Although average Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) tariffs on imports from the least developed countries are very low; tariffs above 15 percent have a disproportional effect on their exports. Products subject to tariff peaks tend to be heavily concentrated in agriculture and food products and labor intensive sectors, such as apparel and footwear. Although the least developed countries benefit from preferential access, preferences tend to be smallest for tariff peak products. A major exception is the European Union, so that the recent European initiative to grant full duty free and quota free access for the least developed countries will result in only a small increase in their exports of tariff peak items. However, as preferences are less significant in other major OECD countries, a more general emulation of the European Union initiative would increase the least developed countries total exports of peak products by US dollar 2.5 billion. Although almost half of this increase is at the expense of other developing country exports, this represents less than 0.05 percent of their total exports. This trade diversion can be avoided by reducing tariff peaks to a uniform 5 percent applied on a nondiscriminatory basis. However, such a reform would imply no gains for the least developed countries, suggesting that the globally welfare superior policy of nondiscriminatory elimination of tariff peaks should be complemented by greater direct assistance to poor countries.
Russia and other countries in the commonwealth of independent states that have implemented voucher privatization programs have to account for the puzzling behavior of insiders manager-owners-who, in stripping assets from the firms they own, appear to be stealing from one pocket to fill the other. This article suggests that asset stripping and the absence of restructuring result from interactions between insiders and subnational governments in a particular property rights regime, in which the ability to realize value is limited by uncertainty and illiquidity. As the central institutions that govern the Russian economy have ceded their powers to the provinces, regional and local governments have imposed a variety of distortions on enterprises to protect local employment. To disentangle these vicious circles of control, this article considers three sets of institutional changes: adjustments to the system of fiscal federalism by which subnational governments would be allowed to retain tax revenues generated locally; legal improvements in the protection of property rights; and the provision of mechanisms for restructuring and ownership transformation in insider-dominated firms. The aim of these reforms would be to change the incentives that local governments, owners, and investors face; to convince subnational governments that a more sustainable way of protecting employment lies in protecting local investment; to raise the cost of theft and corruption by insiders and local officials; and to allow investors to acquire controlling stakes in viable firms.
Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.
Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.
Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.
Relevance of the dissertation is determined by the object of research – the influence of logistical factors on transport flows distribution. The growth of world economics, business globalization, progress in technology skills extends the distances between geographical points of raw materials resources, manufacturers and consumers. Due to the membership in the European Union (EU) Lithuania has got new opportunities for international trade growth, and all the Eastern Baltic countries have become the buffer region for the EU trading with the countries of the Eastern Europe and Asia. A proper transport policy and infrastructure development would increase significantly the GNP in warehousing, transport and distribution sectors. Forecasting of potential transport flows according to logistical requirements of freight suppliers is most important for transport network optimization. Scientific problem. Contemporary transport engineering theory approaches the peculiarities of transport flows formation too narrowly, only as an analysis of internal factors determining freight flows. There is no analysis of external factors. Many researchers assume that transport flows are determined only by the existing transport network and its characteristics. Other researchers consider transport flows as a result of logistic elements only. The estimating of internal and external logistical factors provides a possibility to forecast the transport flows. Aim of the research is to create a model of logistical factors influence on transport flows distribution. Seeking to meet this aim, the author of the dissertation has solved the following tasks: 1. To make an analysis of the theory provided by Lithuanian and foreign researchers concerning the common interaction of logistics and transport, as well as to point out the advantages and disadvantages in the approaches and hypotheses of many authors, and to propose own conclusions. 2. To create a model of logistical factors and their indicators, which determine transport flows distribution in the transport network. 3. To make empirical research of indices of logistical factors in Lithuanian case. Scientific novelty of the research 1. The analysis of the research level of the scientific problem shows a very narrow theoretical view of determining transport flows. Many authors analyze internal factors only and do not estimate logistical needs of consignors and consignees. 2. The created new models determine transport flows and freight flows in transport network by internal and external specific logistical factors as well. 3. The results of empirical research of external factors confirm the created new models and provide a new interpretation and theoretical view of regularities of freight flows formation. Direct influence on basic transportation process characteristics and control is exercised by clients of transport companies. The basic attitudes for defending 1 The advantages and disadvantages of approaches of numerous researchers on logistic and transportation functions. 2 The models determining distribution of transport flows according to logistical factors. 3 The conclusions of empirical research of logistical factors' influence in Lithuanian case. The significance of the research. Theories proposed by many authors on transport and logistic functioning and interaction are analyzed, and a new point of theoretical view is given. The created models would be fit for forecasting of transport flows and planning of investments in transport infrastructure. The models would help the government, transport and logistics companies to make strategic decisions for development projects. Results of empirical research, which prove theoretical models are important for transport and logistic service providers and their customers for better common understanding and common activities. Methodology of the research is based on regression and correlative analysis, forecasting, as well as on market survey and mathematical modeling. Approbation of the work. Main theses of the dissertation were approbated in 3 scientific published works and 14 scientific conferences papers. Dissertation's structure. The work consists of introduction, three chapters, conclusions and a list of literature (123 scientific works). The amount of the work is: 108 pages, 61 figures and 20 tables. The work includes 6 appendixes. Conclusions The theoretical analysis of logistics influence on transport flows distribution concepts by many researchers, the mathematical modeling of transport flows determination factors and empirical research to give the following conclusions: 1. Many scientists explore logistics and transport by different concepts, however there are no special investigations of logistical impact on transport flows distribution in their works. The analysis of scientific works shows a dual aspect of transport flows distribution. The first theory maintains that technological engineering solutions determine transport flows; the second theory considers that they are determined by logistical factors such as: 1) added value; 2) minimization of logistics costs; 3) customer service. 2. The supporters of technological approach focus the attention on mathematical modeling of freight flows in transport network, nodes and links, as well as logistical chains. According to this point of view, physical characteristics of links and nodes only give possibility to solve the task of freight flows distribution. The scientific problem is that physical characteristics do not suffice for the right solution of this task. It is important to find and estimate external logistical factors. 3. It is important to estimate that transport flows formation is determined in long-term period according to the requirements of manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers. The trade centralization is one of the basic elements in formation of logistical channels and distribution centers, and transport flows of course. 4. The mathematical model of transport flows distribution is created here. The model gives peculiarities of freight flows distribution according to estimation of economical, juridical and physical parameters of nodes and links. If a logistical subsystem of the given sub-region does not constitute the entire goods traffic channel from the consignor to the consignee, but it is a constituent part of the entire logistical channel from the consignor to the consignee, then the flow traffic goods through that sub-region will be dependent not only on the characteristics of the logistical channel existing in the sub-region's logistical system, but it will also depend on other regions, the logistical systems of which are involved in the common logistical channel. The minimization of the characteristics of any element may cause the minimization of the characteristics of the entire logistical channel as well as the loss of its competitive abilities. 5. The model of shipment grouping according to peculiarities of transport flows and logistic requirements is created. The model enables the estimating of characteristics of freight origins and destination points and forecasting of grouped shipment routes. 6. The survey shows dual approach to transport flows distribution as well as theoretical analysis. Transport flows are distributed according to logistic strategy of transport service consumers and technological solutions, and implementations of providers as well. The survey demonstrates that transport companies are not only 'sellers' or 'providers' of transport services. They are logistical partners of transport service consumers. The strategic partnership of trading and transport companies determines in many cases the formation of transport flows in Lithuania. According forecast of 5 % yearly trade growth, freight volume by road and rail in Lithuania will increase to 133.6 million tons in year 2015. 7. The basic logistical factors determining the distribution of transport flows in Lithuania according to the survey are these: geography of consumers markets, geography of basic transport nodes, structures of logistical channels, perspective of urban development, shortest paths, political and anti-criminal security of transit, grouping of goods, national factor.
The WSU Stewart Library Annual UC-UI Symposium took place from 2001-2007. The collection consists of memorabilia from the symposium including a yearly keepsake, posters, and presentations through panel discussions or individual lectures. ; Audio Recording ; " You Can't Get Anywhere Without Coming to Ogden: Railroading in the American West" a commemorative panel discussion presented at the 2004 Utah Construction/ Utah International Symposium Making Tracks by Dr. Kathryn MacKay Thursday, October 7, 2004 2 Thank you. Let me add my thanks for the invitation to be here today. It is always an honor to be asked to speak at a public forum. I also acknowledge that some of my students have even decided to show up and I am particularly honored by your presence. Let me put my nostalgic credentials on the table first. My grandfather worked for the Union Pacific which meant that as a child I used to take rides on the Union Pacific with my grandmother. There are still stories told in the family about those various trips and about taking lunch down to the Union Pacific depot for my grandfather and so I also have these nostalgic railroad credentials. In fact that may be the extent of my credentials about the railroad, I need to admit to you that the railroad is not my field of study. I have been drawn into this study more recently with a project at the Golden Spike museum with a group of students. As a public historian I supervise students who do curatorial work, archival work, and we had a chance to redo an exhibit that talked about the Chinese workers on the Central Pacific. I then went on to help the park do curatorial work on their collection and it raised again the issue that is always an issue in museum, libraries, historic sites and reenactment places, and that is how do you present the past to the public in the present? How do you help the public understand the past was as complicated and as messy as the present? And how do you bring to the attention of the public the best of the current scholarship? So with those issues in mind I turn to some discussion about new scholarship on the Union Pacific railroad. Let me bring to your attention three major areas of new scholarship about the Union Pacific and about railroads in the 3 west in general. They really do come out of the last 20- 25 years of historical research that can be both labeled social history research and new western research. The social historians have asked us to consider the past from the bottom up; from the lives of ordinary people. For the railroad, that means we are much more interested in the lives of the workers. And for the Union Pacific, that is the Irish immigrants, expendable because there were so many of them, expendable because they could be replaced, and literally expendable because they kept being blown up and having accidents, etc. Thousands of workers over six years of time worked on this transcontinental railroad and we are struggling to tell the story of their lives, both to find the information but also to present it to the public at our museums, and our public events. The social historians remind us that the story of the transcontinental railroad, the story of the Union Pacific, is not just a story of triumphalism; it is a story that is also about despair and hardship, ethnocentric discrimination, and a lot of stories lost. We are trying to find those. I also wanted to bring to your attention new scholarship that geographers are asking. One area of scholarship is to look at town planning that the railroad companies did. The Union Pacific, for example, had a specific town plan for Cheyenne. The geographers, in looking at towns in the west, are bringing to our attention increasingly, some understanding of major town plans; the Pueblo Indian villages, the Mormon town plan or the plan of Zion, and the railroad plan, Cheyenne being one of the most important examples of this. What, for example, has caught scholars attention about the railroad town plans is that they are 4 deliberately planned off center, they are slightly askew. The speculation is, well, does this have to do with sunshine; does this have to do with surveyors who did not know what they were doing? But, nonetheless, there is a particular pattern and the scholars' are curious about that, and bringing to our attention that we need to be mindful of the railroad as a town planner, not just as a railroad builder. But they really did affect the way that the land looked in the west in terms of town planning. Furthermore, again as the geographers go back and take a look at the rights of way and the roots, the impact that they had on the environment, on the ecology, on the land itself. There is a lot of new scholarship to look at. One of the fascinating fields, for example, is that because the railroads became the second largest land owner in the west, second only to the Federal government that, of course, took the land in the first place and held a lot of land. If you want to find certain seeds and certain kinds of plants that have not been particularly disturbed for hundreds of years you follow the railroad tracks. That is where the seed researchers are gathering native plants and seeds that have not been hybridized. So again, the geographers bringing to our attention new services. And then the new western historians are weighing in… I noticed that Richard White, one of the most distinguished of the new western historians is now turning his attention to the railroads particularly in terms of their corporate power and influence, and is looking at the first big businesses in the United States which were the railroads, and looking at the connections between their economic power and their political power. In this time, which for some historians 5 is being described as the " New Gilded Age," the historians are looking back at the previous Gilded Age and looking at the railroads as a particular player in this world that has become so familiar to us, a world of big business and the influence of big business on the government. I want you to know that these three areas of scholarship are areas that scholars, historians, and geographers are particularly interested in. Again, bottom up history, town planning and the impact on geography and environment, and the relationship between big business, corporate interest and the government. That is where we are going to see some of the richest new scholarship. The challenge for museums and public organizations is going to be to present that new scholarship to the public. Thank you very much.
In: Population and development review, Volume 26, Issue 4, p. 821-826
ISSN: 1728-4457
It has been said that most of the founders of demography were astronomers (viz., Halley or Quetelet) or clergymen (viz., Süssmilch or Malthus). Jean‐Baptiste Moheau, the author of a treatise, published in 1778 under the title Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France, was an exception to this rule. He seems to have been an obscure bureaucrat, and left so few tracks in the record that his very existence was long in doubt. Today, however, the rough outlines of a biography have been traced. Moheau was born in 1745, and died in 1794; he was not thirty years old when he wrote the treatise. He made no other contribution to science, and appears to have been unwilling even to make simple corrections to his text when changes were requested by the 1780 German translator of the work. (There exists no translation in English.) He was the personal secretary of Montyon, the Intendant (the equivalent of a provincial governor, delegated by the central government) of the généralité of La Rochelle on the Atlantic coast of France. There is still a controversy about Montyon's possible contribution to the work, but it appears that Montyon was not interested in population, that he was not even in residence in La Rochelle, and that Moheau as his secretary was substituting for him, taking a special interest in the collection of population statistics that were requested by the royal administration.At the time of publication, the work attracted some attention, including an unfavorable critique by Condorcet, and had some admirers in Germany where it was compared to the work of Süssmilch, the great Prussian political arithmetician, whose own Göttliche Ordnung (The Divine Order, first edition published in 1741) was unknown to the author or authors of the Recherches et considérations. Moheau's work was soon forgotten, however, until a 1912 re‐edition. A modern critical edition, annotated by Eric Vilquin, which contains a biographical essay by Rene LeMée and a number of other contributions assessing the work and placing it in its historical context, was published in 1994 jointly by the Institut National d'Études Démographiques and Presses Universitaires de France. The excerpt printed below and the citations in this introduction are translations from the text as it appears in that edition. The translation is by Etienne van de Walle. Page numbers also refer to the 1994 edition. Recherches et considérations sur la population de la France, in any event, is a remarkable achievement for its time and deserves an important place in the history of demography. The title could be roughly translated, today, as "Empirical Studies on the Population of France, and Their Interpretation." Like John Graunt's 1662 Natural and Political Observations…made upon the Bills of Mortality, the work is characterized by a dual concern to present hard data and to use them to make politically and socially relevant inferences. Moheau's book consists of two very different parts, however, and lexicographical analysis suggests that they were written by two authors. The first part ("State of the Population") is a demographic monograph, and one is struck by the similarities of the chapter titles to those that one would find in any demographic description of a national population today:
– The means of investigating the population – An estimate of the population of France – Distribution by age and sex – Distribution by socioeconomic characteristics – Body size and strength – Fertility – Mortality – Migration – Is the population growing or decreasing?
The main demographic contribution of the work is in the area of fertility. Moheau lists the topics himself: A multitude of interesting questions present themselves for our investigation. What is the fertility of women in France? One in how many women gives birth per year? What is the ratio of marriages to births, and what is the highest number of children per marriage? Is fertility the same in all provinces of France, in the cities and in the countryside, and in the various parts of Europe? Is the result roughly the same every year, or every month? And finally, which of the two sexes accounts for the most births? (p. 125) This is a remarkable list of questions, and Moheau was the first to raise them so comprehensively. (It is noteworthy that there was not even a word in English, at that time, to express the concept of fertility as an aggregate characteristic of populations.) He distinguishes fertility from what we now call the birth rate, and marital fertility from overall fertility. He is interested in variability in space—national and international, and urban and rural. He analyzes the seasonality of births. He also concludes that fertility is constant over the years: "Nature has arranged the fertility of women in such a way that each year gives approximately the same number of births" (p. 134). The result of this constancy is that, in the absence of a census, the number of registered births provides the best estimate of the population size of a country. This view conflicts with the idea of fertility decline, and with potential depopulation as expressed later in the volume and in the passage below.The second part of the book examines the causes of the progress or decay of the population. This is the part described by the word "considérations" in the title of the book. The author distinguishes between physical causes (climate, food, dangerous occupations…) and political, social, or moral causes. Among the latter factors, he discusses the effects of law, government, religion, taxes, war, and the possession of colonies. The excerpt translated below is entitled "Des moeurs" (literally: "Of Mores"), by which Moheau means private morality in the areas of sexuality and reproduction; this is not unlike the meaning adopted by Malthus when he speaks of "moral restraint." The chapter deals mainly with four areas of sexual conduct: marital fidelity, prostitution, breastfeeding, and nonmarital sex (which may occasion venereal diseases). A specially noteworthy passage alludes to funestes secrets (fatal secrets), an expression widely quoted by French demographers and often interpreted as a reference to the spread of contraception in marriage. In context, however, it would appear that Moheau had in mind the growing impact of various types of extramarital behavior—fornication, prostitution, and adultery.But beyond offering a catalogue of individual behavior he considers reprehensible—a sharp—eyed critical description of some aspects of contemporary French mores—Moheau's central concern in these matters is with the consequences that affect the strength of the State. Moral failings, he argues, lead to diminished fertility and damage the overall physical quality of the population; they are pernicious in the civil and political order. He notes the high economic costs of children and implies that economic calculus alone would result in failure to reproduce: "logic and a calculating mind would not lead to the propagation of the species." Populousness of the State presupposes motivations that transcend material interest: it rests on the foundation of moral virtues.
In May 1996, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) announced a new and innovative approach to reach the goal of "zero accidents," known as the Global Analysis and Information Network (GAIN). This is envisaged as a privately owned and operated international information infrastructure for the collection, analysis, and dissemination of aviation safety information that would involve the use of a broad variety of worldwide aviation data sources, coupled with comprehensive analytical techniques, to facilitate the identification of existing and emerging aviation safety problems. In support of this effort, the objective of the research project described in this paper is to assist the FAA in developing aviation system safety performance measures that can utilize the automated operational data that is available in the aviation system, such as digital flight recorder data and air traffic control (ATC) system data, to monitor trends in the operation of the aviation system and anticipate problems before they lead to incidents and accidents. For this to be done, it will be necessary to develop effective techniques to manage the vast amounts of data involved and appropriate analytical techniques to sort through these data and apply formal models to identify situations of interest. The goal of the current phase of the research is to review the available data sources and the techniques that have already been developed by the airlines and FAA, in order to provide the FAA Office of System Safety with a roadmap of what could be done to utilize these data sources to develop safety performance measures and what additional resources this would require. During the course of the research, discussions were held with some 25 people representing a broad range of FAA offices and industry organizations, including the FAA Office of System Safety, Office of Aviation Research, Air Traffic Service, Flight Standards Service, Office of System Capacity and the William J. Hughes Technical Center. Site visits were made to gather information on the FAA Airport Movement Area Safety System, and the NASA Aviation Performance Measuring System and Surface Movement Advisor program. Information was assembled on existing sources of operational data and data analysis tools, including those developed to support Flight Operations Quality Assurance programs. Development of the type of system safety performance measures discussed in this concept paper offers the potential to provide three useful contributions to improving aviation safety. The first is to provide a means to monitor progress toward achieving the FAA goal of reducing the fatal aviation accident rate by 80% by 2007. Since aviation accidents, particularly for commercial airline operations, are relatively rare events, it will take many years of data before any change in the underlying accident rate can be established with any confidence, much less the effect of any particular set of measures to improve the level of safety. Therefore, what are needed are performance measures that are responsive to procedural and technology changes, and measure events that occur much more frequently but reflect situations that those operating the system agree they wish to avoid, as well as conditions that aviation safety experts agree could be indicators of potentially hazardous situations. The second contribution is to provide a means for managers and supervisors to assess the effectiveness of operational changes, to identify locations or procedures that appear to generate a high number of undesired situations, and to tailor the training of flight crews and controllers to help them improve their performance. The third contribution is to provide an early warning indicator of problems that may be emerging from the introduction of new technology, new procedures, and the growth in traffic levels. For this to be achieved, it will be necessary to develop the appropriate performance measures in close collaboration with those involved in operating the system on a day-to-day basis, and to encourage a thoughtful debate on how to measure safety within the NAS and how to improve it. The operational aspects of computing appropriate performance measures are likely to be at least as difficult as deciding what to measure. Fortunately, there already exists considerable experience working with aircraft flight recorder data, and specialized analysis tools have been developed and continue to be developed, by both commercial vendors and government agencies. There is also considerable experience within the FAA and other organizations in working with radar flight track data. Experience in applying these and similar techniques to the development of system safety performance measures will determine what is useful, and whether the effort involved is justified by the results. Therefore it is proposed that a limited number of proof of concept studies should be undertaken as soon as possible to gain experience in developing appropriate analysis tools and techniques, as well as to begin involving the operating community in the process. One such study has already been proposed by researchers at NASA Ames Research Center to explore the application of concepts and techniques developed under the NASA Aviation Performance Measuring System to air traffic control system data. This has been jointly funded by the NASA Aviation Safety Program and the FAA, and is about to commence. The study would utilize the Performance Data Analysis and Reporting System, that is currently under development, to examine routine operational data in order to identify exceedances from normal operations. While the development of a comprehensive approach to measuring system safety performance needs to integrate all available information, including that derived from monitoring aircraft flight operations, as well as the operation of the ATC system, there are immediate opportunities to identify and track safety performance measures using ATC system data. Developing and implementing these measures can not only provide near-term indicators of system performance, but in the longer term can provide a consistent data stream that can be integrated into a more comprehensive framework as the other elements of this framework are implemented. It is recommended that at least two other studies be initiated addressing this aspect of the system, one focusing on terminal airspace operations and the other on airport surface operations. The first study would utilize existing tools, such as those being developed under the NASA Aviation Safety Program, to analyze radar track and system message data for a Terminal Radar Approach Control facility to identify situations that represent a departure from normal operations, including atypical controller intervention to maintain separation, unstabilized approaches, and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance (TCAS) alerts. The second study would explore how to effectively utilize the available sources of data on aircraft movement on the airport surface to implement safety performance measures, and would develop algorithms for extracting and analyzing data on the aircraft paths on the taxiway and runway system. The scope and level of effort of these studies could be tailored to the available resources, but it is envisaged that each of these studies would last between six months and a year, and would require between one and two person-years of effort.
This publication reports on the devolution and growth in community-based resource that is taking place in the Philippines. The authors suggest effective, innovative approaches for enabling local governments to manage resources.
Policies and procedures to resolve bank failures have evolved significantly in Argentina since the introduction of currency convertibility in 1991, and particularly in reaction to the 1995 tequila crisis, which exposed the inadequacy of the bank exit framework in place then. The author reviews the institutional changes introduced in Argentina in 1995 to handle bank failures more effectively, particularly the creation of the deposit guarantee scheme and the procedural framework for resolving bank failures, embedded in Article 35 of the Financial Institutions Law. This framework enables the Central Bank to carve out the assets and privileged liabilities of the failing bank and transfer them to sound banks, thereby sending only a residual balance sheet to judicial liquidation. Subsequent refinements in the application of Article 35 procedures eventually led to current Argentine practice. The author examines this practice in detail by considering the handling of the recent failure of Banco Almafuerte. The author assesses a number of issues that arise from the Argentine model of bank failure resolution, taking into account both country-specific circumstances and more general concepts and concerns. He emphasizes the potential tradeoffs between reducing contagion risk, limiting moral hazard, and avoiding unnecessary destruction of asset value; the implications of priority-of-claims rules and least-cost criteria; the pros and cons of alternative organizational and institutional arrangements; and the need for legal security. Finally, he outlines two prototypical approaches to striking a balance between rules and discretion, an issue underlying much of the ongoing policy discussion on alternative bank exit frameworks.
Industry affiliation provides an important channel through which trade liberalization can affect worker earnings and wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers. This empirical study of the impact of the 1988-94 trade liberalization in Brazil on the industry wage structure suggests that although industry affiliation is an important component of worker earnings, the structure of industry wage premiums is relatively stable over time. There is no statistical association between changes in industry wage premiums and changes in trade policy or between industry-specific skill premiums to university graduates and trade policy. Thus trade liberalization in Brazil did not significantly contribute to increased wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers through changes in industry wage premiums. The difference between these results and those obtained for other countries (such as Colombia and Mexico) provides fruitful ground for studying the conditions under which trade reforms do not have an adverse effect on industry wage differentials
This article presents estimates of the impact of China's accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO). China is estimated to be the biggest beneficiary (US$31 billion a year from trade reforms in preparation for accession and additional gains of $10 billion a year from reforms after accession), followed by its major trading partners that also undertake liberalization, including the economies in North America, Western Europe, and Taiwan (China). Accession will boost manufacturing sectors in China, especially textiles and apparel, which will benefit directly from the removal of export quotas. Developing economies competing with China in third markets may suffer small losses. Accession will have important distributional consequences for China, with the wages of skilled and unskilled nonfarm workers rising in real terms and relative to those of farm workers. Possible policy changes, including reductions in barriers to labor mobility and improvements in rural education, could more than offset these negative impacts and facilitate the development of China's economy.
