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The article explores the concept of civil society in connection with Web 2.0 and its transformative impact on society and politics, contrasting it with the earlier era of Web 1.0. Web 2.0, characterized by enhanced user interaction and content production, has given rise to a new media ecosystem that has reshaped the way people communicate, obtain information, and participate in the polity. The article highlights the emergence of popular social media platforms and how they have become integral to the platform society. These platforms have not only revolutionized online interactions but have also intersected with offline realms, including politics, commerce, and social relations. The article further explores the implications of Web 2.0 for civil society, contentious politics, and citizen engagement, examining the rise of protests, transnational movements, and the impact of digital resources on democracy and (digital) citizenship. Finally, the work discusses the potential of digital counter-democracy in the platform society and the need for democratic control in the digital age.

It is not possible to ignore the intellectual and organizational effort of the Polish socialists who, as early as the 1870s, tried to promote the idea that the best circumstances facilitating the implementation of the aims pursued by the workers could be found in the national state organized on the basis of democratic constitutional instruments. The socialists argued that only in the state of parliamentary democracy the workers and other working social strata may successfully fight for their objectives and rights while selecting the peaceful and democratic methods. Likewise, they argued that only the parliamentary democracy enabled them to arrive at full rights that should be accessible to them as citizens and nationals. By promoting these ideas they aroused among the workers and in the entire society of partitioned Poland the sense of citizenship and democracy. This, in its turn, allowed to base the concept of potential national independence upon the broad and solid social foundations. Likewise, this allowed to secure the democratic constitutional system to the restored state, and consequently to modernize social relationships in Poland along the peaceful and democratic lines.

Zygmunt Hübner was the minister of internal affairs in a very important period in the history of Poland (March 21 – November 17, 1924). It was during his term in office that a great economic and currency reform began in Poland; the currency was changed from the Polish mark to the Polish zloty. At that time, there were major organizational changes in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, improving the activities of the State Police. Well, in April 1924, a specialized service called Political Police, which significantly contributed to the effective fight against the so-called subversive groups (KPRP) directly threatening public order and peace in the state. The services subordinate to Minister Z. Hübner also fought against anti-state attacks by national minorities, especially Slavic (Ukrainian, Belarusian) minorities. However, the forms of fighting these protests so far, especially their partisans supported by the communist partisans, have not been successful. Consequently, a decision was made that a special formation organized in the form of a military model, i.e. the Border Protection Corps, would be created within the Ministry of Internal Affairs. As a result of his actions, at the end of 1924 order and peace began to return to the Eastern Borderlands. Minister Z. Hübner also paid a lot of attention to the Jewish minority, which fought for national and cultural autonomy, the German minority, and to the issues of Polish citizenship. ; Zygmunt Hübner był ministrem spraw wewnętrznych w bardzo ważnym okresie dziejów Polski (21 marca – 17 listopada 1924 r.). To podczas jego urzędowania rozpoczęła się w Polsce wielka reforma gospodarczo-walutowa; nastąpiła zmiana waluty z marki polskiej na złotego polskiego. W tym czasie w resorcie spraw wewnętrznych nastąpiły poważne zmiany organizacyjne, usprawniające działalność Policji Państwowej. Otóż w kwietniu 1924 r. powstała wyspecjalizowana służba pn. Policja Polityczna, która w znaczącym stopniu przyczyniła się do skutecznego zwalczania tzw. ugrupowań wywrotowych (KPRP) ...

This book explores the impact of climate change on the legal situation of small island states such as Marshall Islands. Climate change-related problems of these nations touching their legal situation in a very different way than in the case of large countries threatened by economic and social consequences of sea level rise (such as Bangladesh, Vietnam, Nigeria and Egypt). Presentation of scientific forecasts is an introduction to the in-depth deliberations from the point of view of international law. According to many researchers, global sea level rise of 0,5-1 m. is highly possible in the next hundred years. Sea level rise is not the only climate-related threat experienced by small island states. Among other significant problems associated with climate change we can list tropical cyclones, floods, and droughts. Island nations must prepare for such problems on the basis of public international law. The authors draw attention to the most crucial legal challenges associated with sea level rise, such as the deterritorialization of the state, continuity of statehood, the issue of citizenship or the legal status of forced environmental migrants. The authors draw attention to the significant legal challenges (e.g. the legal status of migrants forced to leave their country of origin/residence as a result of irreversible climate change). This issue has still not been regulated by international law documents. Much attention is also being paid to the analysis of the consequences of climate change on the basis of international law of the sea. The core elements of the analysis presented in this book are, inter alia, the impact of sea level rise on Exclusive Economic Zones and fishing rights. The book is focused on the social and legal challenges facing microstates. Presented considerations may become a useful point of reference in the analysis of the problems facing larger countries affected by climate change and sea level rise.