watershed has not participated in any local institutions.  The results indicate that 15 per cent of the households possess thatched house, 67.50 per cent of the households possess Katcha house, 15 per cent of them possess pucca house and 2.50 per cent of them possess semi pucca house.  The results show that 92.50 per cent of the households possess TV, 60 per cent of the households possess Mixer grinder, 17.50 per cent of the households possess bicycle, 50 per cent of the households possess motor cycle, 2.50 per cent of them possess auto and 90 per cent of the households possess mobile phones.  The results show that the average value of television was Rs.7989, mixer grinder was Rs.1980, bicycle was Rs. 2142, motor cycle was Rs.34800, auto phone was Rs.35000 and mobile phone was Rs.2295.  About 22.50 per cent of the households possess bullock cart, 22.50 per cent of them possess plough, 7.50 per cent of them possess tractor, 30 per cent of them possess sprayer, 2.50 per cent of them possess sprinkler, 87.50 per cent of them possess weeder, 5 per cent of them possess harvester, 2.50 per cent of them possess thresher and 2.50 per cent of them possess chaff cutter.  The results show that the average value of bullock cart was Rs.20333, plough was Rs.894, the average value of tractor was Rs.300000, the average value of sprayer 2 was Rs.2331, the average value of sprinkler was Rs. 3200, the average value of harvester was Rs.60000, the average value of thresher was Rs.45000, the average value of chaff cutter was Rs.3000, and the average value of weeder was Rs.87.  The results indicate that, 30 per cent of the households possess bullocks, and 17.50 per cent of the households possess local cow.  The results indicate that, average own labour men available in the micro watershed was 1.86, average own labour (women) available was 1.46, average hired labour (men) available was 12.11 and average hired labour (women) available was 9.40.  The results indicate that, 87.50 per cent of the households opined that the hired labour was adequate.  The results indicate that, households of the Tavaregere micro watershed possess 23.76 ha (46.71%) of dry land and 27.10 ha (53.29%) of irrigated land. Marginal farmers possess 7.24 ha (93.72%) of dry land and 0.49 ha (6.28%). Small farmers possess 6.16 ha (57.35%) of dry land and 4.58 ha (42.65%) of irrigated land. Semi medium farmers possess 3.25 ha (27.54%) of dry land and 8.54 ha (72.46%) of irrigated land. Medium farmers possess 7.11 ha (34.50%) of dry land and 13.49 ha (65.50%) of the farmers possess irrigated land.  The results indicate that, the average value of dry land was Rs. 307,172.06 and average value of irrigated land was Rs. 545,937.87. In case of marginal famers, the average land value was Rs. 579,553.08 for dry land and Rs. 1,646,666.60 for irrigated land. In case of small famers, the average land value was Rs. 275,886.99 for dry land and Rs. 850,971.74 for irrigated land. In case of semi medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 123,192.01 for dry land and Rs. 561,895.74 for irrigated land. In case of medium famers, the average land value was Rs. 140,660.59 for dry land and Rs. 392,651.47 for irrigated land.  The results indicate that, there were 18 functioning and 1 de-functioning bore wells in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, there was 1 functioning and 1 de-functioning open well in the micro watershed.  The results indicate that, bore well was the major irrigation source in the micro water shed for 45 per cent of the farmers, and open well was the source of irrigation for 2.50 per cent of the farmers.  The results indicate that, the depth of bore well was found to be 49.62 meters and the depth of open well was found to be 3.44 meters.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers had irrigated area of 0.40 ha, 4.58 ha, 8.54 ha and 13.36 ha respectively.  The results indicate that, farmers have grown bajra (11.62 ha), brinjal (1.78 ha), groundnut (5.15 ha), ladies finger (1.21 ha), maize (21.74 ha), navane (1.70 ha), paddy (2.83 ha), pearlmillet (1.62 ha), sunflower (2.18 ha) and tomato (0.89 ha). 3  Marginal farmers have grown bajra, maize, watermelon and groundnut. Small farmers have grown bajra, cotton, groundnut, maize, navane, paddy and watermelon. Semi medium farmers have grown bajra, cotton, maize, paddy, sorghum, tomato, watermelon and groundnut. Medium farmers have grown bajra, groundnut, horsegram, paddy, redgram sorghum and maize.  The results indicate that, the cropping intensity in Tavaregere micro watershed was found to be 93.29 per cent. In case of marginal and small farmers it was 100 per cent, in case of semi medium farmers it was 96.97 per cent, and medium farmers had cropping intensity of 84.93 per cent.  The results indicate that, 72.50 per cent of the households have bank account and 42.50 per cent of the households have savings.  The results indicate that, 40 per cent of the households have availed credit from different sources.  The results indicate that, 81.25 per cent of the households availed loan from commercial bank, 6.25 per cent availed loan from cooperative bank, 75 per cent availed loan from grameena bank, and 37.50 per cent availed loan from money lenders.  The results indicate that, marginal, small, semi medium and medium farmers have availed Rs. 90,375, Rs. 258,500, Rs. 525,000 and Rs. 260,000 respectively.  The results indicate that, 100 per cent of the households have borrowed loan from institutional sources for the purpose of agricultural production.  The results indicate that, the main purpose of borrowing credit from private sources was agricultural production which accounted for 50 per cent of those who borrowed credit. Another 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for social functions, 16.67 per cent of the households borrowed for animal husbandry and 16.67 per cent borrowed for the purpose of borewell/irrigation related equipments.  The results indicated that 84.62 per cent of the households did not repay their loan and 15.38 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  Results indicated that 100 per cent of the households partially paid their loan.  The results indicate that, around 42.31 per cent of the households opined that the rate of interest was higher in institutional sources; another 53.85 per cent opined that the loan amount helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 3.85 per cent of the households opined that loan amount was adequate to fulfil the requirement.  The results indicate that, around 9.09 per cent of the households opined that credit was easily accessible, 18.18 per cent of the households opined that the credit helped to perform timely agricultural operations and 27.27 per cent opined that the rate of interest was high in non institutional source of credits. 4  The results indicate that, the total cost of cultivation for paddy was Rs. 52582.63. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 179075. The net income from Paddy cultivation was Rs. 126492.37, thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.41.  The total cost of cultivation for tomato was Rs. 49699.84. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 105455.28. The net income from tomato cultivation was Rs. 55755.44. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.12.  The total cost of cultivation for maize was Rs. 27360.39. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 35390.45. The net income from maize cultivation was Rs. 8030.07. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.29.  The total cost of cultivation for bajra was Rs. 23644.88. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 36489.05. The net income from bajra cultivation was Rs. 1006.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.54.  The total cost of cultivation for groundnut was Rs. 49015.69. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 57055.21. The net income from groundnut cultivation was Rs. 8039.52. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:1.16.  The total cost of cultivation for sunflower was Rs. 40080.30. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 37050. The net income from sunflower cultivation was Rs. -3030.30. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:0.92.  The total cost of cultivation for ladies finger was Rs. 41939.68. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 95363.45. The net income from ladies finger cultivation was Rs. 53423.77. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.27.  The total cost of cultivation for navane was Rs. 13772.35. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 28106.90. The net income from navane cultivation was Rs. 14334.54. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:2.04.  The total cost of cultivation for brinjal was Rs. 53235.50. The gross income realized by the farmers was Rs. 186686.05. The net income from brinjal cultivation was Rs. 133450.56. Thus the benefit cost ratio was found to be 1:3.51.  The results indicate that, 25 per cent of the households opined that dry fodder was adequate and 22.50 per cent of the households opined that green fodder was adequate.  The results indicate that the average annual gross income was Rs. 97,600 for landless farmers, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 64,581.82, for small farmers it was Rs. 98,320, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 69,571.43, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 108,000.  The results indicate that the average annual expenditure is Rs. 7,532.54. For landless households it was Rs. 19,360, for marginal farmers it was Rs. 3,727.27, for small farmers it was Rs. 6,604.44, for semi medium farmers it was Rs. 5,387.76, and for medium farmers it was Rs. 8,534.69.  The results indicate that, sampled households have grown 126 coconuts and 22 mangoes in their fields. They have also grown 1 coconut tree in their backyard. 5  The results indicate that, households have planted 147 neem trees, 5 tamarind trees, 2 banyan trees and 2 peepul tree in their field.  The results indicate that, the average additional investment capacity with the households for land development was Rs. 2125, for irrigation facility Rs. 1175, for improved crop production Rs. 1075 and for improved livestock management Rs. 575.  The results indicate that, loan from bank was the source of additional investment capacity for 22.5 per cent of the households for land development, 20 per cent for irrigation facility, 22.5 per cent for improved crop production and 15 per cent for improved livestock management.  The results indicated that, bajra, brinjal, groundnut, ladies finger, maize, navane, paddy, sunflower and tomato were sold to the extent of 100 per cent.  The results indicated that, about 55 per cent of the famers have sold their produce in regulated markets, 15 per cent have sold their produce to local/village merchants, 2.50 per cent of the farmers have sold through agents/traders and 27.50 per cent of the farmers have sold their produce in cooperative marketing society.  The results indicated that, 37.50 per cent of the households have used tractor as a mode of transportation for their agricultural produce, 22.50 per cent have used truck and 40 per cent have used cart as a mode of transportation.  The results indicated that, 20 per cent of the households have experienced soil and water erosion problems in the farm i.e., 18.18 per cent of marginal farmers, 71.43 per cent of semi medium farmers and 14.29 per cent of medium farmers have experienced soil and water erosion problems.  The results indicated that, 72.50 per cent have shown interest in soil test.  The results indicated that, 97.50 per cent used fire wood and 2.50 per cent of the households used dung cake.  The results indicated that, piped supply was the major source of drinking water for 92.50 per cent of the households and bore well was the source of drinking water for 7.50 per cent of the households.  Electricity was the major source of light for 100 per cent of the households in micro watershed.  The results indicated that, 42.50 per cent of the households possess sanitary toilet i.e. 20 per cent of the landless, 27.27 per cent of the marginal, 100 per cent of the small, 28.57 per cent of the semi medium and 14.29 per cent of the medium farmers.  The results indicated that, 100 per cent of the sampled households possessed BPL card.  The results indicated that, 50 per cent of the households participated in NREGA programme.  The results indicated that, cereals were adequate for 100 per cent of the households, pulses were adequate for 72.50 per cent, oilseeds were adequate for 2.50 per cent, vegetables were adequate for 17.50 per cent, fruits were adequate for 30 per cent, 6 milk was adequate for 87.50 per cent, eggs were adequate for 85 per cent and meat was adequate for 82.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, pulses were inadequate for 25 per cent, oilseeds were inadequate for 90 per cent, vegetables were inadequate for 82 per cent, fruits were inadequate for 70 per cent, milk was inadequate for 10 per cent, eggs were inadequate for 10 per cent and meat was inadequate for 12.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, oilseeds were market surplus for 12.50 per cent, vegetables were market surplus for 2.50 per cent and milk was market surplus for 2.50 per cent of the households.  The results indicated that, lower fertility status of the soil was the constraint experienced by 70 per cent of the households, wild animal menace on farm field (72.50%), frequent incidence of pest and diseases (52.50%), inadequacy of irrigation water (55%), high cost of fertilizers and plant protection chemicals (45%), high rate of interest on credit (50%), low price for the agricultural commodities (57.50%), lack of marketing facilities in the area (72.50%), lack of transport for safe transport of the agricultural produce to the market (72.50%), less rainfall (12.50%), inadequate extension services (72.50%), and source of agri-technology information (newspaper/TV/mobile) (7.50%). ; Watershed Development Department, Government of Karnataka (World Bank Funded) Sujala –III Project

La trattazione si compone di tre capitoli, dalla lettura dei quali emerge una indagine della tematica che ha preso le mosse dalla analisi del principio del consenso traslativo per approdare alla recente normativa di recepimento della direttiva 83/2011, passando per l'approfondimento della disciplina contenuta nella Convenzione di Vienna e nelle altre normative interne in materia di contratti a distanza che si sono susseguite nel corso degli anni. Come si è appena detto il lavoro muove dalla disamina della normativa civilistica in materia di conclusione del contratto, retta dal principio del consenso traslativo espresso nell'art. 1376 c.c., norma che accoglie il c.d. "principio consensualistico", in virtù del quale la stessa manifestazione di volontà che costituisce il negozio è sufficiente non solo per far nascere l'obbligazione, ma anche per trasferire o costituire diritti in capo ad altri. Il consenso, dunque, anche senza la consegna e il pagamento del prezzo, è sufficiente per il passaggio della proprietà (o altro diritto) e a tale affermazione segue, quale corollario, la compenetrazione nel titulus del modus dell'acquisto, dal momento che il contratto, oltre al valore di regolamento di privati interessi diviene indice della circolazione dei beni, al posto dell'antica traditio. La sola manifestazione di volontà delle parti contraenti determina, dunque, contestualmente all'acquisto della proprietà, l'acquisto dello jus possidendi, in conseguenza della stipulazione. Nelle ipotesi in cui il contratto abbia ad oggetto uno dei diritti previsti nell'art. 2643 c.c. e negli altri casi in cui l'ordinamento prescrive la necessità della trascrizione, l'acquisto del diritto, da parte del compratore, si verifica erga omnes prima ancora del compimento delle formalità pubblicitarie legali, salva l'eventuale risoluzione, ex tunc, dell'acquisto stesso quale conseguenza della applicazione delle regole sulla pubblicità ed in particolare per l'effetto dichiarativo ad essa proprio. Si può, tuttavia, osservare che la regola del consenso traslativo ha, dunque, nel nostro 2 ordinamento, valenza generalizzata pur se sono rinvenibili diverse eccezioni che ne restringerebbero l'ambito di applicazione comportando, secondo alcuni, un "ridimensionamento" del principio stesso. La presenza di deroghe, tuttavia, non varrebbe ad intaccare la generalità del principio ben potendo con essa coesistere la scelta di politica legislativa secondo la quale relativamente a taluni diritti il trasferimento o la costituzione sia subordinato all'osservanza di particolari oneri formali. Il principio espresso nella disposizione citata, determina una macroclassificazione all'interno dei contratti di alienazione: si distinguono in contratti ad effetti reali, nei quali gli effetti reali sono immediati e contratti ad effetti obbligatori nei quali l'effetto reale è mediato dal sorgere di un vincolo obbligatorio. E' risultato necessario, a questo punto, effettuare una analisi degli effetti che il principio volontaristico reca con sé, operando un coordinamento tra la norma di cui all'art. 1376 c.c. e quella di cui all'art. 1465 c.c., dal momento che è proprio in relazione al momento in cui il trasferimento del diritto ha luogo che viene decisa, in via di principio, la questione relativa al soggetto sul quale incombe (secondo le norme dispositive in materia di vendita) il rischio del perimento della cosa per causa non imputabile al venditore. L'individuazione del momento in cui si produce l'effetto traslativo è rilevante, pertanto, anche ai fini della disciplina del passaggio dei rischi, avendo il nostro ordinamento adottato, di massima (facendo salve le eccezioni relative alle vendite di beni di consumo) il criterio della proprietà e non, come avviene in altri Paesi o in base alle convenzioni di vendita internazionale, quello della consegna e neppure quello del contratto. Di regola, perciò, il rischio contrattuale del perimento, del deterioramento della cosa o dei vizi giuridici sopravvenuti è in capo al compratore, a partire dal momento in cui si sia prodotto l'effetto traslativo e indipendentemente dalla consegna o dal pagamento del prezzo (obbligazione alla quale il compratore sarà tenuto dal momento del prodursi dell'effetto traslativo). Il legislatore del '42 considera, pertanto, assorbente il 3 trasferimento del diritto che eleva a criterio unico ed esclusivo di allocazione del rischio contrattuale (res perit domino); ciò con riferimento alle vendite non obbligatorie, giacchè in queste ultime il rischio continua a gravare sul venditore fino al verificarsi del trasferimento del diritto. Di conseguenza in esse, ove la cosa perisca per causa non imputabile ad alcuna delle parti, prima del verificarsi del trasferimento del diritto, il contratto si risolverà a norma dell'art. 1463 c.c. (salva la concentrazione sull'altro bene dedotto nella vendita alternativa e salvo l'ostacolo alla risolubilità nei casi di vendita di genere illimitato). Quanto detto fino a tale momento necessita di raffronto con il disposto dell'art. 1510 c.c. che si occupa del luogo della consegna nel caso di vendita di cose mobili precisando che nel caso di vendita con trasporto, "il venditore si libera dall'obbligo della consegna rimettendo la cosa al vettore o allo spedizioniere" (ove per rimessione si intende la concreta presa in consegna del bene da parte del vettore o dello spedizioniere). Nel caso in cui si tratti di vendita di cose generiche, la consegna suddetta equivarrà anche come atto di individuazione ai sensi dell'art. 1378 c.c. La formulazione letterale della norma ha indotto parte della giurisprudenza e della dottrina a ritenere che la consegna al vettore o allo spedizioniere possa essere equiparata alla consegna al compratore, così esaurendosi l'obbligo di consegna gravante sull'alienante. Tale conclusione non si è ritenuta, tuttavia, condivisibile giacchè all'affidamento del bene all'incaricato del trasporto non consegue l'acquisizione della disponibilità dello stesso da parte del compratore, la quale rimane, di regola, al venditore che conserva il potere di impartire direttive al vettore. Dopo aver compiuto una breve disamina del quadro normativo municipale si è passati all'analisi della disciplina dei contratti inter absentes, dal momento della formazione dell'accordo a quello del trapasso della proprietà dal venditore all'alienatario. Il secondo capitolo inizia con l'illustrazione del procedimento di formazione dei contratti fra persone non presenti contestualmente nel luogo di conclusione del contratto, attraverso una analisi della 4 evoluzione storica della dottrina e della giurisprudenza in materia con un approccio comparatistico. In seguito si passa alla esposizione della disciplina contenuta nella Convenzione dell'Aja del 1964 (LUVI) e, più approfonditamente della Convenzione di Vienna del 1980. Quest'ultima in tema di formazione del contratto individua nella disposizione di cui all'art. 14 quali siano i requisiti minimi affinchè una proposta di concludere un contratto possa configurarsi come proposta in senso tecnico. Pertanto, dopo aver genericamente indicato che la proposta contrattuale deve essere sufficientemente precisa e deve contenere la volontà del proponente di obbligarsi in caso di accettazione, individua i requisiti che debbono sussistere affinchè una proposta possa dirsi sufficientemente precisa. La norma poc'anzi citata, come si vedrà nel corso del lavoro, non ha un equivalente nel nostro diritto interno, che, infatti, difetta di una norma contenente requisiti specifici al ricorrere dei quali si possa rinvenire una proposta in grado di dispiegare effetti. Quanto al momento a partire dal quale la proposta produce effetti, la norma di cui all'art. 15, I° comma della Convenzione stabilisce che essa acquista efficacia solo quando è stata portata a conoscenza del destinatario e, sotto tale aspetto, la legge uniforme non introduce modifiche rispetto al quadro normativo di diritto interno. La soluzione prescelta presenta, tuttavia, delle peculiarità rispetto alla disposizione di cui all'art. 1335 cod. civ., in base alla quale tutte le manifestazioni di volontà si reputano conosciute nel momento in cui pervengono all'indirizzo del destinatario; tali differenze valgono a rendere la soluzione adottata in sede internazionale più idonea a garantire una maggiore certezza nei traffici giuridici. Punto centrale della analisi della disciplina contenuta nella Convenzione di Vienna attiene, tuttavia, al profilo relativo alla consegna dei beni e agli effetti da essa prodotti, in relazione al quale l'art. 31, pur non discostandosi significativamente dalla precedente normativa uniforme, introduce delle modifiche notevoli; essa, anzitutto si riferisce semplicemente alla consegna, senza però darne una definizione precisa lasciando così che il contratto ne determini il concreto contenuto. 5 Significativa è la circostanza che si prevede che quando la cosa venduta deve essere consegnata in un luogo determinato, il venditore si libera dall'obbligo di consegnarla non già con il trasferimento del possesso, ma semplicemente mettendo la cosa a disposizione del compratore in quel luogo. Tale regola, come meglio si vedrà in seguito, ha imposto un adattamento del regime riguardante il passaggio del rischio al compratore: mentre infatti è rimasto fermo il principio che, nella vendita con trasporto, il rischio passa al compratore con la consegna della cosa al vettore, nel caso in cui la consegna debba avvenire in un luogo determinato occorre non solo che il venditore abbia messo la cosa a disposizione del compratore, ma anche che questi non abbia adempiuto l'onere di ritirarla tempestivamente e che, nel caso in cui il luogo della consegna sia diverso dal domicilio del venditore, il compratore sappia che la cosa è stata messa a sua disposizione. Inoltre, sempre con riferimento alla consegna, deve segnalarsi che l'art. 53 della convenzione impone al compratore, accanto all'obbligazione di pagare il prezzo anche l'obbligo di prendere in consegna la merce che secondo una parte della dottrina, dovrebbe essere considerato come una obbligazione autonoma, la cui violazione sarebbe da configurarsi come inadempimento contrattuale. La Convenzione di Vienna muta radicalmente prospettiva abbandonando la pretesa di una definizione unitaria di consegna proponendo solo una descrizione analitica dei vari tipi con cui essa si attua nella realtà del commercio internazionale; conseguentemente ne risulta una disciplina profondamente diversa anche con riguardo al passaggio dei rischi e agli obblighi del venditore. Sotto tale ultimo aspetto la Convenzione esplicita gli atti che il venditore deve compiere per liberarsi dal suo obbligo e per i rischi si articolano varie ipotesi che disciplinano il momento in cui, malgrado la perdita o il deterioramento delle merci, il compratore deve corrispondere il prezzo convenuto. Con particolare riferimento alla tematica relativa al passaggio del rischio, da un'analisi complessiva del testo della Convenzione, emerge che l'affidamento della merce al 6 trasportatore non può considerarsi sufficiente affinchè il venditore possa considerarsi liberato dal rischio. Sempre nell'ambito del secondo capitolo si è proceduto alla illustrazione della disciplina dettata nella direttive comunitarie e nel codice del consumo relativamente ai contratti a distanza e, per quel che più interessa, alla tematica del passaggio del rischio. Quanto alle prime si può osservare che l'impianto e le soluzioni adottate dalla Convezione di Vienna, presa in esame nella precedente sezione, sono stati assunti a modello dal legislatore comunitario in sede di predisposizione della direttiva 99/44/CE. Con riferimento al codice del consumo, come è noto il D. Lgs. 2 febbraio 2002, n. 24 ha dato attuazione alla Direttiva 1999/44/CE prevedendo l'inserimento della disciplina della vendita dei beni di consumo nel paragrafo 1 bis della sezione II del capo I del titolo III del libro VI del codice civile attraverso l'introduzione degli artt. da 1519 bis a 1519 nonies. In tal modo l'impianto codicistico fu integrato con un articolato di forte valenza consumeristica finalizzato ad adeguare alle esigenze del mercato, tutele, garanzie e responsabilità di determinati tipi di vendita. A tale novella legislativa conseguirono difficoltà circa il raccordo della stessa con la normativa sulla vendita di cose mobili, contenente una serie di rimedi, specifici per la natura delle cose vendute ed eccezionali rispetto ai principi generali in tema di contratto, ispirati alle esigenze di celerità delle risoluzioni delle controversie e di certezza delle contrattazioni. Sicchè si pose il problema dell'applicazione della specifica normativa del codice alle vendite dei beni di consumo, problema reso ancor più acuto dall'esistenza di una profonda lacuna nella direttiva de qua. Dall'impianto normativo delineato emergeva, dunque, che l'unica consegna giuridicamente rilevante fosse quella che procurava la materiale disponibilità della cosa al consumatore-destinatario (momento rilevante anche ai fini della responsabilità del venditore per "qualunque difetto di conformità esistente al momento della consegna" - art. 1519 quater cod. civ.). In tale variegato panorama normativo si poneva in discussione la 7 configurazione della condotta giuridicamente rilevante per la liberazione del venditore dall'obbligazione di consegna, nonchè il criterio di distribuzione dei rischi della complessiva operazione economica. Con lo scopo di creare una normativa di settore, volta ad armonizzare e riordinare le varie discipline e di fornire un'ampia tutela al consumatore, inteso quale soggetto debole del rapporto contrattuale, nel 2005 è stato emanato il decreto legislativo n. 206, che ha espunto dal codice civile gli artt. da 1519 bis a 1519 nonies, trasfondendoli negli artt. 128 ss. Vero motivo ispiratore prima dell'art. 1519 ter, I comma c.c. e del nuovo art. 129 cod. cons. è il concetto di "conformità al contratto" del bene oggetto di alienazione, individuandolo nell'idoneità all'uso al quale servono beni dello stesso tipo ovvero nella corrispondenza alla descrizione fatta dal venditore in sede di stipulazione del contratto. Sulla base del tenore letterale della norma appena citata si possono definire conformi al contratto anche quei beni che possiedono le qualità dei beni presentati dal venditore come modello o campione, ovvero presentano le qualità e le prestazioni abituali di beni dello stesso tipo; sono, altresì, conformi al contratto quei beni idonei all'uso particolare voluto dal consumatore e che sia stato portato da quest'ultimo a conoscenza del venditore, il quale abbia accettato anche per fatti concludenti. La norma prosegue escludendo che vi sia difetto di conformità tutte le volte in cui il consumatore fosse a conoscenza del difetto e non potesse ignorarlo con l'ordinaria diligenza ovvero nel caso in cui tale difetto sia stato cagionato dal consumatore con istruzioni o materiali. Come si può agevolmente notare, il difetto di conformità era stato concepito dal legislatore italiano indipendentemente dalla presenza di vizio, colpa o dolo, che, invece, caratterizzavano le disposizioni a riguardo disposte dal codice civile. Operato il raffronto tra la normativa generale, quella comunitaria e quella di settore la trattazione prosegue attraverso l'analisi del corpo normativo della direttiva 2011/83/UE, cui è dedicato il terzo ed ultimo capitolo, relativamente all'aspetto inerente il momento del passaggio del 8 rischio nei contratti a distanza, normativa che ha introdotto una tutela più avanzata per i consumatori, aggiungendo un altro significativo tassello nella formazione di un diritto uniforme europeo dei contratti dei consumatori (considerando n. 7). La normativa appena citata, anzitutto, amplia in modo considerevole la nozione di contratto a distanza (come anche di contratto negoziato fuori dai locali commerciali), giungendo ad estenderla a qualunque "regime organizzato di vendita o prestazione di servizi a distanza, senza la presenza fisica e simultanea del professionista e del consumatore, mediante l'uso esclusivo di uno o più mezzi di comunicazione a distanza fino al momento della conclusione del contratto, compresa la conclusione del contratto stesso". Da tale definizione debbono rimanere esclusi i casi in cui i siti web offrono informazioni solo sul professionista, sui beni o servizi che presta e sui suoi dati di contatto e non anche sulle modalità di conclusione del contratto. Per l'aspetto che qui interessa, nel considerando n. 51 della suddetta direttiva si legge che particolarmente problematico e fonte di contenzioso è proprio il frangente attinente alla consegna dei beni, compresi quelli persi o danneggiati durante il trasporto, e la consegna parziale o tardiva. Intento palesato dal legislatore comunitario è proprio quello di armonizzare la normativa nazionale in ordine al momento in cui dovrebbe avvenire la consegna, facendo in modo, però, che le condizioni e il momento del trasferimento della proprietà dei beni rimangano assoggettati alla normativa nazionale. Con specifico riguardo all'ipotesi in cui i beni vengono spediti al consumatore dal professionista (nel caso di perdita o danneggiamento), la direttiva predispone una tutela più ampia e concreta nei riguardi del primo, stabilendo che egli debba essere tutelato contro ogni rischio di perdita o danneggiamento dei beni che avvenga prima che abbia preso fisicamente possesso dei beni medesimi. Con riguardo a tale momento di trasferimento del rischio, è opportuno considerare che può dirsi entrato in possesso di un bene, il consumatore che lo abbia materialmente ricevuto; quando, in altri termini, abbia acquisito un controllo su di esso, avendone accesso, anche tramite un terzo da lui 9 indicato, per utilizzarlo come proprietario. Viene però fatto salvo il caso in cui il consumatore abbia incaricato il vettore del trasporto dei beni, dal momento che, in tale ipotesi, il legislatore comunitario sposta il trasferimento del rischio della perdita o danneggiamento, in capo al consumatore, al momento della consegna dei beni al vettore. La medesima disciplina è applicabile nel caso in cui spetti al consumatore stesso prendere in consegna i beni, dal momento che in tale caso l'assunzione del rischio coinciderebbe con l'apprensione materiale del bene oggetto di contratto. Della consegna si occupa l'art. 18 della direttiva di cui si discorre, il quale, fatto salvo un diverso termine pattuito dalle parti, stabilisce che il professionista debba consegnare i beni "mediante il trasferimento del possesso o del controllo fisico" sugli stessi senza indebito ritardo e comunque non oltre trenta giorni dalla conclusione del contratto. Ove tale adempimento non venga compiuto dal professionista è riconosciuto al consumatore il diritto di sollecitare il primo ad effettuare la consegna entro un termine supplementare appropriato alle circostanze; ove la consegna non avvenga neppure entro tale termine, il consumatore ha diritto di risolvere il contratto. Nell'ipotesi in cui per la consegna sia stato fissato un termine e questo debba, tenuto conto delle circostanze, essere considerato essenziale, non trova applicazione il termine legale di trenta giorni e se il professionista omette di effettuare la consegna entro tale termine, il consumatore ha diritto alla risoluzione del contratto ipso iure. Al verificarsi di tale conseguenza, il professionista è tenuto al rimborso, senza ritardo, di tutti gli importi versati dal consumatore in esecuzione del contratto, fatti salvi, in ogni caso, gli ulteriori rimedi riconosciuti al consumatore dalla legislazione nazionale. L'attuazione della direttiva de qua è intervenuta a seguito del D. Lgs. 21 febbraio 2014, n. 21 il quale ha novellato, tra gli altri, gli artt. 60-61 e 63 del codice del consumo, dettati in tema di consegna dei beni e al passaggio del rischio di perdita o danneggiamento degli stessi, introducendo una regolamentazione più analitica delle conseguenze 10 dell'inadempimento anche sotto il profilo della responsabilità connessa alla consegna. Le disposizioni di cui agli artt.61 e 63 fanno esclusivo riferimento al contratto di vendita e vanno ad aggiungersi agli artt. 128-135 già presenti nel codice del consumo. La direttiva svincola il trasferimento dal conferimento del possesso, prevedendo che sia sufficiente che il consumatore abbia anche solo il "controllo fisico" sui beni acquistati; tale formulazione potrebbe rendere idonea quale prova dell'avvenuta consegna anche il conseguimento della semplice detenzione del bene, anche ad opera di un terzo incaricato dal consumatore stesso. Il momento della consegna (di cui si occupa l'art. 61, che recepisce quasi testualmente il disposto dell'art. 18 della direttiva) rappresenta un punto cruciale della fase esecutiva del contratto, fonte di numerose controversie generate dalla necessità tanto del legislatore comunitario, quanto di quello nazionale, di fornire una tutela effettiva al contraente più debole. In deroga a quanto disposto dal codice civile, ove il bene oggetto del contratto debba essere trasportato da un luogo all'altro (o essere spedito), non rileva il momento in cui il bene è affidato al vettore, ma il momento in cui esso giunge a destinazione, nelle mani dell'effettivo proprietario. Eccezione a tale regola si riscontra solo nel caso in cui il vettore sia stato scelto dal consumatore e tale scelta non sia stata proposta dal professionista, salvi naturalmente i diritti riconosciuti dal sistema codicistico al consumatore nei confronti del vettore. La finalità di tale recentissima novella legislativa, su impulso del legislatore comunitario, sembra riscontrabile nell'intento, da un lato, di allocare i rischi inerenti alla cosa in capo ad un soggetto che abbia consapevolmente acquisito fisicamente il possesso dei beni oggetto del contratto e dall'altro, di sollecitare il professionista nell'individuazione di un vettore effettivamente affidabile, in ossequio al principio di diligenza nell'adempimento delle obbligazioni.