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Because of the asymmetric nature of cyber threats and the dynamics of their evolution, there is a tendency for a growing role of security cooperation activities in cyberspace through joint efforts of states and non-state actors in international relations. New challenges and threats caused by the global pandemic are linked with an increased internet activity. The recent spread of fake news related to COVID-19 illness caused by SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus might be seen as part of sharp power disinformation strategy applied by state actors. International organisations serve as a forum for discussion to disseminate and analyse knowledge about cybersecurity and the effects of cyber threats, they are at the same time creators of common principles of prevention, legal and institutional solutions, and are complementary to the activities of states in this field. By adopting the regional level of analysis as its methodological perspective, the article shows a natural evolution of cybersecurity means from the time of the 1990s and early 2000s when the focus was set on computer and cyberspace as a tool of serious and organised crime, through the stage when computer crime was endangering cyberspace of the EU Member States, to the period when finally the EU objectives were to achieve an open, safe and secure cyberspace keeping in mind the importance of raising awareness and acquiring skills and knowledge how to avoid or face cyber threats. At the early stages of establishing the EU cybersecurity policy, the documents focused on definitions and identifications of threats and trends. Later stages included organising institutional and legal framework, and setting up specialised institutions, centres and teams. Not only did the understanding of cyber-related issues changed but also the response of the EU to cyber threats. The transition is from the soft law instruments (recommendations) such as guidelines, communications, declarations, roadmaps, actions plans, and strategies towards more hard law instruments (obligations) such as directives and other legislative acts. The character of directives has also changed – from directives on cyber-related issues to those characterised as cyber-oriented, each being more ambitious than the previous one. The complete appraisal of the effectiveness of the EU cyber security policy is impeded by a specific nature of cyberspace and its security, as well as problems with gathering appropriate data.

This paper is about the ways that citizens perceive their place in the political world around them, through their political identities. Using a combination of comparative and quantitative methodologies, the study traces the pattern of citizens' political identifications in the European Union and Canada between 1981 and 2003 and explains the mechanisms that shape these political identifications. The results of the paper show that in the EU and Canada identity formation is a process that involves the participation of both individuals and political institutions yet between the two, individuals play a greater role in identity construction than do political institutions. The paper argues that the main agents of political identification in the EU and Canada are citizens themselves: individuals choose their own political identifications, rather than acquiring identities that are pre-determined by historical or cultural precedence. The paper makes the case that this phenomenon is characteristic of a rise of 'civic' identities in the EU and Canada. In the European Union, this overarching 'civic' identity is in its infancy compared to Canada, yet, both reveal a new form of political identification when compared to the historical and enduring forms of cultural identities firmly entrenched in Europe. The rise of civic identities in both the EU and Canada is attributed to the active role that citizens play in their own identity constructions as they base their identifications on rational assessments of how well political institutions function, and whether their memberships in the community will benefit them, rather than on emotional factors rooted in religion or race. In the absence of strongly held emotional identifications, in the EU and Canada political institutions play a passive role in identity construction by making the community appear more entitative to its citizens. These findings offer new theoretical scope to the concept of civic communities and the political identities that underpin them. The most important finding presented in the paper is that although civic communities and identities are manufactured by institutions and political elites (politicians and bureaucrats), they require thinking citizens, not feeling ones, to be sustained.

The proposal on compensations in cases of non-compliance with contractual quality requirements for rail freight services14 has been re¬jects by the European Parliament. This system could increase costs for rail freight services and distort competition with road transport. As the legis¬lative report by Roberts Zile(UEN, LV) argues, "the compensation system would not improve standards in the industry, and existing international legislation is already imposing strict enough rules on rail, far more than equivalent regulations on road transport. Rather than imposing more regulations and fines, the emphasis should be or easier market access for new rail companies so as to increase competitiveness".

Population aging and longevity can pose challenges to the sustainability of fiscal budgets. This is of particular concern in Europe's rapidly aging welfare states offering generous social support programs for the elderly. Still, there are differences in the pace of ageing and the generosity of welfare states. We use public tax and benefit age schedules from the National Transfer Accounts project to estimate the impact of population aging on fiscal budgets of single countries and their implications for potential transfer flows in between European Union countries. We show the positive impact of changes in the economic life cycle by working longer and the impact of migration on the redistribution of transfers across Europe. We illustrate the crucial role that demography plays in deepening and reinforcing the fortunes of European finances.

This article examines the role of the European Union in assurance to Energy Security for its citizens, types of energy, challenges that hinders the supply of energy. Tension between European states and effects on the European Union. Ways of developing infrastructure towards clean resources to reduce gas emissions and climate changes to achieve energy sustainability. Particular focusing on the challenges and treats in securing energy for the European union examine influence of actors such asorganization and countries on the energy market for the European union. Furthermore the research paper examines the future plans of the European Union towards energy security and alternative energy resources for decrease dependence on fossil fuel.

Continental Europe is now only 20 minutes away by train from mainland Britain, and moving ever closer politically. Mutual recognition of medical qualifications within the European Union is well established: working in other parts of Europe is, in principle, straightforward. Working in different health care systems can offer new perspectives on British medical practice and the NHS. But the cultural differences are not always easy to overcome.

This article points out the first steps of the cartel settlement and Leniency Program in European Union and positive sides of the mentioned tool for the companies participating in the anticompetitive agreements. Cartel Settlement and Leniency Program played an enormous role for the market to be undistorted and free from any type of anticompetitive practices. It is also worth to mention that introducing of Settlement notice as well as Leniency Program played crucial role for Commission and as well for undertakings to find fastest way out from the anticompetitive practices to settle and protect free and undistorted competition on the market. Both tools are very beneficial and useful for competition and its further development. ; This article points out the first steps of the cartel settlement and Leniency Program in European Union and positive sides of the mentioned tool for the companies participating in the anticompetitive agreements. Cartel Settlement and Leniency Program played an enormous role for the market to be undistorted and free from any type of anticompetitive practices. It is also worth to mention that introducing of Settlement notice as well as Leniency Program played crucial role for Commission and as well for undertakings to find fastest way out from the anticompetitive practices to settle and protect free and undistorted competition on the market. Both tools are very beneficial and useful for competition and its further development.

During the Cold War the European Community lacking common military instruments was perceived as the example of a civilian power. However, in the early 1990s, under the framework of CFSP, the first concrete defence initiatives have been launched. By the end of the 1990s and after the agreement on the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) the first Rapid Reaction Forces were on the European military agenda. Such defence and military capabilities challenged the idea of the EU as a civil or civilian power. Thus, a main concern in the paper has been to assess the character and identity of the EU`s activities in the context of international relations. For this purpose, this study has explored the EU policy instruments such as the enlargement policy, external aid, environmental policy at the global level, multilateralism, and the EU armed forces. The study concludes that the enlargement policy accounts for an important EU strategy to shape the international environment through civilian means. Furthermore, the international aid policy of the EU states has primarily been based on the sense of duty to other countries as constructivists point out. The EU has also been vocal and has used environmental foreign policy as an instrument to demonstrate its global leadership role which is a clear indication of its commitment to global welfare. Thanks to its presence in the major multilateral interventions of the last decade, the EU has qualified itself as great supporter of multilateralism. Lastly, the EU military capabilities are not achieved by creating permanent European armed forces but are still based on the voluntary contributions of its member states. Therefore, the EU still can be portrayed as a global civilian power (GCP) or civilian power Europe (CPE).

The 1993 Union Treaty sets forth a process of deepening and widening of the European single market by creating institutions in which decisions are taken as dose as possible to the citizen" and by establishing the ECU as single currency before the end of the century. If it succeeds in inducing diverse nation-states into changing their economic regimes in the direction of price stability, the process may spread throughout the emerging European economy. Deepening implies cohesion, but, since the current divergence of national incomes per capita among union states matches the one observed among Swiss cantons, further convergence is likely to be gradual. As income redistribution among union states requires higher taxes, it impinges on national political processes and implies that appropriate medium-term convergence programs must be implemented, especially in the so-called cohesion states. Political stability and a social consensus about the regime change will in turn facilitate the fulfillment of the criteria for fiscal discipline set out in the Treaty. The regime change should have taken place during the first phase of economic and monetary union, which began on July 1, 1990, so that convergence may endure during the second phase, beginning January 1, 1994. But the medium term orientation of national budgetary consolidation is not credible until headline inflation is in single digits and the ability to stabilize a convertible currency has been tested in world financial markets. Membership in the European Monetary System does not suffice: discipline must be domestically generated, especially under the current wide fluctuation margins. In spite of several currency realignments in 1992 and in 1993, the reputation for financial stability acquired during the run-up to the single market was maintained in cohesion states. The regime changes in Ireland (1986), Spain (1989) and Portugal (1992) will become benchmarks even beyond the continent if the credibility of national policies is sustained until the third and final phase of economic and monetary union and incomes per capita continue to converge. ; N/A

This paper briefly outlines the historical evolution of the Western European Union, from its origins in the Brussels Treaty to WEU's recent linkage with the process of European integration. Particular attention is paid to the political and military development of WEU as this relates to the apparent goal of eventual Western European defense integration. It is argued that in spite of the clamour to establish a European Defense Identity under WEU, however, the Europeans do not have a practical short-term alterative to the present situation of military dependence upon the United States and NATO.

Równość płci stanowi kluczowy aspekt procesu integracji europejskiej. Szczegółowe przepisy regulujące kwestie płci zawarto w traktatach założycielskich, Karcie praw podstawowych i kilkunastu innych dyrektywach, ale zasada niedyskryminacji została dodatkowo wzmocniona decyzjami Trybunału Sprawiedliwooeci Unii Europejskiej, który wydał decyzje w ponad dwustu sprawach. Obecnie przepisy unijne dotyczące równości wychodzą daleko poza podstawowe kwestie płci, o czym mowa jest w niniejszym artykule. Koncentruje się on nie tylko na podstawowych przepisach UE dotyczących równości płci, ale także na kwestiach dotyczących poziomu ich realizacji i najważniejszych jej ograniczeniach. Rozważania te poszerzono o dyskusję na temat tych działań UE, które można również traktować jako element wdrżania prawodawstwa niedyskryminacyjnego. ; Gender equality is a vital aspect of the European integration process. Although specific legislation concerning gender issues was included in the establishing Treaties, in the Charter of fundamental rights and in a dozen other directives, non-discriminatory principle has also been strengthened by the jurisdiction of the Court of Justice of the European Union which formed a judgment in more than 200 cases. Nowadays, the EU equality legislation has moved far beyond basic gender issues, and this is also discussed in the article. It focuses not only on the fundamentals of EU legislation concerning gender equality but also on the level of its implementation and its most important limitations. Such considerations are broadened by a discussion on the EU actions which may be also treated as the implementation of non-discriminatory legislation.

This paper investigates the possibility of the new global international system, basing on the constructivistic interpretation of the "pluralistic security community" concept by K.W. Deutsch. Major tendencies in the international politics, which led to the securitization of the international agenda, are analyzed. The main attention is paid to the European Union as a regional security community. The conceptual backgrounds of European security area are analyzed through the process of EU development and political behaviour. An idea of regional security communities' synergy as a new political order in the international relation is proposed.Full text: http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/czasopismo/589/?idno=14762

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.

International audience ; : National defence arrangements appear to be increasingly complex due to budgetary pressures, rising costs and changing threats. There is a risk of massive investment in defence at a time when threats are diminishing, when Europe remains completely dependent on the United States and in a context where a policy of effective neutrality could be imposed through structural disarmament. Threats to European interests may not find echoes and support from the US Government. There are clear advantages to joint procurement by member countries because of the high fixed costs of R&D and the learning curve effects associated with weapons. The main problems to be resolved concern the differing perceptions of national interest among states, highly heterogeneous military strategies and competing industrial interests. ; Les dispositions nationales de défense semblent de plus en plus complexes en raison des pressions budgétaires, de l'augmentation des coûts et de l'évolution des menaces. Il y a le risque d'un investissement massif dans la défense à un moment où les menaces diminuent, où l'Europe reste complètement dépendante des États-Unis et dans un contexte où une politique de neutralité effective pourrait être imposée par le désarmement structurel. Il est possible que des menaces qui pèsent sur les intérêts européens ne trouvent pas d'échos et d'appui de la part du gouvernement des États-Unis. Les achats communs des pays membres présentent des avantages évidents en raison des coûts fixes élevés de la R&D et des effets de la courbe d'apprentissage associés aux armes. Les principaux problèmes à résoudre concernent les divergences de perception de l'intérêt national des Etats, des stratégies militaires très hétérogènes et des intérêts industriels en compétition.