Turkey's European Union (EU) membership process began in 1963 with the partnership agreement sign with the European Economic Community. Turkey's application for full membership in 1987 speed the process to achieve EU standards. The negotiations include comprehensive policy changes in many areas, from financial standardization to intellectual property rights. These policies are collected under 35 chapters in which each of these chapters has many significant conditions. Chapter 12 is about food safety, veterinary, and phytosanitary policies. This article examines one of the subjects that is an issue of the first part of the chapter, food safety. Kokorec, a Turkish street food made of animal intestines, has been popularized in EU-Turkey negotiations as it is one of the most critical issues among 35 chapters. Kokorec was presented as it is an essential obstacle for Turkish membership, and if Turkey abandoned this century-old food, it would join the Union. This popularization has been made via media and other platforms such as TV series, articles, songs, and news and debate programs. This article studies this phenomenon under two concepts, securitization and gastro-nationalism. This article suggests that the kokorec has been popularized as one of the most critical issues and subjected to successful securitization. The debate regarding hygiene, authentic cuisine, the national food industry, and other debates are only tools of the securitization for the public view. This study used the social and traditional means of media and suggested that Turkey's public opinion (especially until 2010) regards to EU membership was manipulated through these means. The securitization of kokorec prevents a real discussion about Chapter 12 (and even the 35 chapters) and its content related to food safety, veterinary, and phytosanitary policies. The kokorec also played a significant role in national Turkish cuisine which is an ideal case for gastro-nationalism. ; Turkey's European Union (EU) membership process began in 1963 with the ...
Hâlihazırda AB'nin siyasi sisteminin önde gelen bir öğesi olan "farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon" kavramına yönelik analizler ve tartışmalar, özellikle geçtiğimiz on sene içerisinde AB'nin hala içinde bulunduğu çok katmanlı kriz dönemi ışığında artmıştır. İlgili çalışmaların çoğu, AB içerisinde vuku bulan farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon ile ilgilenirken, bu kavramın "dış boyutu" olarak nitelendirilen ve üçüncü ülkelerin AB'nin karar alma süreçlerine dahil olmadan AB müktesebatının farklı bölümleri ile farklı derecelerde uyum yakalamaları aracılığıyla meydana gelen "harici farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon" konusunda gerçekleştirilmiş çalışmalar son derece sınırlıdır. Bu çalışma, AB ve üçüncü ülkeler arasında harici farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon modellerinin geliştirilmesini neoliberal kuramın temel varsayımları temelinde açıklamayı ve bu kuramsal çerçevede AB ve üçüncü ülkeler arasında hâlihazırda gerçekleştirilen üç harici farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon modelini (Avrupa Ekonomik Alanı, Avrupa Komşuluk Politikası ve Stratejik Ortaklık) incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Çalışma, aynı zamanda, neoliberalizmin odaklandığı "karşılıklı bağımlılık" kavramı ışığında Türkiye-AB ilişkilerinde ve AB katılım müzakereleri sürecinde son dönemde yaşanan gelişmeleri analiz etmektedir ve yakın geçmişte iki taraf arasında hayata geçirilen ikili diyalog mekanizmalarını dikkate alarak Türkiye ile AB arasında üyelik çerçevesinin dışında bir harici farklılaştırılmış entegrasyon modeli oluşturulması ihtimaline değinmektedir. ; Studies and debates on the concept of "differentiated integration," which has been a key feature of the political system of the EU for many decades, have come into prominence in the last decade in view of the multiple crises the EU has been facing. Whereas most of these studies dealt with internal differentiated integration within the EU, only a few studies focused on the "external" dimension of differentiated integration, which could be described as third countries' differentiated levels of alignment with various parts of the EU's acquis communautaire without participating in the EU's central decision-making bodies. This study seeks to examine the development of different models of external differentiated integration between the EU and third countries based on the key premises and assumptions of neoliberalism and by focusing on the following three already established modes of external differentiated integration between the EU and third countries: European Economic Area, European neighborhood Policy, and Strategic Partnership. It further evaluates the latest developments in EU–Turkey relations and Turkey's EU accession process in light of neoliberalism's concept of "interdependence" and touches upon the possibility of the formation of a model of external differentiated integration between Turkey and the EU, outside the framework of the accession process by taking into account the recently established bilateral dialog mechanisms.
ÖZETGÜMRÜK BİRLİĞİ SÜRECİNDE TÜRKİYE'NİN DIS TİCARETYAPISINDAKI GELİŞMELERBu çalısmanın amacı Türkiye ile AB arasında Gümrük Birliği'nin yürürlüğegirmesiyle birlikte Türkiye'nin AB ülkeleriyle gerçeklestirdiği ihracat ve ithalatdeğerlerindeki değismeleri analiz etmektir.1964 yılında Ankara Antlasması'nınimzalanmasıyla birlikte baslayan Türkiye AB ortaklık iliskilerinin hazırlık dönemi, 1/95sayılı Ortaklık Konseyi Kararı'nın kabul edilmesi ile birilikte son dönemine girmistir.1.1.1996 tarihinde Gümrük Birliği yürürlüğe girmesiyle birlikte yoğunluk kazanan ABile Türkiye arasındaki iliskilerin ekonomik analizi de önem kazanmaya baslamıstır.Çalısmada da, ekonomik bütünlesme teorisi, AB-Türkiye iliskileri ve GümrükBirliği öncesi ve sonrası dönemde dıs ticaretimizdeki değismelere yer verilmis,Türkiye'nin AB ile olan ihracat ve ithalatında Gümrük Birliğinin etkilerini test etmekamacıyla 1987:Q4 – 2008:Q1 dönemi kapsayacak sekilde zaman serisi verilerikullanılarak AB ile gerçeklestirilen ihracat ve ithalat denklemleri tahmin edilmistir.Bumodellere Chow testi uygulanarak tahmin edilen modellerde yapısal değisimin olupolmadığı arastırılmıstır.Aynı zamanda Gümrük Birliği'nin olası etkilerini analizedilmesi için kukla değisken yaklasımından da yararlanılmıstır.Yapısal kırılma testisonrasında AB ile gerçeklestirilen ihracat için tahmin edilen modelde ihracatımızdaGümrük Birliği öncesi döneme göre bir azalma yasanırken, Gümrük Birliği ile birlikteAB'den gerçeklestirilen ithalat modelinde önemli yapısal farklılıklar olduğu bulunmus,Gümrük Birliği sonrasında AB ile yapılan ithalatın Gümrük Birliği öncesi döneme göredaha fazla olduğu ortaya konulmustur.ABSTRACTDEVELOPMENTS IN THE TURKEY'S FOREIGN TRADESTRUCTURE DURING THE PROCESS OF CUSTOMS UNIONThe aim of this study is to analyze the changes of Turkey's exports and importswith EU countries with the entry of customs union into force between Turkey and EU.Preparation period of EU-Turkey partnership relation, which has started by the signingof Ankara Agreement in 1964, has entered its last period with the adoption of 1/95 ofAssociation Council Decision. With the entrance of Customs Union into force on01.01.1996, economic analysis of the intensive relationship between EU and Turkey hasbegan to gain importance.In this study, the theory of economic integration, the EU-Turkey relations andchanges in foreign trade due to Customs Union have been mentioned and export andimport equations with EU have been estimated by using time-series data in the range of1987:Q4 and 2008:Q1 in order to test the effects of Customs Union betweeen EU andTurkey. By applying Chow Test to these models, it has been investigated whether astructural change has occurred in the predicted models. At the same time, dummyvariable approach has been used to analyze possible effects of the Customs Union. Afterthe structural break test performed, export with EU has been diminished in respect tothe period before the entrance of Customs Union according to the predicted model forexport with EU. There has been also significant structural differences in import modelwith EU before and after the period of 1996. It has been seen that imports are more thanthe imports before the entrance to Customs Union.
ÖZETAVRUPA BİRLİĞİ'NDE VE TÜRKİYE'DE MEDYA SAHİPLİĞİ, FİNANS İLİŞKİSİAvrupa Birliği ile Türkiye arasındaki ilişkiler Ankara Anlaşması'nın 1963 yılında imzalanmasıyla başlamıştır. Aralık 1999 Helsinki Zirvesi'nde ise Türkiye'nin adaylığının teyit edildiğini ve bu ülke için de bir katılım öncesi strateji ve katılım ortaklığı belgesi hazırlanacağını ifade eden AB Konseyi'nin yükümlülük ve beklentilerin ön plana çıktığı bir döneme girilmiştir. Türkiye Avrupa Birliği ilişkileri, 17 Aralık 2004'te alınan kararlar ile ilerleme kaydedilmiştir. Birliğe uyum süreci kapsamında, gerçekleştirilen müktesebatlarda, Türkiye'den; Tarım, Balıkçık, Görsel-işitsel politikalar. Vb. alanlara ilişkin eksikliklerini tamamlaması istenmiştir. Bu çalışma ile AB'ye uyum sürecinde; Türkiye'deki ve AB'deki basın işletmelerinin mülkiyet yapıları, rekabet politikaları, mali yapı analizleri hakkında bilgi verilmeye çalışılmıştır. 1980'lerde başlayan ticari yayıncılık ile, tamamen kontrölsüz sektörde, medyada varolan tablo ve reklam piyasası ve bununla birlikte politik çıkarlar değişiklik göstermiştir. Bundan dolayı, Medya alanında, çeşitli kural, düzenleme ve politikalar Avrupa Birliği Kriterlerinde yer almaktadır. İçerisinde Avrupa Parlemantosu, Avrupa Konseyi ve diğer uluslararası güçlü derneklerin bulunduğu, Uluslararası Kuruluşlar, medya sistemi için resmi uyarı ve tavsiyeler yoluyla sorumluluklara sahiptirler. Türkiye Basın Yasası, Avrupa Birliği Direktifleri ve Prensipleri içerisinde tam bir uyumluluğa sahip değildir. ABSTRACTThe relationship between Turkey and the European Union, since the Ankara European Council declared Turkey as a candidate state and asked the Commission to prepare a Pre-Accession Strategy and an Accession Partnership for Turkey. Turkey-EU Relations have been gone by the decisions dated 17 December 2004, hasted. In the processes of accession to Union, in the acquisitions, Turkey had been asked to fulfill the conditions about policies on Agriculture, Fishery, Audio-Visual etc. In this study, in the process of accession to Union, information has been tried to give about market conditions, competing policies and financial structure analyses of press businesses in Turkey and EU. When commercial press began in the 1970s, in a totally unregulated marketplace, it changed the media scene and the advertising market, as well as the political stakes. Therefore there are some European Union's role regulation and policy at EU level about media sector. The İnternational Communities – including the European Parliament, the Council of Europe and other influential international institutions– have responded by issuing formal warnings and recommendations to media system. The Turkish legislation to press does not fully comply with provisions included in the EU directives and the EU principles for the mass media sector.Key Words:The Media Ownership in European Union (EU) and in Turkey, Media Companies of Form of Ownership and Media Polics
1964 yılından itibaren Ankara Antlaşması ile ortaklık ilişkisi içinde bulunan ve 1987'den beri de tamüye olmayı hedefleyen Türkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği (AB) üyelik sürecinin günümüzde de devam ettiğidüşünülürse, bu sürecin neden bu kadar uzun sürdüğü sorusu AB-Türkiye ilişkilerinin ele alındığı herortamda ilk akla gelen sorudur. Türkiye'nin kendinden çok sonra başvuran devletlerin de gerisindekaldığı bu gecikme durumunu salt ekonomik gerilik ve/veya dini farklılıkla açıklamak yeterli değildir.Türkiye'nin zaman zaman siyasi çizgisinde görülen çalkantılar ve demokrasi yolunda meydana gelensapmalar AB-Türkiye ilişkilerini her zaman zora sokmuştur. Bu nedenle Türkiye'nin iç siyasetindeyaşanan darbeler ve/veya darbe girişimleri, iki tarafın da siyasi kararlılığını sekteye uğratan önemlisorunlar olmuştur. Türkiye'nin Birliğe üyeliği konusunda her zaman ihtiyatlı bir tutum sergileyen AB,darbeler veya darbe girişimleri ile girdiği siyasi istikrarsızlık zamanlarında genelde Türkiye'ye karşısoğuk ve mesafeli durmayı tercih etmiştir. Türkiye'nin siyasi istikrarsızlığına neden olan bugelişmelerin, AB-Türkiye ilişkilerinin ele alındığı literatürde yeterince işlenmediği dikkatealındığında, Birlik üyeliğine etkisi incelenmesi gereken bir özellik taşımaktadır.Bu çalışmada özellikle 15 Temmuz 2016 tarihinde gerçekleşen darbe girişiminin ve öncesinde Türksiyasi hayatında yaşanan askeri müdahalelerin AB-Türkiye ilişkilerine tesiri tartışılacak ve Türkiye'deyaşanan son darbe girişiminin AB üyelik sürecinin geleceğine dair sonuçları görülmeye çalışılacaktır. ; Turkey has been in partnership with the European Union (EU) by the Ankara Agreement since 1964and has aimed to become a full member since 1987. If it is considered that the membership process isstill continuing today, the question of why this process has lasted so long is the first question thatcomes to mind in every environment where EU-Turkey relations are being questioned. Turkey fellbehind some states even though they applied after Turkey, that's why it is not enough to explain thisdelay by purely economic backwardness and / or religious differences. The occasional fluctuations inTurkey's political order and deviations in democracy have always complicated the EU-Turkeyrelations.For this reason, the coups and / or coup attempts in Turkey's domestic politics have been majorproblems that interrupted the political determination of both sides. The EU, which has always beencautious about the membership of Turkey to the Union, preferred to keep the distance between Turkeyin general during the times of political instability because of the coups or coup attempts. Taking intoaccount that these developments which have caused Turkey's political instability have been ignored inthe studies about EU-Turkey relations, so it is significant to analyze the effect of these issues to theUnion membership.In this study, the coup attempt, which took place on July 15, 2016, and the past military interventionsin the Turkish political life and their impact on the EU-Turkey relations will be examined and thestudy will try to reveal the effects of the results of the last coup attempt in Turkey regarding the futureof the process of EU membership.
Soğuk Savaşın sona ermesi ve Sovyetler Birliği'nin dağılmasından sonra aktörlerin bölgeye ilgisi, temelde enerji kaynakları ve bölgesel sorunlar nedeniyle artmaktadır. Bölgeye ilgisi artan ve çeşitli ekonomi, hukuki ve politika araçları ile aktif olmaya çalışan AB yeni bir dönüşüme uğramıştır. 1993 yılında Maastricht Anlaşmasıyla siyasi birlik yapısına kavuşan AB, dış politika ve güvenlik konularında yeni bir çalışmanın içerisine girmiştir. Özellikle Avrupa'nın doğusunda ve Güney Kafkasya'da yeni ülkelerin bağımsızlıklarını ilan etmesi, genişleme sürecinde olan AB için bir güvenlik sorunu oluşturmuştur. Azerbaycan ve Hazar Denizi zengin enerji kaynaklarına sahip olmasından dolayı enerji ithalatı (özelliklede doğalgaz) 'larda olan ve 2030'lu yıllarda civarında olacağı değerlendirilen AB için cazibe haline gelmiştir. AB 2007 yılı genişlemesiyle (Romanya ve Bulgaristan'ın üyeli) birlikte Güney Kafkasya ülkeleri ile komşu olmuştur. Tabii bu ülkelerle ilişkilerini geliştirmek maksadıyla hukuki zemini oluşturan Ortaklık ve İşbirliği Anlaşmaları ve Politik zeminini oluşturan Avrupa Komşuluk Politikaları vasıtasıyla bölgede etkin bir rol oynamak istemektedir. Özellikle 1990'lı yıllarda uygulamaya çalıştığı projelerde başarısız olan AB, bölge ülkeleri için düzenlediği ilerleme raporlarındaki gelişmeler neticesinde desteklerini arttırmaktadır. Doğrusunu söylemek gerekirse, ne kadar reform o kadar mali destek deyimi yerinde olacaktır. Bu çalışmayı, AB eurometer anket programına göre 2015 yılı güz döneminde Azerbaycan'da yaptığım çeşitli yaş ve meslek grupları arasında yaptığım anket çalışması değerlendirme aşamasında tezi desteklemiştir. ; The end of the Cold War and the Soviet Union after the collapse of the region of interest of actors is growing because of basic energy resources and regional issues. Regional interest in the growing and diverse economy, trying to be active with the legal and policy tools the EU has undergone a new transformation. In 1993 gained the political union structure with the Maastricht Treaty, the EU has entered into a new work on foreign policy and security issues. In particular, the declaration of independence of new countries in the east of Europe and the South Caucasus, have created a security problem for the EU is in the process of expansion, Azerbaijan and Caspian Sea energy imports due to its rich energy resources (especially natural gas), which in 46% and 2030 l in the years has become an attraction for the EU considered to be around 70%. EU enlargement in 2007 (Romania and Bulgaria members) have been together with the neighboring countries of South Caucasus. Needless to develop relations with these countries constitute the legal basis for the purpose of forming the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement and the political ground is willing to play an active role in the region through the European Neighbourhood Policy. Especially for projects that failed to work in practice in the 1990s, the EU supports the development as a result of the increase in organized progress reports for their country. Obviously it will be the reform of financial support statement in place. This thesis was supported by the arguments I made in the evaluation phase of a survey among various age groups and professions EUROMET EU 2015 survey by the fall semester of my program in Azerbaijan.
Avrupa'da bütünleşme fikrinin temelleri çok eski tarihlere dayanmaktadır. Fakat bu birliğin kurulmasında II. Dünya Savaşı'nın yarattığı siyasal ve ekonomik çöküntünün yeri büyüktür. Savaş sonrası bozulan ekonomilerini geliştirmek amacıyla Fransa, Almanya, İtalya, Belçika, Hollanda, Lüksemburg ABD'nin de desteğiyle önce 1951 yılında Paris Anlaşması ile Avrupa Kömür ve Çelik Birliği'ni (AKÇT), daha sonra 1957'de Roma Anlaşması ile Avrupa Ekonomik Topluluğu'nu (AET) ve Avrupa Atom Enerjisi Topluluğu'nu (AAET-EURATOM) kurdular. Süreç içerisinde yapılan antlaşmalarla genişleme yaşayan Topluluk, genişlemeye bağlı olarak kurumlarında değişiklikler yapmış, yeni kurumlar oluşturmuş ve mevcut kurumların yetkilerini arttırmıştır. Yarım asrı geride bırakan Türkiye-AB ilişkilerinin temeli 31 Temmuz 1959'da Türkiye'nin AET'ye üyelik için başvurusu ile atılmıştır. AET Bakanlar Konseyi, Türkiye'nin yapmış olduğu başvuruyu kabul ederek, üyelik koşulları gerçekleşinceye kadar geçerli olacak bir ortaklık anlaşması imzalanmasını önermiştir. 12 Eylül 1963 tarihinde imzalanan Ankara Anlaşması'nın 1 Aralık 1964 tarihinde yürürlüğe girmesiyle de Türkiye-AB ortaklık ilişkisi başlamıştır. Türkiye-AB ilişkilerinde önemli dönüm noktalarından biri 1996 da Gümrük Birliği Anlaşması'nın imzalanması, diğeri ise 1999 yılında gerçekleşen Helsinki Zirvesi'nde Türkiye'nin adaylık statüsünün teyit edilmesidir. Adaylık statüsü verilmesinin ardından Türkiye, Uyum Yasaları ve reform paketleri ile Kopenhag Kriterleri'ne bir an önce uyum sağlamayı hedeflemiştir. 17 Aralık 2004 tarihinde Brüksel'de düzenlenen Zirve toplantısında Türkiye'nin siyasi kriterleri yeterli ölçüde karşıladığı belirtilerek 3 Ekim 2005 tarihinde AB'ye katılım müzakerelerinin resmen başlatılması yönünde karar alınmıştır. ; The basis of the idea of integration in Europe is based on a very ancient history. However, the political and economic collapse created by the 2nd World War was very important in the establishment of this union. France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg by the support of USA firstly constituted the European Coal and Steel Union (ECSC) with the Paris Agreement in 1951 and then continued to constitute the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (AAET-EURATOM) with the Treaty of Rome to develop their post-war distorted economies. The Community, which experienced expansion with the agreements made in the process, made changes in its institutions depending on the enlargement, created new institutions, and increased the powers of the existing institutions. Relations when were founded half a century ago between Turkey and the European Union based on Turkey`s application for membership of the EEC on 31 July 1959.EEC Council of Ministers, accepting that Turkey had made the application, has offered the signing of a partnership agreement will be valid until the membership conditions occur. Following the Ankara agreement signed on 12th September in 1963 entered into force on 1 December 1964, Turkey-EU partnership relationship began. One of the significant turning points in Turkey-EU relations in 1996 the signing of the Customs Union Agreement and the other is the confirmation of Turkey's candidate status at the Helsinki Summit in 1999. After giving candidate status to Turkey, it aims to ensure compliance with the Copenhagen criteria by Adjustment Act and the reform packages. It was indicated that Turkey provides political criteria in the Summit meeting held in Brussels on 17 December 2004. Because of that on 3 October 2005, it was decided to meet the EU accession negotiations formally launched.
Yüksek Lisans Tezi ; Bu çalışmada; Kyoto Protokolünün Avrupa Birliği tarafından imzalanmasının ardından çevreye zarar vermeyen enerji kaynaklarına yönelen ve bu doğrultuda çevreye en az zarar veren fosil yakıt olan doğal gaz tüketiminde meydana gelen artışla beraber Avrupa Birliğinin en büyük doğal gaz tedarikçisi Rusya'ya aşırı bağımlığının nasıl bir enerji güvenliği ile karşı karşıya olduğu incelenmektedir. Konunun genel çerçevesini çizmek adına birinci bölümde enerji tüketiminin tarihsel süreç içinde nasıl arttığına, genel olarak enerjinin hayatımızdaki yeri ve doğal gaz dışında kalan enerji çeşitleri üzerinde kısaca durulmakta; doğal gaz ayrıntılı bir şekilde tarihsel süreci ve özellikleri ile birlikte irdelenmekte; enerjinin ekonomik ve politik boyutu ele alınmakta ve enerji güvenliğinin ne anlama geldiği konusunda görüşlere yer verilmektedir. Bu bağlamda, Kyoto Protokolünün imzalanmasına giden süreç tarihsel bağlamda incelenmekte; tarihsel süreç incelenirken enerji-çevre bağlamında meydana gelen gelişmeler ele alınmaktadır. İkinci bölümde, Avrupa Birliği'nin enerji kaynaklarının kısıtlı oluşuna vurgu yapılıp; enerji konusunda dışa bağımlı olan Avrupa Birliği'nin uygulamaya çalıştığı enerji politikasının tarihsel gelişimi ve temel unsurları hakkında bilgiler yer almaktadır. Bu perspektifte doğal gazı Avrupa Birliği enerji güvenliğinde ki yeri irdelenmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde, Rusya'nın enerji politikasında petrol yerine doğal gazın öne çıkarılması irdelenmekte olup, bu Rus doğal gazının en önemli alıcısı olan Avrupa Birliği ile enerji çerçevesinde ekonomik ilişkilere ve doğal gaz özelinde gelişen ilişkiler üzerinde durulmaktadır. Dördüncü bölüm de ise, doğal gaz özelinde Avrupa Birliği-Rusya ilişkilerinde Türkiye'nin konumu üzerinde durulacaktır. ; In this study; it has been analyzed how Russia demands to use natural gas as a tool for international relations after the collapse of Soviet Russia and after the compromise of Kyoto Protocol that Europe directs its interest to environment- friendly energy sources. As favorable source natural gas, this is less harmful to green, made EU more dependent to Russia and how EU energy security would be influenced from this partnership. For the common perspective of matter; firstly, how energy consumption rose within historical process, the importance of natural gas in life and shortly assessment of substitute; the features and history of natural gas have been considered, the economical and political sides of energy were explicated and the views about the meaning of energy security have been placed in this work. Within this framework, the process followed to be signed Kyoto protocol has been discussed, while it has been analyzing, developments in energy and environment was considered. In second chapter, the scarce energy sources of EU were highlighted. Then how energy dependent Union has followed its energy policies and basic principles were argued out. Within this concept, the significance of natural gas was discussed in EU energy security. In third chapter, it was examined that why Russia made natural gas as primary energy source instead of oil and how their relations would proceed with EU, mainly in natural gas, in its economic dimension. Lastly in chapter forth, it has been discussed, in the concept of natural gas, Turkey's role over EU and Russia relations.
Çoban Oran, Filiz, (Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi Biga İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Uluslararası İlişkiler Bölümü Siyasi Tarih Ana Bilim Dalı) ; Son on yıldır Türkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği üyelik yolundan uzaklaştığı ve Türk Dış Politikası'nda bir "oryantasyon değişimi" olduğuna ilişkin tartışmalar yoğunlaşmıştır. Bu bağlamda bu çalışma, Charles Hermann'ın tanımladığı dış politika değişim kategorilerini kullanarak Türkiye-AB ilişkilerindeki değişimi açıklamayı amaçlamaktadır. Arap baharının başlangıcından beri bölgede artan istikrarsızlık ve Suriye iç savaşının tetiklediği mülteci krizinin etkileri Avrupa'nın en önemli sorunlarından biri olmuştur. Göçmenler için Ortadoğu'dan Schengen bölgesine geçiş ülkesi olması bakımından Türkiye'nin Avrupa'yı düzensiz göçten koruyan bir tampon devlet olması Türkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği için önemini arttırmıştır. Bu süreç 2015 yılından beri sınır güvenliği ve göç yönetimi konusunda Türkiye'nin işbirliğini sağlamak için üyelik görüşmelerini ve vize serbestliği programını hızlandırarak Türkiye-AB ilişkileri yeniden canlanmasına neden olmuştur. Bu çerçevede, bu makale Türkiye-AB arasındaki yeniden canlanan ilişkilerin iki nedenle kopma noktasına geldiğini saptamaktadır: AB üye ülkelerinde yükselen popülizm ve yabancı düşmanlığı ve Türkiye'de 15 Temmuz 2016 gecesi yaşanan darbe girişimini takip eden gelişmelerle artan Avrupa şüpheciliği söylemi. Sonuç olarak, ilişkilerde "tam üyelikten stratejik ortaklığa" bir "hedef değişimi" sürecinin başladığını iddia etmektedir. ; In the last decade, the debates have intensified on Turkey's estrangement from the path of European Union membership and an "orientation change" in Turkish Foreign Policy. In this context, by making use of the categories of change in foreign policy Charles Hermann identified, this study aims to shed a light on the change in Turkey-EU relations. In his article it is revealed that the effects of the refugee crisis originated from growing instability in the region since the beginning of the Arab uprisings and the Syrian civil war have become an increasingly pressing issue in Europe. Being a transit country of migrants between the Middle East and the Schengen area has made Turkey a buffer state which protects Europe from irregular migration and has raised its importance for the European Union. This process has revitalized Turkey-EU relations by catalyzing membership negotiations and visa liberation program to gain Turkish cooperation on migration management and border securitization. In this framework, this study reveals that the revitalized relationships of Turkey-EU have come to the breaking point as a result of two reasons: Escalating populism and xenophobia in EU member countries and rising Eurosceptic discourse with the events following the military coup attempt in the night of 15th July 2016 in Turkey. Lastly, it argues that it has triggered a process of "goal change" in the relationships from "full membership to strategic partnership".
Balıkesir Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kamu Yönetimi Ana Bilim Dalı ; Avrupalılaşma, modernleşme ile özdeş tutulmaktadır. Modernleşmek, ayrıca din ve devlet işlerinin birbirinden ayrılması ve laik yönetim anlayışının uygulanmasını gerektirir. Avrupalılaşma, "aydınlanma" anlamına gelmemektedir. Avrupalılaşma, bu çalışma kapsamında, Avrupa yaşam standartlarını, Avrupa hukukunu, Avrupa'nın demokratikleşme düzeyini, Avrupa alt yapısını, rasyonel dış politika düşüncelerini, istihdam politikalarını ve insan haklarını kendi iç politikalarımız haline getirmemiz anlamına gelmektedir. Türkiye, bölgesel bütünleşme hareketleri içinde en başarılı olan Avrupa topluluğu doğrultusunda, tercihini 1963 yılında imzalanan Ankara Antlaşması ile AB'den yana yapmıştır. AB'ye olan coğrafi yakınlık, dış ticaretin büyük bir kısmının AB ile yapılması bu tercihin nedenleri arasında sayılabilir; ancak en önemli neden AB'nin batılı anlamda modernleşmenin merkezi oluşudur. Nihai hedefi tam üyelik olarak belirleyen, Türkiye, 1963'de yürürlüğe giren Ortaklık Anlaşması daha sonra 1994'de Gümrük Birliği anlaşmasının imzalanması ile tam üyeliğe doğru yol almaktadır. Yapılan anlaşma 3 dönemden oluşmaktadır. AB açısından, Gümrük Birliği, kurumsal temelinin bir parçasını oluştururken, Türkiye için ise uluslararası alanda rekabet gücünü artıran ve dünya ticaretini teşvik eden, ülke mevzuatının önemli bir bölümünü AB mevzuatı ile uyumlaştıran bir çerçeve olarak hizmet vermektedir. Ortaklık ilişkisi, bu süreçte gelişirken Türkiye 1987 yılında Tam üyelik başvurusu yapmış ve 1999 Helsinki zirvesinde aday ülke olarak tanınmıştır. 3 Ekim 2005 tarihinde ise üyelik için en önemli adım olan Katılım Müzakereleri başlamıştır. Bu çalışmada, Gümrük Birliği ve Tam üyelik görüşmelerinin Türkiye'nin Avrupa Birliği uyum sürecine katkısı incelenecektir. Bu incelemeyi yapabilmek için, Birinci bölümde; Türkiye Avrupa Birliği ilişkilerinin tarihçesi ve Avrupalılaşmanın ne olduğu ve neden hedeflenildiği anlatılacaktır. İkinci bölümde ise; Gümrük Birliğinin Türkiye'nin Avrupalılaşmasına katkısı, Üçüncü bölümde ;Avrupalılaşma süresince Türkiye'nin AB müktesabatına uyumu ve Dördüncü bölümde; Türkiye'nin Avrupalılaşmasında siyasal, sosyal ve kültürel boyutu ele alınıp incelenecek ve irdelenecektir. ; Europeanization is emphasized with modernization. Separation of the religion and the government comes with modernization and it also brings the secular management system. Europeanized means: `to become luminous'. In this study, Europeanization mean to have the life standards of Europe, to have the law system of Europe, to have the level of Democracy in Europe, to have the infrastructure of Europe, to have the rational foreign policy ideas of Europe, to have the fortification politics of Europe, and to have the human rights policy of Europe and turn them all into our own political system. Within the most successful regional totalitarian movements, being part of European Union has been the choice of Turkey with the 1963 Agreement of Ankara. There are several reasons for the choice of Turkey to want to be part of European Union. Some of which are; the geographical advantages of the closeness of Turkey to Europe, most of the export businesses are done within Turkey and Europe and if you compare the European Union with other Unions in different part of the world, EU is the most well known Union. Moreover, the most important reason for Turkey to want to be part of European Union is because Europe is the center of western modernization. The Partnership Agreement that came into effect in 1973 determines as the final target of Customs Union Agreement between Turkey and European Economic Community. The purpose of the agreement forms in 3 different terms. For the European Union, Customs Union is the foundation of corporate. For Turkey, in the international arena, Customs Union triggers the competition power, it encourages the world trade and it also serves as the body of current law of Turkey that brings a harmonize frame with the body of current law of European Union. During development of the partnership, in 1987, Turkey applied for the full membership for the European Union. In 1999, Helsinki Summit Turkey was well-known as a candidate. In October 3rd 2005, the most important step for the membership, consultation of participation has started. In this study, Customs Union and full membership negotiations and how this can be for the benefit of Turkey's harmonization process will be examined. In this study: the first part examines and inspects the history of Turkey and European Union relations and what is to be Europeanized and why this is a target for Turkey; The second part examines and inspects the impact of the Customs Union over Turkey's target towards Europeanization; The third part examines and inspects the Turkey's adjustment during the Europeanization process.; finally the fourth part of the study examines and inspects Turkey's diplomatic, social, and cultural dimensions.
Türkiye, planlı dönemle birlikte uygulamaya başladığı bölgesel gelişme ve bölgeler arasındaki dengesizlikleri giderici yöndeki politikalarını günümüzde yeniden gözden geçirme zorunluluğu ile karşı karşıyadır. Bu zorunluluğun esas nedeni Avrupa Birliği'ne katılım sürecinde bölgesel gelişme politikalarının entegre edilmiş olmasıdır. Bu nedenle Türkiye, yaklaşık 40 yıldır uygulamakta olduğu bölgesel gelişme model, politika ve araçlarını bir yana bırakarak yeniden bir yapılanma süreci içine girmiştir. Bu yeni yapılanmanın ana öğesini Bölgesel Kalkınma Ajansları (BKA) olarak adlandırılan birimler oluşturmaktadır. Kalkınma Ajansları, bir ülkenin belli bir coğrafi bölgesi içerisindeki özel ve kamusal tüm şirketler, yerel otoriteler ile sivil toplum kuruluşları arasında işbirliği sağlayarak, o bölgenin ekonomik açıdan gelişmesini hedefleyen ve yasal bir hükme dayanarak kurulan yapılar olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Küreselleşme süreci beraberinde getirdiği yapısal uyum politikaları ile birçok konuda özgün süreçler ve araçlar geliştirilmesini gerekli kılmıştır. Bu süreçte Türkiye'ye de AB tarafından bölge planlamanın yeni bir anlayışla ele alınması gerektiği ve bunun aracının da BKA'lar olduğu ifade edilmiş ve konu ilk kez AB'ye tam üyelik müzakereleri ile başlamıştır. Bu dönemin başlangıcı sayılacak süreç ise adaylığın ilk kez tescil edildiği 1999 Helsinki Zirvesi sonunda olmuştur. AB Komisyonu'nun hazırlamış olduğu Katılım Ortaklığı Belgesi'nde orta vadede yapılması gereken düzenlemeler arasında yer alan BKA'ları oluşturmak amacıyla yasal düzenlemeler süreci başlatılmıştır. Bu doğrultuda öncelikle Topluluk kurallarına uygun olarak kısa vadede istatistiksel bölge olarak bilinen AB (NUTS) sistemi 22 Eylül 2002 tarih ve 4720 sayılı Bakanlar Kurulu kararı ile kabul edilmiştir. Daha sonra da 2003 yılı Katılım Ortaklığı Belgesinde, katılım öncesi mali yardım programından yararlanabilmek için BKA'ların kurulması öngörülmüştür. Takip eden süreçte 32 esas ve 5 geçici maddeden oluşan, 5449 sayılı Kalkınma Ajanslarının Kuruluşu, Koordinasyonu ve Görevleri Hakkında Kanun, 25.01.2006 tarihinde TBMM Genel Kurulunda görüşülerek kabul edilmiş, 08.02.2006 tarihli ve 26074 sayılı Resmi Gazetede yayımlanarak yürürlüğe girmiştir. Ülkemizde, 5449 sayılı Kanunun birinci maddesinde ifade edildiği üzere; ?kamu kesimi, özel kesim ve sivil toplum kuruluşları arasındaki işbirliğini geliştirmek, kaynakların yerinde ve etkin kullanımını sağlamak ve yerel potansiyeli harekete geçirmek suretiyle, ulusal kalkınma plânı ve programlarda öngörülen ilke ve politikalarla uyumlu olarak bölgesel gelişmeyi hızlandırmak, sürdürülebilirliğini sağlamak, bölgeler arası ve bölge içi gelişmişlik farklarını azaltmak amacıyla? BKA'lar kurulmaktadır. 6 Temmuz 2006 tarih ve 26220 sayılı Resmi Gazete'de yayımlanan ?Bazı Düzey 2 Bölgelerinde Kalkınma Ajansları Kurulmasına Dair Bakanlar Kurulu Kararı? ile ilk olarak 06.01.2007 tarihinde Adana ve Mersin illerini kapsayan Çukurova Kalınma Ajansı ve 13.01.2007 tarihinde de İzmir ilini ve çevresini kapsayan İzmir Kalkınma Ajansları kurulmuştur. Kalkınma ajansları; ? Bölgesel gelişme uygulamalarımız ile bölge planlarımızın etkinliğinin ve başarısının yükseltilmesini; bölgelerin ülkemizin genel büyümesine, gelişmesine, refahına ve istikrarına katkısının artırılmasını; sosyal uyum ve adaletin güçlendirilmesini ve değişen küresel rekabet şartlarına adaptasyonunun hızlandırılmasını sağlayacak, ? Yüksek nitelikli personeli, esnek kaynak ve istihdam yapısı ile kurum, kuruluş ve şahıslara sağladığı idari, mali, teknik desteklerle başta girişimciler olmak üzere bütün yerel aktörlerin kalkınma çabalarına katılımını teşvik edecek, ? Sağlayacağı proje ve faaliyet desteklerinde kişi, kurum ve kuruluşların eş finansmana dayalı ortak proje üretme ve yönetme kültürü ve yeteneğini geliştirecek; sahiplenme ve işbirliği duygusunu güçlendirecek; bölgenin girişimcilik potansiyelini harekete geçirecek ve sürekli olarak yükseltecek, ? Yerel potansiyeli, dinamikleri, özgünlükleri, kaynak ve imkânları ortaya çıkararak harekete geçirecek ve ulusal, uluslararası pazarlarda ekonomik, sosyal, kültürel birer değer haline dönüştürecek; Sonuç olarak, hem ulusal, hem de bölgesel-yerel düzeyde başta istihdam ve gelir olmak üzere ekonomik ve sosyal göstergelerin iyileştirilmesine, bölgeler arası ve bölge içi gelişmişlik farklarının azaltılmasına ve dolayısıyla ülkenin genel refahının artırılması ve istikrarının pekiştirilmesine olumlu katkılar sağlayacaktır. ; Turkey today faces the necessity to reexamine its policies, begun to be implemented since the planned period, which aims to eliminate the imbalances between regional development and regions. The main reason of this necessity is that regional development policies weren't integrated in the process of participation of European Union. Therefore, Turkey went into a reconstruction process by abandoning the regional development model, policy and tools that it had been has been using for 40 years. The units called Regional Development Agencies (RDA) constitute the main element of this construct. Development Agencies, all private and public enterprises within a certain geographical region of a country, are defined as structures that aim the economic development of that region by providing cooperation between local authorities and civil society organizations, and that are founded on the basis of a legal provision. As is known, globalization process entails the development of authentic processes and tools in many cases regarding structural adaptation policies that it brought along. In this process, it was explained to Turkey by EU that regional planning should be approached with a new understanding and RDA?s are the means for this and this first started with the negotiations of full membership to EU. The process that can be counted as the beginning of this period is the end of Helsinki Summit of 1999 when the candidateship was first enrolled. The legal regulations process was initiated so as to constitute RDA?s that are among regulations which should be implemented in medium term in Accession Partnership that European Commission arranged. Accordingly, EU (NUTS) system that is known as short term statistical region was initially approved by Cabinet decree no 4720 in September 22 of 2002 in accordance with the rules of congregation. Later in the Accession Partnership of 2003, it was anticipated that RDA's be constituted in order to be able to utilize the pre-accession financial support programmes. In the following process, the law number 5449 regarding the Establishment, Coordination and Missions of Development Agencies that consists of 32 major and 5 temporary articles was debated and approved in General Assembly of Grand National Assembly of Turkey and went in effect after being published in Official Journal of number 26074 and date 02.08.2006. In our country, as stated in the first article of law number 5449, RDA?s are constituted ?in order to accelerate the regional development, to insure its maintainability, reduce the differences of interregional and regional development, compatible with the principles and policies anticipated in national development plans and programmes by developing the cooperation among public sector, private sector and civil society organizations, ensuring the effective usage of resources and activating the local potency?. By ?the Cabinet Decree Regarding the Establishment of Development Agencies in Certain Level 2 Regions? that was published in Official Journal number 26220 of July, 6, 2006, Development Agencies were constituted in Cukurova regions that include Adana and Mersin and Izmir regions including Izmir, and Cukurova Development Agency officially opened in 01.06.2006 and Izmir Development Agency in 01.13.2007. Development agencies; ? Will ensure the promotion of effectiveness and success of our region plans with our regional development applications; increasing of regions' contributions to the general growth, development, welfare and stability of our country; reinforcement of social adaptation and justice and, acceleration of adaptation to changing conditions of global competition, ? Will encourage the participation of all local actors in development attemps, especially administrative, financial and technical supports that it provides to corporations, establishments and persons with its highly qualified crew, flexible resource and employment structure, ? Will improve the culture and ability to produce and manage associate projects that are based on co-financing of person, corporation and establishment in project and activity supports; reinforce the sense of ownage and cooperation; active the entrepreneurship potency of the region and keep improving it, ? Will activate the local potency, dynamics, individualities by revealing the resources and possibilities, and turn into an economic, social and cultural values in international market; Consequently, will contribute to the improvement of economic and social indicators, especially employment and income in both national and regional- local level; reduction of differences of interregional and regional development and thus increasing of general prosperity of the country and solidifying of stability.
ÖZETMısır Arap Cumhuriyeti, Afrika'nın Kuzey Doğusunda 997,739 km2 alanı, 68,5 milyon nüfusu vardır. Yıllık nüfus artışı % 2,3 tür ve nüfus yoğunluğu 58,2 kişi/km2 dir. Erkler ayrılığı ilkesine dayanan başkanlık sitemi ve çok partili demokratik sistem ile yönetilmektedir. Mısır Arap Cumhuriyeti 1922 yılında bağımsızlığına kavuşmuştur. Ülke bulunduğu bölge nedeniyle dünyanın başlıca güçlerinin çekişme alanı olmuş ve bu yüzden yıllarca istikrara kavuşamamıştır. Mısır Arap Cumhuriyeti' de bağımsızlığından sonra İsrail ile savaşa girmiştir. 1978 yılında İsrail ile Camp Davit barış anlaşmasını imzalamıştır. İmzalanan anlaşma ile Arap Dünyasının tepkisini almasına rağmen ABD' nin tam desteğini arkasına almıştır. Batı Dünyası ile iyi ilişkiler kurarak ve ılımlı politikalar izleyerek istikrarlı bir dönem sürdürmektedir. Mısır Arap Cumhuriyeti'nin 2000 yılında 92,6 milyar Dolar Gayri Safi Milli Hasılası ile 3,4 reel büyüme gerçekleştirmiştir. Yıllık enflasyon 2000 yılında 2,7 olmuştur. Toplam dış borcu 29,5 milyar Dolardır. Bir Mısır Poundu 3,47 ABD Dolarına eşittir.Ülke 1990 yılından sonra kalkınma programlarına önem vermektedir ve bunun için çeşitli reformlar uygulamaktadır. Uygulamış olduğu mali politikalarda harcamaları kısıtlama, ithalatı azaltma ve ihracatı artırmak için çaba sarf etmektedir. Özelleştirme bütün kalkınmakta olan ülkelerin temel sorunu olduğu gibi beklenen hızın altında devam etmektedir. Fiyatlar serbest ekonomi kurallarına uygun olarak belirlenmektedir. 14 milyar dolar döviz rezervi bulunmaktadır. Üç aylık bono faiz oranları % 10 civarında seyretmektedir. Borsa 2000 yılını düşük bir trendle geçirmiştir. Çalışma hayatında nüfusun çoğunluğu tarımla uğraşmaktadır. İşsizlik oranı oldukça yüksektir. Tarım alanlarının yetersizliği nedeniyle Nis nehrinin sularıyla sulama alanları için projeler geliştirilmektedir. Ülkenin en önemli tarım ürünü pamuktur. İhracatta pamuk ve pirinç en önemli tarım ürünüdür.madencilikte petrol üretimi ve doğal gaz üretimi mevcuttur. Büyük miktarda doğal gaz rezervlerine sahiptir. Turizm sektörü ülkenin en önemli gelir kaynaklarındandır. Ülke turizminin en önemlisi ünlü Mısır piramitleridir. Turizm için önemli yatırımlarda bulunulmaktadır. Ulaşımda Nil nehri önemli bir yere ve gelire sahiptir. Nil nehrinde üzerinden büyük gemilerin geçişi için genişletme çalışmaları devam etmektedir. Sanayide, otomotiv sanayi başı çekmektedir. Uluslar arası büyük otomotiv üreticisi firmaların üretim ve montaj üssü olarak görülebilir. İmalat sanayiinde tekstil ürünleri üretimi yapılmaktadır. İnşaat sektöründe yeni yerleşim bölgeleri, otoyollar ve çimento fabrikaları ilk baştaki yatırımlarıdır. Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetinin 2000 yılında 4,689 milyon Dolar ihracatı, 14,010 milyon Dolar ithalatı vardır. İhracatında başlıca ürünleri, petrol ürünleri, tekstil ürünleri ve tarım ürünleri yer almaktadır. Başlıca ihracat yaptığı ülkelerin başında ABD. İtalya ve Hollanda gelmektedir. İthalatında ihracatının üç katına yakındır. İthalatta en önemli payı makineler, elektrikli aletler, taşıt araçları, gıda maddeleri ve petrol mamulü ürünler almaktadır. Ayrıca ithalatta sınai ve yatırım malları önemli yer tutmaktadır. Başlıca ithalat yaptığı ülkeler ABD, Almanya, İtalya'dır. Türkiye ile Mısır Arap Cumhuriyeti arasında ticari ilişkiler en son olarak Türkiye'nin 1/95 sayılı protokolde kendisin bağlayan anlaşmalar arasında olan, Mısır ile Avrupa Topluluğu arasında imzalanmış olan "Avrupa - Akdeniz ortaklık anlaşmasına" istinaden yürütülmektedir. İki ülke arasında ticaret hacmi 517,427 bin dolara ulaşmıştır. Türkiye' nin 2000 yılında Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetine ihracatı 376,7 milyon dolar olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Türkiye'nin Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetine ihraç ettiği ürünlerin başında motorlu kara taşıtları ve bunların parçaları, örülmemiş giyim eşyaları, demir ve çelik ürünleri ilk sıraları alır. Türkiye'nin Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetinden ithalatı 2000 yılında 140,7 milyon dolar olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Türkiye'nin Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetinden ithal ettiği ürünlerin bayında: petrol ürünleri, doğal gaz, pamuk ve pirinç ilk sıraları almaktadır. Türkiye ve Mısır Arap Cumhuriyetinin 1990 yılından itibaren artan miktarlarda bir ticaret hacmi gerçekleşmektedir. Bu artış her iki ülkenin faydasınadır. ABSTRACTARABIAN REPUCLIC OF EGYPT'S ECONOMY AND TURKEY - EGPYT ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIPSArabian republic of Egypt is located at the northeast of Africa covering 997,739 km2 with a population of 68,5 million. Annual population increase is % 2,3 and its density is 58,2 people per km2 . The country has been ruled by presidential system, based on principles of powers separations, and a democratic parliamentary. Arabian republic of Egypt had won her independence in 1922 due to her strategical importance, great powers of the world tried to dominate the region so the county became unsuccessfull to balance her economical and politikal stability for years. After her idebendence, Arabian republic of Egypt declared war on Israel. In 1978 the wor en ded with Camp David peace negotion signature for the sides. Although Arabic world's reactions against. This negotiation, Egypt is now continuing a normal period by establishing good relationships and following friendly political strategies with west. Arabian republic of Egypt obtained 92,6 milyard USD national income beside 3,4 percent real growthy in the year of 2000. statistics show that yearly infilation was % 2,7 in 2000. Total external debt is 29,5 milliard USD. An Egyption pound equals to 3,47 USD.Arabian republic of Egypt has been giving priority to development programmes and adapting various reforms since 1990. It is strived to restrict the spendings, to increase exportation but to decrease importation by means of practised financial politics. Privatization is the main similar problem of all developing countries like in Egypt; therefore it is going along under estimated speed. Prices are determined according to free economics rules. There is 14 milliard USD foreign exchange reserve 3 monthly bond interest rates are about % 10. Stock exchance closed the year of 2000 with a low trend.Majority population of working class are busy with agriculture. Unemployment rate is pretty high. It is tried to improve irrigation projects by using Nile River's water because of unsufficient agricultural gields cotton is the most important agricultural produce. Cotton and rice are the important items for exportation. Petroleum and natural gas production take place in the mining sector. The country has a huge natural gas rezerves. Tourism sector is one of the most essential income resorces of the Egypt. Egypt pyramids are among the famous touristic places. It's made big investments for transportation of large ships are continuing. Automotiv is the leader sector in country' industry. The country can be seen as an assembly and production base of international automotive manifacturers.Textille is produced for production industry.Hiyways,new centres of population and cement factories are the privileyed investment areas in construction industry.Figures show that Eygpt's exportation was 4,689 million USD while her impoctation was 14,010 million USD in 2000. petroleum, textile and agriculturel products can be calculated as country's main exportation goods. Holland, USA and Italy are Egypt's chiefly economical partners for her export. Importation has approximately tripled of exportation. The lion's share of importation are machines, electrical tools, vehicles, food staffs and made of petroleum products. In addition above, investment and industrial goods are playing important role for the country's importation. USA, Germany and Italy are her main importation partners.Turkey- Arabian republic of Egypt's economic relation are based on " European - mediterranen ded of partnership" signed between egypt and European union. This agreement is binding Turkey with a protocol number of 1/95 signed between Turkey and EU. And Turkey - Egypt relations are countinuing in this frame. Trading volume between Turkey and Egypt has reached 517 million USD. Turkey's exportation to Egypt was 376,7 million USD in 2000, Essetial exportation of Turkey to Egypt are vehicles and their spare parts, not knitted garments and iron-steel products. Turkey's importation from Egypt was 140,7 million USD in 2000. Turkey imports petroloum products, naturel gas, cotton and rice from Egypt.Turkey and Egypt economic relations has been tending to increase since 1990. It is benifical for both country.
SUMMARYA great changement was occurring after fell down the Berlin Wall in East Europe, in 1989.The countries had begun to new period with high debts and inflation by these changements.East European countries have a common feature by carry out the transition period politics by rapidly in this process. So, it was necessity on stabilization politics but not easy.At result, privatization and restructure got an importance.I – THEORICAL AND CONSEPTIONAL FRAME OF MARKET ECONOMYFree market economy has the same philosophy and idea with liberalism. Economical liberalism is defended the free competition, reducing the customs taxes, import freedom and resisted to interference of state on the economy.Classical economy's base is economical freedom and market economy. Market economy is relying on free competition and private enterprise. Price mechanism and world prices are important. Interference of state must be in minimum levels. Public sector must be reduced. Basic factors such as wage, capital and foreign currency must reflect the real market prices, must get an importance to external trade.1-DEVELOPMENT OF MARKET ECONOMY1.1. CLASSIC REVIEWFree trade, specialization only on one field, annihilate the obstacles such as customs and quotas, interferences of state on the market are most important according to Adam Smith, which lived in 18th century.A specialization between nations must be obtained according to Ricardo. So, it must be an exchange on the entire world. 1.2. NEO-CLASSIC REVIEWAlfred Marshall, Leon Walras and Carl Menger is an echol. The state must be more active to improve the poor part of community and must create the opportunities on the market, get the taxes from revenues and wealth, finance the education, health, park and city planning, defence the personal freedom, private property and open markets, manufacture the public commodities.1.3. ORDO-LIBERALISM REVIEWIt is different from classic liberalism. Economical regularity is social which emerges in an evident process, not natural. Social and juridical standards emerge the economical system.Price, monetarily stability, sciences, stability and durability on economical politics are important to emerging of market economy.Basic aim is bring to existence an economical constitution.2- BASIC ELEMENTS OF MARKET ECONOMYBasic factors are enterprising, competition, economical ideas and attitudes.Enterprising is a person which makes unity the manufacturing factors, makes direct the investments, begins to motion by utilize the signals from internal and external markets, gets the share on productivity and determines the firm profit. Basic aim is profit.Competition is social event, protects the personal, which works with high productivity against to personal, which works with low productivity, uses the sources most effectively. Buyer and seller number must be too much in this system. Competition is opposed to monopolization but necessity laws and politics have to support it. ECONOMICAL IDEAS AND ATTITUDESIt includes price, wage, interest, hire and foreign currency. Price system occurs freely according to rate of request and demand conditions. At this straight, firms and consumers must carry out their decisions freely.3- MARKET MECHANISM FLOW AND ROLE OF SOURCE DISTRIBUTIONConsumers and producers have activities on the market economy. The prices are determined according to the lowest cost and to the highest profit.Ideal special future is high productivity, low profit and high production. Competition reduces the profit to the lowest level.Main mechanism on free market is price. If the relative scarcity is enough, request and demand is more or less equal.Producers and consumers may have a decision according to the price indicator and request and demand. This case makes lead the manufacturing, increases the alternatives, also economical activities make an harmony against to conditions.The evident features of market economy are free decision, liberty on preferences, a great price mechanism and competition. So, economical stability is obtainable.Interferences may apply on the market economy for public health, regulations on economical activities, protect the consumers. These motions are generally precautions to control of drugs and drink manufacturing and consumption, annihilation of harmful on public health, growth the power on economic morals, make grow the quality, regulation on manufacturing and marketing. The state may meddle with economy to development rapidly. For example, the state may encourage the saving, increase the rates of interest, decrease the taxes to get on the saving, provide the precautions on investment.The buyers and sellers cannot determine the price on one's own on free competition market. Otherwise monopoly, trust and cartels may occur, stability may out of order between commodity and services.Market economy may deviate from the rules on two main categories.Manufacturer, buyer and seller may make deviate from the rules. Especially trade unionization is effective on this deviation.The state may interfere in economy by taxes, if social and individual advantages different, it may deviate from competition market.The state is exist in every kind of economy and serves to people with harmony and politics and social philosophies of our age. Also it provides security, education and health services but it doesn't determine the prices. It is one of the biggest manufacturers at the same time.II – HISTORICAL WIEW TO BULGARIAN ECONOMY IN THE TRANSITION PERIOD OF FREE MARKET ECONOMY1. BASIC SOCIAL AND ECONOMICAL INDICATORS1.1. GENERALThe form of government is republic, capital is Sofia, Population is 8.297.000(1997), increasing of population is %0. 7, distinctive characteristics in common with Turkishs, Pomaks, Russians, Gipsies, Tatars, Jewishes are in 16 percent.Estimated agricultural area is 1/3 and woodland is 1/3 of all the land. Charcoal, petroleum, natural gas, ferrum and sources except metal are too much. Bulgaria can't use the money too much on surroundings cause of economical lacks.Too many people are migrated to Turkey reason of economical lacks after communism regime. Population is decreased year by year, but unemployment.2. BULGARIA BEFORE 1989Ottoman empire had governorship on the Bulgaria more 500 years till 1908. Then, Bulgarian Kingdom is founded in 1908. Stamboliyski is in powered from Farmer Party in 1920. A new fascism supporter government is founded but communists and farmers were outside of government.Bulgaria is allied with Germany in 1941. Although a new government was found in 1944, the republican regime with referendum is founded in 1946. The new constution is validated in 1947. Cercenkov is in powered in 1950, relations with U.S.A. were out of order and membership of United Nations was validity in 1955.The new constitution is validated in 1971. T.Jivkow is in powered continually, became arrested cause of irregularity in 1990 and then, again a new constitution is validated. Communist Party is made to take out of only one party. In that year, state's name is changed to Republic of Bulgaria and removed the communist symbols from flag. Privatizational laws are validated with Jelev in 1992. The Government of Videnov is contraried the privatization in 1994.Peter Stoyanov is Nato's supporter and he was president in 1996. United Democratic Forces is in powered with 52 percent of vote after selections in 1997.2.1. COMECON AND COLLAPSING OF SYSTEMComecon is a union that emerged by East European Countries. Bulgarian economy has begun to transition period with some negative ness like other East European countries causes of political incompetence and dissociating end of 1980s.Bulgaria which had more than 60 percent of export to associate but it had couldn't find the new markets cause of inadequate ship of quality standards and had an old technology. Foreign currency reserves are high level. It has too many debts, political incompetent ship in the land. Financial system is not conformity to market economy and also could not claim 2 million dollars of money owing from Iraq because of golf war. So, Bulgaria couldn't save from crisis because of above reasons.2.2 GENERAL ECONOMICAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECTORSBulgarian manufacturing industry basically is founded on textile, wooden engrave, leather products and food prep rationing sectors.Bulgaria had realisation the attacks on the heavy industry that supported by S.S.C.B. after 2nd world war.Production of electro-mechanic and electronic goods in manufacturing sector is reached to an important share since 1970s.The biggest natural wealth of Bulgaria is productive earths. There are not important minerals in Bulgaria.In the following period of 2nd world war, metallurgy and chemical production had an importance. Industry sector had old technology. Its competition is losted the power with disunited of the Comecon.Productivity rates on industry are grown with economical reforms that started in 1979. Economical growing is dynamically continued in spite of reducing the productivity on agriculture sector, building sector and investments in Bulgaria. Especially, price volatility on agriculture sector is a reason of suspicion about real value of growth in 1988 according to 1987.Productions on agriculture and industry of Bulgaria are reduced according to statistics. Main problem on agriculture sector is delivery prices of goods.A stagnation indicator on Bulgarian economy is weakness of building and construction sector. Manufacturing products such as cement and weawing is in necessity. Manufacturing level is inadequate on that area and also unqualificationed organisations have been affected.2.3 - FOREIGN TRADEThere are no definite results on foreign trade reason of inadequate of numerical data's.However, export is increased up to the rate of 4 percent in 1988 and import is reduced to the rate of 1.8 percent. Bulgaria finance deficit is 600 million dollars result of trade with west countries in 1998. Tourism revenues are positive. Trade connections with Turkey are weak according to another East European countries.2.4 – PERESTROICA POLITICSThe new age on economy with state council's decision is started in January 9,1989. Activities to get the indepences of firms are velocitied. At the same time, this decision is more benefit to foreign investors too.3. 1989 – 1997 TRANSITION PERIOD3.1 – ECONOMICAL REFORM ACTIVITIESAlteration is started in east block countries after 1989 and together with this alteration. Comecon is losted the activity. So, idle capacities are commenced and Bulgaria is losted the production markets.The reforms are making started by new government in February 1991. External trade regime is liberalisation in one direction; this is one of the import nest factors of the reforms. With a decision is accepted in 1989, basic of economical reforms are occurred. Firms had equal rights to execution of economical activities. The laws related to foreign investment are validated in 1992.Commercial banks have gone to consolidation. Prices had freed except 11 basic consumption. Economical activities, government status on economy, foreign trade and foreign exchange regime, price regulations, privatization, tax systems are reorganized about foreign investors.3.2. SECTORAL CONSTITUTIONIndustrial sector had the over 50 percent of share on economy until 1990s. 11 private sector's share with service and trade sector approached to 60 percent between 1992 and 1997.SECTORSProductivity with old technologies on industrial sector is at low level. Engineering sector is developed. Products of textile sector are manufactured at high quality.CHEMICALSChemical products that have an important mark on export of Bulgaria. They were 1,096 milliard dollars with 22,3 percent in 1997 and 983 million dollars with 19.4 percent of total export in 1998.AGRICULTURE, FOOD AND TOBACCORate of plan tablelands are 34 percent in Bulgaria. Totally 304 firms are active on food, drink and tobacco sector.METALLURGY AND MINERSHIPIron product is 6.2 percent and other than iron is 6.8 percent on all of industry in 1998. In 1997, metallurgy sector is grown up to 117.2 percent with 529 million dollars in total amount of export in Bulgaria.MACHINEShare of machine sector is 13.8 percent in all of industry. Principal are; Machine parts, tractor, bus, ship, building and auto spare parts.CONSTRUCTIONPrivate firms in the sector have share with 13 percent in 1991. That share is grown to 62 percent in 1995 but then; it is reduced reason of financial inadequate ships.TOURISMTourism revenues are approximately 280 million dollars in 1995.4.5 million of transits and totally 8 million tourists are visited the Bulgaria in 1996.3.3. TRADE AFTER ECONOMICAL REFORMSExport of Bulgaria is totally 4.9 milliard dollars in 1997. The import nest export products are fuel oil, other fuels, cooper and its products and nuclear reactors. Import is 4.5 milliard dollars in 1997 and included the product such as mineral fuels, nuclear reactor heaters and spare parts, electric machines, mineral substances, cotton, synthetic fibres, cereals, auto and tractors.3.4. EXTERNAL DEBTSRate of the external debts to export revenues were 249.9 Percent in 1993 but then, back to 188.2 percent in 1994.Official external debts were 10.363 dollars in the end of 1997.3.5. FOREIGN INVESTORS EXTERNAL CAPITALMost investments with 636.2 million dollars by foreigners are made in 1997. This amount is 526 million dollars in 1998. Principal foreign investors are European countries and U.S.A. A new foreigner investment law is prepared in Oct 1997. Main sectors to investment are industry, trade, finance and tourism.3.6. COMMERCIAL BANKINGState banks are privatization by associate. Regulations relate to control of banking are valitidied by government. In the middle of 1997, a new law on banking are validated after economical crisis in 1996, Central Bank Law are rebuilt. High levels of capital and capital qualifications are obligationed.3.7. PRIVATIZATIONPrivatization is started with foundation transformation and privatization belongs to state and municipalities in April 1992. Privatization Agency is built-up. Privatization is realization with totally 836 million dollars between Jan 1,1993 and Dec 30,1998. Its part of 421.4 million dollars is in 1997 and part of 116 million dollars is realization in 1998.Foundations like ports, telecommunication and, etc.are out of privatization by laws. 95 percent of state firms transformed to form of private limited or nationalization. Share of these firms are belong to state.III. BULGARIA IN EUROPAN UNION AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEY1. BULGARIAN ECONOMY AND CONNECTIONS WITH TURKEYTest and certification operations, metal products except iron, chemical products, cereals, operational petroleum. Products are important substances from Bulgaria to Turkey.Although weaving products, food, chemical products, leather and stout leather products, glass, ceramics, brick products are ones of important from Turkey to Bulgaria.1.1. CONTENTS OF FREE TRADE AGREEMENT BETWEEN TURKEY AND BULGARIAAll taxes and restrictictions on industrial products by signed on European Agreement between European Union and Bulgaria in Mar 8,1993 and validated in Dec 31,1993 will be removed till 2002.Turkey and Bulgaria made easy to particularization into agricultural products market by reduced the taxes for between their selves.End of signed acts, 131 products of 446 that stated to Turkey and 1141 goods of existing on European Union Agreement are liberalization by remove from list of sensitive products.Foreign companies had a partnership rights with corporations and individuals and also foreign individuals had a right on economical activities by law of keeping foreign investors, which is validated in 1992. Same economical rights are recognized between foreigners and Bulgarians and also getting unlimited share from exist companies and companies that will be found.2. CONNECTIONS WITH EUROPEAN UNION AND FINANCIAL PORTREIT OF BULGARIA2.1. CONNECTION WITH EUROPEAN UNION OF BULGARIAIn the autumn 1989, Berlin wall is demolished and this motion make united the European that had divided to east and west after 2nd world war. Comecon's mean is continuing the economical dependent ship to Soviet Union. But, most east and west European countries reject it. After these European Union augmented economical and political supports to that countries reason of carry out and conclude the reform, which is started in middle and east European countries.Firstly, a group includes the Turkey is formed by 24 of OECD countries. G24s are transferred to entrust with coordination of support to the European Union Commission.That commission is functionizationed the Phare program that helps on financial and technical areas to Poland and Hungary. Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania in Sept.1990, Albanian, Estonia, Leetonia and Livonia in Jan.1992 and Slovenia in Aug.1992 are included by Phare program.Military regulations on security of West European losted the importance but they are already securely areas.Main political aims that related to Middle and East European countries of European Unions are explained below;a- Encouragement of liberal democratic system with respectful of law's superiority.b- to be sense on surroundingsc- to prevent the ethnical collidesd- to prevent the migration to foreign countries at the west.e- Phare program and encouragement of free market economy from planned economy.2.2. WHAT IS THE PHARE PROGRAM?Phare program's aim is build the encourage mental conditions to the market economy and to take pains about investments on economies of Middle and East Europe countries. This program includes unfinancable fields by traditional external supports. That supports on the program is formed by credits and encouragements and used for pilot projects related to reorganization of associations.Bulgaria is taken a support of 10.6 millions ECU by include of Phare program.European Union don't use only Phare program as a tool on politics related to Middle and East Europe countries, except itIncludes the programs within own constitution such as ERASMUS and COMETT.2.3. FIRST PERIOD (before 1989)In this period; trading is developed between Middle and East European countries that named as COMECON COUNTRIES but couldn't show the same developments against to West Europe in European Union.Soviet Union takes the priority on exporting with countries. Bulgaria is the develop pest country on trade with Soviet Union.2.4 TRANSITION PERIOD (1989-1992)The great changements occurred on trade in Soviet Union and Middle and East Europe countries from starting the reforms in 1989 to 1992.From 1989,trade and partnership agreements signed with Hungary and Poland then, with Czechoslovakia in 1990,also Bulgaria and Romania in 1991. At the same time, rejection is started on amount of restrictions. Exporting is increased between Middle and East European countries, Soviet Union and European Union other than below too;Devaluation in the countries other than Hungary,- Workings to join into the West European markets reason of re-emerging the losted ones in East European- Import is on peak-level from those countries to Germany after unitized the East and West Europe.2.5. EUROPEAN AGREEMENTSEuropean agreements are acted end of 1991.Bulgaria-Europe agreement's date of signature: Mar8, 1993Date of being inforce: Dec 31,1995Temporarily agreement: Dec 31,1992European agreement has been in force in Bulgaria, end of 1995. European agreements are partnership agreements that signed by based on 238th paragraph of Roma agreement and Maastricht agreement. According to that state, increasing of export is an prestipulation to growth the economy with stability.3. SUCCEED OF STABILITY PROGRAM IN BULGARIABulgaria signed on an agreement with IMF to pass over the economical hardships and started the reforms in 1991.Economy is grown at the rates of 2.1 percent in 1995.In 1997,economy has the new crisis related to Yugoslavia crisis and so, Bulgaria signed on a new agreement with IMF.Leva is fixed with 20 DM and 1000 Bulgarian Leva to 1 DM and constructral reforms is started to gain the speed.Economy in Bulgaria grown to positive from 1994 but to the 10.9 percent in 1996.- Inflation rates (%) in Republic of Bulgaria; 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 199882,2 72,8 96,2 62 123,1 1082,3 22,3After the stand-by agreement with IMF, inflation approached to 22.3 percent in 1998.Annual average of inflation is expected as 7.3 percent in 1999 and 9.0 percent in 2000.Bulgaria is the poorest country according to other east European countries candidate to membership of EU. Bulgarian Leva is determined by rejected the 3 zeros from Detsch Mark. So, new Leva is make related on euro at the rates of 1.95583:euro 1 (Lvl:DMI ).CONCLUSION:Bulgaria is declared the moratorium reason of hardness's to find an external debt, to refund the capital and interests of external debt.While external debt is 10.6-milliard dollars end of 1990,it has been 12.2 milliard dollars, end of 1993. So, started to paces towards to market economy in Feb 1991. Annual inflation is reduced from 338.5 percent in 1991 to 79.4 percent in 1992.The debts of managements of state are ruined the budget and also a reason to broken balance on economy too.The crisis on foreign currency is occurred in Mar 1994. Reforms have been out of control at the result of that crisis.Leva is devaluated as 100 percent and inflation is reduced to 90 percent on annual average. At this parallel, financial and revenue politics, money and its value are controlled. The debts to foreign countries are decreased to 9.8 milliard dollars with precautions in 1994 and end of 1996.Financial balance are obtained again in the first months of 1995, reduced the inflation and also rate of interests to 72 percent.Rate of exchange (Leva/$) was 503 percent between Jan 1 and Feb 12,1997. Especially, that increasing was 20-percent/each day in Feb 1997.Rate of interest was 300 percent in Sep.1996. 14 Banks are bankrupted in that period. Bulgaria had been 1st of the world from inflation increasing speed of view.Inflation, devaluation, unemployment and also wages are on the lowest level in transition period in Bulgaria. Incoming per person is decreased 50 percent between 1989 and 1995.Annual criminal events are increased 3 times more after 1990. Money committee had formed by advice of IMF in Jul 1997. 1Deutsche Mark is indexed on 1 Leva.Qualified personnel with educationed on technical areas is a great potential force of Bulgarian economy.Bulgaria will be completed the transition period when it became to membership of European Union.