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This work examines the political legacy of colonialism in Kenya and the knock-on effect this has had on the current crisis of citizenship in Kenya. In colonial times, the British introduced indirect rule through the Provincial Administration, a hierarchical structure that imposed upon the urban and rural populace two distinct forms of political and legal identities: that of citizens and that of natives. In the rural areas, natives were governed according to "customary law" (which the colonisers called "tribal tradition"). This paper concentrates on this sphere of the colonial State because its consequences can still be felt today in rural areas -- in particular in terms of the recurrent violence resulting from a crisis of citizenship. In rural provinces, land represents the main source of income and means of survival. Land was managed by the Provincial Administration according to the logic of colonial power and, of course, to its benefit. During decolonisation and after independence, the same logic was applied by the African elites. An analysis of how Britain and post-colonial governments have ruled Kenya shows the need for a radical change in the approach originally adopted by the Provincial Administration. The European colonial outlook underpinning this approach is outmoded and dangerous as it fans the flames of contemporary social violence, which the media often characterises over-simplistically as ethnic conflict. Adapted from the source document.

This article reviews changes in the governmental strategies of the Chinese government & argues that the adoption of flexible forms of governance to control & responsibilize the population is an important component of the Chinese regime's resilience. In particular the article concentrates on: a) the strategy of flexible governance in urban areas, where increasing stratification requires the local governments to work to contain conflicts among both disgruntled workers or rural migrants & right-aware middle-classes; & b) the attempt to co-opt emerging wealthy & educated groups in the responsible management of the nation & the preservation of social order. The main conclusion is that through these governance practices, & the propagation of an ethical discourse of citizens' "quality" the Chinese Government is favouring the emergence of new citizens who incorporate both the "autonomy" necessary for them to be consumer in the marketplace & the "responsibility" necessary to maintain social stability. Adapted from the source document.