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N° ISBN - 978-2-7380-1284-5 ; International audience ; The currently population of more than 70 million people in Ethiopia is expected to double within the next 30 years. Almost 80% of the populations are living in the countryside while the rest situated in urban area. An estimated five million people are suffering from lack of vitamins and essential minerals, of which 80% are children for the next generation. Every year, on the average, about five million people have problems securing enough food for them and need assistance. Preliminary surveys on nutritional and food consumption habit and secondary data have been taken with the objective to view the status of indigenous food consumption habits and a range of options for interventions. The major food security challenges are population growth, micronutrient deficiencies, pandemic diseases/AIDS, environmental degradation and droughts/floods/climatic change. Due to this fact Ethiopian agriculture is under full blow of climate risk. At a time when food production cannot keep pace with population growth, holistic solutions to the development related problems of hunger, malnutrition and poverty are needed more than ever. Indigenous/wild food items have a vast potential for addressing the food, health and income needs of the poor and landless. People around the world including neighboring countries to Ethiopia have a lot of interesting indigenous vegetable (IV) crops food habits, which can be lessens for Ethiopians. Majority of those IVs consumed in the world originated from Africa including Ethiopia. Those food items are inexpensive and accessible source of essential nutrients to a country like Ethiopia where the people experience malnutrition due to heavy dependence on cereals such as Tef (Erogrostis tef), which has low dietary source and productivity. Important foods of the world are not consumed in Ethiopia due to the reason that they are not exhaustively investigated so far. There has been no visible effort made to introduce/domesticate new food materials in our country. Many survey reports indicated that full of over looked and under developed food items that are not being fully exploited in the fight against hunger have been found in many parts of Ethiopia. Potentially use of those wild foods by the community has been also observed among which Corchorus olitorius in Afar Region, Moringa olifera in Southern nation and nationality people region and Coccinia abyssinica in Oromia region (South Western party of the country) contributing a significant role in human nutrition, income and medicinal value. But it has not been planned to study the potential and possible opportunities of those food source. It usually referred to as "wild foods" or "famine foods". It was indicated that in Ethiopia, there was no time when rural population has not been affected by drought, then famine. Seasonal food shortage is a common phenomenon in every part of the country, usually from July to September. On the contrary, use of wild food increased from 10% in normal year to up to 40% in famine period. Ethiopia is one of the country facing highest rates of child malnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa and highly selective and restricted food consumption habit practicing in Ethiopia aggravates the problem more and more. In addition to the dietary benefits, those IVs in home garden production and development also offers employment opportunities, particularly to both urban and rural women, provide more income than staple crops per unit of land. These crops grow quickly, so they provide a fast response to emergent needs for year round food supply. Use of traditional crops is associated with cheap production methods, availability at the doorstep, adaptability to household needs and stimulation of rural and urban economics for the landless in sustainable way. In general, it is strongly believed that indigenous food plants should be considered as a serious issue when developing strategies to fight rural and urban food security in Ethiopia. Therefore, year round production and consumption of these crops are the most sustainable way of reducing and controlling poverty and micronutrient deficiencies in urban and rural poor communities.

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection remains a global health problem affecting many lives especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The push by the global community towards universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care, and support has enabled millions of individuals to start on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in resource-limited settings. However, there is concern that widespread antiretroviral use could lead to widespread drug resistance. Suboptimal adherence leading to incomplete viral suppression is the primary predictor of HIV drug resistance. Concerns have been raised about the ability of patients in resource-limited settings to maintain the high level of adherence required to produce adequate viral suppression and hence prevent the emergence of resistant strains of HIV. The cost of antiretroviral medications is the most frequently cited barrier to adherence in resource-limited settings. Even with the recent substantial reductions in drug prices, many patients cannot afford to sustain their therapy over time. Generic antiretroviral medications (ARVs) today form the backbone of first-line regimens in developing countries. However, there are limited data on the bioavailability and bioequivalence of generic ARVs with branded pharmaceutical equivalents. While substantial effort has been put into increasing access to ART in resource-limited settings, less attention has been paid to the responsibilities of governments and international agencies to address the threat of substandard and counterfeit ARVs. The prevalence of counterfeit ARVs in resource-limited settings is not known. The Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is a commonly used instrument to measure depressive symptoms in HIV-infected populations in SSA but it has never be validated in these populationsThis dissertation is an attempt to address some of the critical issues associated with administration of ART in resource-limited settings. I explored the issues of adherence to HIV medications and ARV drug quality using data collected from patients participating in three prospective cohort studies and one cross sectional study conducted in two different HIV-infected populations in Uganda between September 2002 and December 2006. Specifically, I assessed i) the effect of source of payment for ARVs (no cost vs. self-pay) on adherence; ii) the impact on adherence of treating all HIV-infected members in a household; iii) the psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) when used in an HIV-infected population, and iv) the bioequivalence of a fixed dose combination generic drug (Triomune®) with the brand name pharmaceutical equivalents (Zerit®/Epivir®/Viramune®). Patients receiving no cost ART had 3.8 percentage points higher adherence than those patients paying for their treatment. Excellent adherence was observed when all household members infected with HIV were treated, however adherence declined over time. Depression was associated with poor adherence. The BDI had good psychometric properties with Cronbach's alpha of 0.79 and the expected a posteriori reliability coefficient (EAP) of 0.86. Comparing generic and brandname ARVs, we found that the generic formulation was not statistically bioequivalent to the brand formulations during steady state, although exposures were comparable. Fifty percent of the total variability in maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and the area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC) was due to between-subject variability. These results suggest that removing a financial barrier to treatment with ART by providing no cost HIV treatment may significantly improve adherence to ART. Our results also indicate that providing free ART to all eligible members in a household is associated with excellent adherence in both parents and children. Adherence to ART among new parents declines over time, even when patients receive treatment at no cost. Depression should be addressed as a potential adherence barrier. These findings support the use of the BDI-II in assessing depressive symptoms for HIV-infected patients in sub-Saharan Africa, especially women. Finally, these findings provide support for the use of Triomune in resource-limited settings, although identification of the sources of between-subject variability in AUC and Cmax in these populations is critical.

Раздел "Международное право" - рубрика "Право Европейского союза - зарубежный опыт" ; Имеется «молчаливое» соглашение, что ЕС представляет собой constructio sui generis. Некоторые определяют ЕС как НПО – неопознанный политический объект. Вывод о том, что сам факт существования Европейского союза представляет собой вызов вестфальской концепции государства, был сделан многими авторами из различных стран. Цель настоящей статьи состоит в исследовании и, если возможно, установлении и выяснении природы ЕС. Федеральный конституционный суд Германии (BVerfG) в своем решении, известном как Lissabon-Urteil, определяет ЕС как Staatenverbund — ассоциацию суверенных государств. Отличительная черта этого нового типа межправительственных организаций выделена во второй части определения, согласно которому ЕС описывается как «ассоциация государств, осуществляющая публичную власть на основе договора». Суд Европейских Сообществ в определяющих делах Van Gend en Loos и Costa v. ENEL истолковал намерение государств «заложить основу для все более тесного союза народов Европы» в пользу того, что государства-участники не имели намерения основать федеральное государство или Bundesstaat в вестфальской терминологии, но скорее создали «новый правовой порядок международного права». В то время как Суд ЕС и BVerfG, похоже, соглашаются по вопросу о том, что является новым в проекте европейской интеграции, их взгляды различаются в отношении теоретических выводов из этого. Теория BVerfG о природе ЕС как Staatenverbund в значительной мере не объясняет ряд особых характеристик ЕС и его правового порядка. Изучение Лиссабонского договора 2007 г. не предоставляет свидетельств для обоснования заявления, что ратификация договора может привести к созданию федерального европейского государства. Европейский союз можно определить как союз суверенных государств, в котором граждане государств — участников Союза также являются гражданами Союза и в котором руководство Союза не только связано принципом верховенства права, но также должно отвечать демократическим стандартам по аналогии с требуемыми от руководства его государств-участников. = The EU's institutions have failed to name and define the EU. There exists a tacit agreement that the EU is a constructio sui generis. Some define the EU as an UPO, an 'Unidentified Political Object'. The conclusion that the mere existence of the European Union forms a challenge to the concept of the Westphalian state has been drawn by various authors from different countries. The purpose of the article is to investigate if it is possible to establish and clarify the nature of the EU. The Federal Constitutional Court of Germany (BVerfG, Bundesverfassungsgericht) in its verdict, known as the Lissabon-Urteil, identifies the EU as a Staatenverbund, an association of sovereign states. The most distinctive hallmark of this new type of intergovernmental organisation is singled out in the second clause of the definition, in which the EU is described as an 'association of states, which exercises public authority on the basis of a treaty'. The Court of Justice of the European Communities in the landmark cases of Van Gend en Loos and Costa v. ENEL interpreted resolution of states 'to lay the foundation for an ever closer union among the peoples of Europe' to the effect that the member states have not had the intention to found a federal state or Bundesstaat in the Westphalian sense of the word, but have rather created 'a new legal order of international law'. While the ECJ and the BVerfG seem to agree upon the question as to what is new about the project of European integration, they hold different views with respect to the theoretical implications thereof. The theory of the BVerfG on the nature of the EU as a Staatenverbund leaves a number of the special characteristics of the EU and its legal order largely unexplained. Examination of the Treaty of Lisbon does not provide evidence to substantiate the claim that the ratification of the treaty may result in the creation of a federal European state. The European Union can be defined as a union of sovereign states, in which the citizens of the member states are also citizens of the Union and in which the governance of the Union is not only bound by the rule of law but is also required to meet democratic standards which are similar to those required of the governance of its member states.

International audience ; Since the 19th century, a variety of "ideal" land-use transport systems have been formulated as optimal solutions to urban land-use and transportation problems (Wegener and Fürst, 1999). Today, there is a broad consensus among researchers and transport/urban planning professionals that more coherence and coordination between transport and land-use policies is necessary to achieve sustainable urban development and mobility. This claim derives from evidence that, in Europe, local policies are only successful as regards criteria for sustainable development (the reduction of motorized traffic) when they combine measures for limiting car use in city centres with measures favoring the development of public transportation, densification, and mixed-use urban organization (Pharoah and Appel, 1995; Brög and Erl, 1996). If there is nothing new in the question regarding the interaction between spatial organization and transport, the ideas underlining this concern and the purposes of public policies have deeply evolved over the centuries, particularly as relates to urban planning. In short, we have moved from a concept of "car-shaped cities" to an approach to urban design where guidelines derive from "urbanity" values and the sharing of public spaces. How have local authorities translated the requirements and objectives of national laws? And how have they accounted for the evolution of these global objectives and the increasingly complex issue of coordinating urban development and transportation? What factors explain innovation and continuity in the relationship between land-use planning and transport policies? In this study we focused on the question of political change by comparing the "trajectories" of four urban areas: Geneva and Bern in Switzerland and Strasbourg and Bordeaux in France. Many empirical studies in political analysis have emphasized the importance of the long-term in identifying elements of continuity in political processes, assessing the reality of change, and stressing the interplay between national and local authorities (Fontaine and Hassenteufel, 2002; Kay, 2005). In this work, we have described the "policy paths" of the four aforementioned urban areas since the end of the 1960's by focusing on the contents of master plans, the principal technical solutions and projects that have been implemented, and the means of inter-sectorial coordination used. To do so, we have done a detailed analysis of numerous documents (laws, plans, technical studies, political documents, etc.) as well as semi-directive interviews with local actors. For each case, factors of change or inertia have been identified by focusing on three main variables that are often studied alternatively in public policy analysis: ideas, institutions and interests, or the "Three I's" as termed by Palier and Surel (2005). This paper presents the main results that emerged from a comparative analysis of these local dynamics. In exploring this first dimension, we have brought into question the influence of ideas, values, and standards on public policy and in the problem of the formulation or choice of solutions. We have shown, for instance, that urban or ecological values do explain differences in the ways of coordinating transport and land-use policies in Switzerland and in France; furthermore, this influence varies between cities based on geographical and "cultural" variables. We then focused on the role of the institutions (i.e. formal organizations) that regulate and structure local political systems. Our empirical observations led us to give less importance to the influence of institutional reform as a means of achieving more integrated policies: although institutions do influence political choices and explain differences among the four cities, we maintain that changing local institutions alone is not in itself an effective means of changing policies. The last variable concerns the interests of actors involved in political processes, as well as their strategic negotiations and interactions. We found that coordination between transport and land-use planning results from conflicts between areabased and reticular approaches to territorial development. Furthermore, we underline the role of economic factors in the negotiations between city centres and the suburbs, specifically in the context of cross-border urban areas (Strasbourg and Geneva).

In many European countries, the market for gambling has grown quite significantly in the last decade. This has mainly been online gambling and the resulting opportunity to play internationally. In Lithuania, online gambling is prohibited; however, it is rapidly gaining popularity and is available for Lithuanian players. Thus, it is clear that gambling services in Lithuania are not regulated enough. In the first part of the article, a brief overview of the legislation regulating gambling activities in Lithuania is given. The second part of the article deals with an analysis of the access of Lithuanian players to online gambling; attention is drawn to the problem of taxation—international online gambling companies do not pay taxes to the Lithuanian budget. The second part also includes a discussion of online gambling regulatory alternatives, their positive and negative aspects. In the third part of the article, the author analyses how online gambling activity is regulated in other European Union (EU) countries. The author notes that the gaming market regulatory framework differs among the EU Member States. Attention is drawn to the fact that gambling throughout the EU is regulated at the national level and not by the European Community legislation. The fourth part of the article summarizes the case-law of the European Court of Justice on online gambling restrictions in individual countries. The European Court of Justice has examined a number of cases in which the legality of gambling restrictions was questioned. Upon entering the EU, the Member States agree to provide free movement of persons, goods, services and capital within the EU Member States, but, as the European Court of Justice has ruled, the Member States may restrict cross-border gambling activity provisions in their country. Thus, in this section, the author analyses the grounds on which such restrictions must be justified. ; Azartinių lošimų veikla Lietuvoje legalizuota palyginti neseniai, tačiau jau veikia nemažai lošimų automatų salonų, lošimų namų, lažybų punktų. Pastaruoju metu vis sparčiau populiarėja azartiniai lošimai virtualioje erdvėje. Nors Lietuvos teisės aktai lošimų operatoriams draudžia siūlyti internetinius azartinius lošimus Lietuvos gyventojams, tačiau jie yra prieinami. Nėra jokių kliūčių Lietuvos lošėjams lošti užsienio valstybėse registruotų azartinių lošimų organizatorių internetinėse svetainėse. Reikia paminėti tai, kad azartinių lošimų paslaugos yra laikomos ypatingo pobūdžio ekonomine veikla dėl su ja susijusių socialinių, viešosios tvarkos ir sveikatos apsaugos aspektų. Dėl šios priežasties tinkamai reglamentuoti internetinius azartinius lošimus yra labai aktualu, siekiant kad būtų užtikrinta vartotojų apsauga, sukčiavimo ir nusikalstamumo prevencija. Straipsnyje nagrinėjama, kaip internetinių azartinių lošimų veikla reglamentuojama kitose Europos Sąjungos valstybėse, nes azartinių lošimų rinkos reguliavimo sistemos Europos Sąjungos valstybėse narėse yra labai skirtingos. Atkreipiamas dėmesys ir į tai, kad azartiniai lošimai visoje Europos Sąjungoje yra reguliuojami ne Europos Bendrijos teisės aktais, o nacionaliniu lygiu. Pabrėžtina, kad, vadovaujantis Europos Bendrijos teise, valstybės narės turi teisę kontroliuoti ir reguliuoti savo azartinių lošimų rinkas, atsižvelgdamos į savo tradicijas bei kultūrą, siekdamos apsaugoti vartotojus nuo lošimo priklausomybės bei sukčiavimo. Tačiau siekiant tinkamai užtikrinti gyventojų apsaugą, turėtų įsigalioti tarptautiniai susitarimai, mažinantys skirtumus tarp atskirų jurisdikcijų. Taip atsirastų galimybė paskatinti Europos Sąjungos piliečius naudotis lošimų organizatorių, kurių veiklą reglamentuoja Europos Sąjungos teisės aktai, paslaugomis bei taip būtų užtikrinta reikiama teisinė apsauga. Straipsnyje taip pat apibendrinama Europos Teisingumo Teismo praktika dėl internetinių azartinių lošimų apribojimų atskirose valstybėse. Europos Teisingumo Teismas išnagrinėjo ne vieną bylą, kurioje buvo tikrinamas azartinių lošimų apribojimų teisėtumas. Teismas konstatavo, kad draudimas teikti internetinių azartinių lošimų paslaugas iš kitos valstybės prieštarauja laisvės teikti paslaugas principui. Teismas taip pat patvirtino, kad laisvės teikti azartinių lošimų paslaugas internete apribojimai gali būti pateisinami, jei jie būtini siekiant apsaugoti vartotojus, palaikyti viešąją tvarką, neleisti, jog azartiniai lošimai būtų asmeninio pasipelnymo šaltinis. Tačiau nustatant apribojimus yra būtina atsižvelgti į Europos Teisingumo Teismo formuojamą praktiką ir joje nustatytus proporcingumo reikalavimus. Apribojimų tikslas turi būti nuosekliai bei sistemingai riboti azartinių lošimų veiklą. O apribojimai turėtų būti taikomi nieko nediskriminuojant ir tiek, kiek reikalinga tikslui pasiekti.

Non-communicable chronic diseases (NCDs) are amongst the principal burdens of disease in both developed and underdeveloped countries. The main causes of these illnesses are well known. They are tobacco use, unhealthy diet, physical inactivity and the harmful use of alcohol. The prevalence of these risk factors is directly related to the activities of transnational corporations. To begin with, just the budgets dedicated to advertising for risky consumption is larger than the budget of the World Health Organization. NCDs have many complex links with the economy whose study is almost completely absent for the Americas. They have important economic microeconomic and macroeconomic impacts and affect economic performance in the long-term. Yet the detailed evaluation of their economic impact, which is essential for establishing the importance of alternative policies, has only just begun in some regions of the world and is almost completely absent for the Americas. The sheer burden on the working and aged population implies that strong impacts on labor, saving and investment, as well as an increased human capital depreciation can be expected. These will all impact long-term economic growth. It is a research priority to quantify these impacts. However, in the context of globalization many changes are occurring at a very fast pace, often faster than their rigorous analysis. It is urgent to develop a global institutional framework capable of promoting the control of NCD risk factors, as well as health and economic growth in general. For example, developing legal mechanisms to slow the negative impact of the deficient nutrition transition could be a step in that direction. In the context of globalization, an international institutional framework is urgently needed to balance markets with governance, to hold TNCs responsible for their impact, and to tax them so they carry their fair share of social weight. ; Las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles se encuentran entre las principales cargas de enfermedad en los países desarrollados y subdesarrollados. Sus principales causas son bien conocidas: el tabaquismo, dietas deficientes, inactividad física y el uso nocivo del alcohol. La prevalencia de estos factores de riesgo se relaciona directamente con las actividades de las empresas transnacionales. Para empezar, los presupuestos que varias transnacionales dedican a la publicidad de consumos riesgosos es mayor que el de la Organización Mundial de la Salud. Las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles tienen vínculos complejos con la economía, cuyo estudio es casi inexistente en las Américas. Éstas tienen importantes repercusiones microeconómicas y macroeconómicas que afectan el desempeño económico de largo plazo. Sin embargo, la evaluación detallada de su impacto económico, que es esencial para establecer la importancia de políticas alternativas, apenas comienza en algunas regiones del mundo. Simplemente el peso de la enfermedad sobre la población activa y los ancianos implica que pueden esperarse fuertes impactos sobre fuerza de trabajo, ahorro e inversión, así como una mayor depreciación del capital humano. Todas éstas tendrán un impacto sobre el crecimiento económico a largo plazo. Es una prioridad de investigación cuantificar estos impactos. Sin embargo, en el contexto de la globalización muchos cambios están ocurriendo a un ritmo muy rápido, a menudo más rápido que su análisis riguroso. Es urgente desarrollar un marco institucional global capaz de controlar los factores de riesgo de las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles, así como la salud y el crecimiento económico en general. El desarrollo de mecanismos legales para frenar el impacto negativo de la transición hacia la nutrición deficiente podría ser un paso en esa dirección. En el contexto de la globalización, es urgente un marco institucional internacional que equilibre el mercado con la gobernanza, que responsabilice a las empresas transnacionales por su impacto, y que las sujete a la tasación de impuestos, de modo que cumplan con su porción justa del peso social.

Master in International Education and Development (NOMA) ; This thesis is based on six weeks of fieldwork in Buenos Aires, Argentina in the autumn 2009. It investigates the lived experiences of a group of teenage mothers who have grown up in institutions. Although biomedical literature states that pregnancy is risky in medical terms only at the very start of the teenage years, adolescent pregnancy is as a norm depicted as a public health problem, or even a 'social epidemic', by policymakers, public officials, the press and the public at large. Commonly, teenage pregnancy is understood as a cause of poverty, rather than the consequence of it. This perception is not necessarily in accordance with the opinions of the mothers themselves. While appreciating that every case is individual and that the circumstances under which my informants became pregnant is not subject for generalisations, the objective of this thesis is to explore the informants' experience of motherhood from the moment of conceiving to the present in an effort to understand their views on teenage pregnancy. The theoretical framework of Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum, Erving Goffman and Howard Becker will be used to analyse the girls' perceptions of their own capabilities and notion of stigma. The study will be contextualised by drawing an overview of the legislative framework for pregnancies and abortions in Argentina and the available support system. ; Denne oppgaven er basert på et seks ukers feltarbeid i Buenos Aires, Argentina høsten 2009. Oppgaven undersøker erfaringene til en gruppe tenåringsmødre som har vokst opp i institusjoner. Selv om medisinsk litteratur hevder at graviditet, sett fra et biologisk synspunkt, bare er risikabelt tidlig i tenårene, er tenåringsgraviditet en norm som er fremstilt som et offentlig helseproblem og en 'sosial epidemi' av beslutningstakere, politikere, pressen og offentligheten generelt. Ofte forstås tenåringsgraviditet som en årsak til fattigdom, ikke som konsekvensen av den. Denne oppfatningen er ikke nødvendigvis i samsvar med det mødrene selv mener. Til tross for forståelsen for at hver graviditet er unik, og mine informanter ikke kan være gjenstand for generaliseringer, er målet for oppgaven å undersøke informantenes syn på mammarollen, fra det øyeblikket de ble gravide til i dag, i et forsøk på å forstå deres meninger om tenåringsgraviditet. Det teoretiske rammeverket utviklet av Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum, Erving Goffman og Howard Becker vil bli drøftet i forhold til jentenes oppfatning av sine egne evner, samt begrepet stigma. Dette vil bli satt i kontekst ved å finne paralleller med det juridiske rammeverket for svangerskap og aborter i Argentina, samt tilgjengelige støtteordninger. ; La tesis se basa en seis semanas de trabajo de campo realizado en otoño de 2009 en Buenos Aires, Argentina, y tiene por objetivo investigar las experiencias de un grupo de madres adolescentes que han sido criadas en instituciones. A pesar de que la literatura biomédica defiende que el embarazo conlleva gran riesgo solamente al principio de la adolescencia, tanto políticos y funcionarios públicos como la prensa y el público en general lo consideran un problema de salud pública, o incluso una 'epidemia social'. El embarazo adolescente se entiende comúnmente como una de las causas de pobreza, en lugar de una consecuencia de ésta. Esta percepción, sin embargo, no es necesariamente compartida por las propias madres. Si bien cada caso analizado es único y las circunstancias en que mis informantes se quedaron embarazadas no son generalizables, el objetivo de esta tesis es explorar la experiencia de las adolescentes desde el momento de la concepción hasta el presente, en un esfuerzo por comprender sus puntos de vista sobre el embarazo adolescente. El marco teórico aplicado se basa en las contribuciones teóricas de Amartya Sen, Martha Nussbaum, Erving Goffman y Becker Howard, para analizar las percepciones que tienen las niñas en cuanto a sus propias capacidades y a la noción de estigma. El estudio será contextualizado trazando una visión general del marco legislativo Argentino en tema de embarazo y aborto, así como del sistema de apoyos disponible. Suponiendo que el sistema jurídico es reflejo de la sociedad, se discutirá también la influencia de la religión en estas leyes.

International audience ; This article studies how Ciceronian rhetoric developed a more literary approach of its object from 46 BCE on. Addressing the weakening of political oratory during Caesar's dictatorship, Cicero chose to put forward, in his Orator published in 46 BCE, a new idealistic understanding of rhetoric based on philosophical concepts and not on practical experience since the forum was now empty. This formalization was also meant as a response to the harsh criticism Cicero had suffered from C. Licinius Calvus and his followers, the "Atticists", who defended a stylistically restrained eloquence: defining the "ideal orator" would give Cicero the opportunity to refute the atticist theory of style. With this new rhetorical approach and its abstract ideal, Cicero was explicitly going back to the ancient Platonic tradition of philosophical rhetoric, of which he claimed to be the last representative. But despite Cicero's efforts, the very use of philosophy in this treatise would not result in a revival of philosophical rhetoric, as Plato would have understood it, but in the strengthening of a purely utilitarian approach to rhetorical technique. Instead of producing a treatise aimed at ethical progress, Cicero paved the way to the purely technical practice of declamatio as it was to flourish under the Principate. In order to analyze this paradox, I focus on the use of the stoic concept of decorum in the treatise. I show that decorum, formerly understood as a principle of coherence between the ethical agent and his actions, became in the Orator an abstract stylistic norm. Replacing the quod decet principle of stylistic propriety used by Cicero in the De oratore (55 BCE), decorum was meant to bridge the gap between ethics and rhetoric. It therefore became the central point of the treatise and was used by Cicero as the organizing principle of the doctrine. This article explains how the treatise failed to reach this goal, and how the rhetorical understanding of decorum changed its very meaning, paradoxically forcing Cicero to present his readers a theory soon to be turned into a literary – and mainly stylistic – tool, devoid of ethical and political implications. ; Pour répondre à l'affaiblissement de la parole politique sous la dictature césarienne, Cicéron choisit de développer, dans son Orator publié en 46 av. J.-C., une nouvelle approche idéalisante de la rhétorique en fondant celle-ci non plus sur son expérience pratique (le forum était désormais désert) mais sur des concepts philosophiques. Cette formalisation nouvelle était également conçue comme une réponse aux critiques que Cicéron subissait de la part des Atticistes qui défendaient un style d'éloquence sec. La définition de « l'orateur idéal » fournie par l'Orator devait permettre à Cicéron de réfuter leur théorie. Cette nouvelle approche rhétorique et l'idéal oratoire abstrait qu'elle proposait ramenait explicitement Cicéron à la conception philosophique de la rhétorique défendue par Platon. Mais malgré ses efforts, l'utilisation de la philosophie dans le traité ne débouchera pas sur le développement d'une rhétorique philosophique platonicienne, mais, à l'inverse, sur le renforcement d'une approche purement utilitaire de la rhétorique. En tentant de produire un traité dont l'objectif serait éthique, Cicéron a involontairement mis en place les fondements théoriques d'une pratique technicienne, celle de la déclamation (declamatio) qui fleurira dès les premières années du Principat. Pour analyser ce paradoxe, je me concentre sur l'utilisation du concept stoïcien de decorum dans le traité. Je démontre que le decorum, qui représente originellement un principe de cohérence entre un individu et ses actions, est devenu dans l'Orator une norme stylistique abstraite. Cet article, rédigé en anglais, explique les raisons pour lesquelles l'Orator n'a pas atteint le but que Cicéron s'était fixé, et comment le sens même du concept philosophique de decorum a été modifié par son intégration dans la doctrine rhétorique. C'est cette transformation qui a paradoxalement contraint Cicéron à offrir à ses lecteurs une théorie appelée à devenir un outil littéraire et avant tout stylistique, privé de toute implication éthique ou politique.

Ihmisoikeusrikkomuksia tapahtuu nykypäivänä edelleen joka puolella maailmaa: Amnesty International raportoi vuonna 2008 tapahtuneen systemaattista kidutusta ja kaltoinkohtelua 81:ssä maassa. Kidutus on traumattinen kokemus, jonka fyysiset ja psyykkiset seuraukset ovat erittäin vakavia. Kidutuksen uskotaan hajottavan uhrin minäkuvan ja luottamuksen läheisiin ihmisiin niin täydellisesti, että pidätyksen jälkeen paluu tavalliseen arkeen on liki mahdotonta. Kuitenkin kokemus on osoittanut, että toiset ihmiset sopeutuvat traumaattisen kokemuksen jälkeen normaaliin elämään nopeammin ja helpommin kuin toiset. Kidutustrauman seurausten psykologisia prosesseja ei tunneta vielä riittävän hyvin, jotta voitaisiin tunnistaa erityistä tukea ja hoitoa tarvitsevat henkilöt. Tässä väitöstutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin miten tietyt persoonallisuuden ominaisuudet vaikuttavat trauman jälkeisten oireiden määrään ja niistä toipumiseen sekä kuinka vaikuttavia hoitomenetelmiä yksilö- ja ryhmäterapiat ovat kidutustraumasta toipumisessa. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet henkilöt olivat poliittisista syistä pidätettyjä ja kidutettuja palestiinalaisia miehiä Gazan kaistaleen alueelta. Tutkimuksen päätulos osoittaa, että jopa näin rankkojen kidutuskokemusten jälkeen osalla uhreista on positiivinen ja toiveikas mielikuva eli representaatio niin itsestään kuin läheisistä ihmisistään. Tulosten mukaan niillä kidutetuilla, joilla oli positiiviset mielikuvat itsestä ja läheisistä ihmisistä sekä nk. turvallinen kiintymyssuhde heille tärkeisiin ihmisiin oli sekä selvästi vähemmän trauman jälkeisiä psyykkisiä oireita että jopa myönteisiä trauman jälkeisiä kokemuksia. He esimerkiksi saattoivat kokea pidätyskokemuksen antaneen heidän elämälleen uuden suunnan ja sisällön. Tarkasteltaessa yksilö- ja ryhmäterapioiden vaikuttavuutta todettiin, että vuoden kestänyt yksilömuotoinen hoito auttoi kidutuksen uhreja sekä vähentämällä psyykkistä oireilua että lisämäällä trauman jälkeisiä myönteisiä kokemuksia. Vertaisryhmämuotoisesta hoidosta puolestaan hyöytyivät ainoastaan ne kidutetut, joilla oli edellämainitun kaltaiset positiiviset representaatiot itsestä ja läheisistä ihmisistä. Osalla negatiivisen representaation omaavista miehistä psyykkiset oireet jopa lisääntyivät vuoden hoitojakson aikana. Tämän väitöstutkimuksen johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että sisäisten mielikuvien eli representaatioiden selkeä yhteys kidutustrauman jälkeiseen oirehtimiseen ja toipumiseen olisi tärkeä huomioida kidutettujen hoitomuotojen ja hoitoonohjauksen suunnittelussa. Ne kidutuksen uhrit, joiden representaatiot itsestä ja muista ovat negatiivisia, tarvitsevat intensiivistä ja henkilökohtaista hoitoa. Positiiviset representaatiot omaavat uhrit puolestaan hyötyvät kevyemmästä vertaistuki-muotoisesta ryhmähoidostakin. Työkalu representaatioiden laadun arvioinniksi olisi mahdollista kehittää tutkimuksessa käytetystä arviointimenetelmästä. ; This study focuses on psychological processes and mental health of Palestinian former political prisoners who have faced severe traumatic experiences in forms of torture and other ill-treatment. The main aim of the present study was to examine why other political trauma victims survive from their traumatic experience quite well while others continue to suffer extensively. Consequently, first, the role of central personality structures, i.e., self- and other representations and working models of adult attachment, was examined in relation to posttraumatic adjustment (articles I, II). Second, the use and compatibility of dispositional and situational coping strategies and their association to mental health was studied (article III). Third, the role of self- and other representations in predicting successfulness of individual and group treatment was examined (article IV). The participants were Palestinian men from the Gaza Strip who had been imprisoned during the first Intifada, the national uprising for independence in 1987-1993. The main results suggest, that even among these of highly traumatized men, there was a group of individuals whose internal view of self and others was worthy, capable and benevolent and that these positive internal representations or secure attachment working models acted as protective factors in terms of recovering trauma, both in terms of lesser amount of PTSD symptoms and more posttraumatic growth. Furthermore, active and constructive dispositional coping style was related to better mental health. Finally, the protective importance of these personality structures was reversely true in that the men with shattered representations needed most intensive, individually tailored treatment in order to recover and heal. More dramatically, men with negative mental representations did not recover at all when they participated in less intensive group treatment. Thus, the findings of this study strongly suggest that assessing central personality structures and processes, i.e. self- and other representations, attachment styles and coping strategies, provides significant understanding in helping the victims of torture and ill-treatment.

Väitöskirjassa tutkitaan yritysten vapaaehtoista kestävän kehityksen raportointia. Tutkielma tarkastelee kriittisesti yritysten käyttämää retoriikkaa ja osoittaa, että yritysmaailma hyödyntää kestävään kehitykseen liittyviä puhetapoja edistääkseen omia tarkoitusperiään ja parantaakseen toimintansa yhteiskunnallista hyväksyttävyyttä. Väitöskirjassa kyseenalaistetaan kestävän kehityksen raportoinnin merkitys ja arvioidaan nykymuotoisen raportoinnin lähinnä vahvistavan vallitsevaa yhteiskunnallista järjestystä ja liike-elämän vaikutusvaltaa. Yritystoiminnalla on nykyisessä yhteiskuntajärjestelmässä keskeinen rooli, mutta samaan aikaan sen nähdään aiheuttavan yhteiskunnallisia ongelmia ja heikentävän luonnonympäristön tilaa. Useat yritykset korostavat toimivansa vastuullisesti ja pyrkivänsä edistämään kestävää kehitystä. Pääosa suurista yrityksistä sekä Suomessa että kansainvälisesti julkaisee vuosittain yhteiskuntavastuun tai kestävän kehityksen raportin, jossa kuvataan yrityksen toimintaa ympäristö- ja sosiaalisista näkökulmista. Tällaisen raportoinnin on ajateltu lisäävän yritystoiminnan läpinäkyvyyttä ja siten edistävän demokratiaa. Väitöskirjan johtopäätöksenä kuitenkin arvioidaan, että yritysten vapaaehtoisessa kestävän kehityksen raportoinnissa on sittenkin enemmän kyse reagoinnista ulkoisiin paineisiin kuin merkittävästä muutoksesta yritysten tilivelvollisuudessa tai läpinäkyvyydessä. Väitöskirja koostuu johdantoluvusta sekä kolmesta kansainvälisissä referoiduissa aikakauskirjoissa julkaistusta artikkelista. Tutkimukset on tehty laadullisilla menetelmillä ja niissä tarkastellaan sitä, miten yritykset kuvaavat itseään ja toimintaansa julkaisemissaan raporteissa. Väitöskirja luo historiallisen katsauksen eräiden suomalaisten yritysten raportointiin ja siihen, miten ne ovat hyödyntäneet retoriikkaa kuvatessaan oman toimintansa ympäristövaikutuksia. Raportointi vaikuttaa myös laajemmin yhteiskunnassa. Se vahvistaa vaikutelmaa, jonka mukaan taloudellisesta kasvusta aiheutuneet ympäristö- ja sosiaaliset ongelmat voidaan ratkaista jatkuvan taloudellisen kasvun avulla liike-elämän johdolla ilman merkittäviä talous- tai yhteiskuntajärjestykseen liittyviä muutoksia. ; In today s globalized world large companies are vast organizations wielding major power in societies. Simultaneously, corporations operations and their operating policies have been linked to social problems and environmental degradation. Corporate social and environmental disclosures have been considered a medium which could help to alleviate such maladies by enhancing democracy through the provision of increased accountability and further transparency in corporate operations. Accordingly, this dissertation seeks to present a (critical) way of seeing corporate sustainability reporting and thereby to discuss the transformative and emancipatory potential of this contemporary practice. This research contributes by providing interpretations of how the companies represent themselves in sustainability reporting. It furthermore discusses how these disclosures then impact on society more broadly by, for instance, constructing certain meanings for certain concepts in certain ways. The dissertation employs qualitative methods and discusses how a particular rhetoric of sustainability and of other environmental issues may be exploited to enhance corporate legitimacy. The dissertation consists of an introductory chapter and three studies previously published in refereed international scholarly accounting journals. The introductory part contextualizes the studies and discusses the implications of the work. The first article presents a longitudinal interpretation of how the environmental disclosures of a leading Finnish chemicals company developed over a 34-year period 1972-2005. The second article provides a cross-sectional view of how Finnish listed companies used sustainability-related concepts in their reporting during the period 2001-2002. Finally, the third article discusses how the corporate talk of sustainability employed by three major Finnish companies developed during the period 1987-2005. Taken together, the articles provide a historical perspective on how major Finnish corporations have used language to represent themselves with regard to environmental issues. Moreover, the studies deconstruct the business talk of sustainability and show how business has managed to appropriate the language of sustainability to suit its own purposes. In sum, this dissertation suggests that corporate sustainability reporting appears to be more a matter of responding to external pressures than an ambition towards discharging accountability. The representations are used to legitimize the individual organizations in their micro-contexts, namely the societies they operate in. Simultaneously, these representations also work in the macro-context by legitimizing the social structures in general by (re)framing the current social order more broadly as one being on the environmentally right track. Indeed, the practices are seen to perpetuate present structural arrangements and socio-economic order. It is here therefore argued here that the transformative potential of social and environmental reporting is severely limited.

International audience ; En zone méditerranéenne languedocienne, les dynamiques d'étalement urbain qui accompagnent la croissance des villes sont particulièrement intenses. Le desserrement et la délocalisation des populations et des activités des villes-centres vers les périphéries se traduisent par l'accroissement et la dispersion des surfaces bâties aux dépens des espaces naturels et agricoles. Dans un contexte de forte attractivité démographique et de crise foncière, de nouveaux outils de planification territoriale émergent (SCOT, SRADDT). Depuis la loi SRU de 2000, les politiques d'aménagement s'orientent désormais vers des objectifs de durabilité des systèmes territoriaux. Le décret n°2006 -821 du 7 juillet 2006 (Loi sur le Développement des Territoires Ruraux) donne aux départements de nouveaux moyens pour développer une politique de protection et de mise en valeur des espaces agricoles, forestiers et périurbains (périmètres de protection, droit de préemption). Pour accompagner ces dispositifs d'actions les acteurs de l'aménagement ont besoins d'indicateurs sur l'état actuel de l'occupation des sols ainsi que sur les dynamiques de changements en termes qualitatif et quantitatif. A l'issue d'une étude méthodologique sur le suivi de l'artificialisation des terres agricoles commanditée par la DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, auprès de l'UMR TETIS (Cemagref) et de l'UMR LISAH (INRA), une série d'indicateurs spatiaux ont été développés. Cette communication présente la réflexion menée pour la production de ces indicateurs. Ceux-ci sont destinés à constituer une aide à la décision, à la communication et à la sensibilisation sur les problématiques de disparition du potentiel agronomique des sols. En effet, la possibilité de disposer d'outils et de méthodes apparaît pour les acteurs agricoles un enjeu fort dans leur implication "récente" à l'élaboration des documents d'urbanisme. L'objectif des travaux de recherches de la thèse, menée en parallèle de cette étude, sont d'évaluer la pertinence de ces indicateurs spatiaux à révéler les spécificités des dynamiques en ½uvre et ainsi à répondre aux enjeux de planification « durable » des espaces périurbains languedociens. / France set up new regional development and urbanism rules with national laws: Voynet Law (1999) which gives sustainable development tools like SRADDT (regional scheme for territorial planning and sustainable development) for the level of Regions, urban solidarity and renewal law (2000) which gives new planning tools like SCOT (scheme for territorial coherence) and PLU (Local Urbanism Plan) at the inter-communal cooperation level. A law on the Development of rural areas (2006) gives Departements new ways to develop a policy for the protection and enhancement of agricultural, forest and peri-urban spaces (protected area, pre-emptive right). These planning policies now move towards the principles of sustainable territorial systems. To accompany these policies, the actors of the local and regional development and planning need indicators about the state of land cover and dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. In the context of the Mediterranean area of Languedoc, urban sprawl dynamics are particularly intense with a massive population growth and land crisis. Increase and dispersion of built-up areas from city centre towards periphery are made at the expense of natural and agricultural spaces. To accompany these plans of action planning actors need indicators about the current state of land cover and about the dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. After a methodological study about monitoring of agricultural land urbanisation command by DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, to the UMR TETIS (Cemagref) and the UMR LISAH (INRA), a series of spatial indicators have been developed. The communication presents the thought which has been conduct for the production of these indicators. These are intended to provide a decision, communication and awareness help on issues of loss of the agricultural soil potential. Indeed, availability of adapted tools and methods is a very important stake for actors of the agricultural sector with the application of the local planning tools (PLU, SCOT). The main objective of this research is to evaluate the relevance of these spatial indicators to show explicitly specificities of current dynamics and to throw light on challenges of sustainable planning of the Mediterranean peri-urban spaces.

International audience ; En zone méditerranéenne languedocienne, les dynamiques d'étalement urbain qui accompagnent la croissance des villes sont particulièrement intenses. Le desserrement et la délocalisation des populations et des activités des villes-centres vers les périphéries se traduisent par l'accroissement et la dispersion des surfaces bâties aux dépens des espaces naturels et agricoles. Dans un contexte de forte attractivité démographique et de crise foncière, de nouveaux outils de planification territoriale émergent (SCOT, SRADDT). Depuis la loi SRU de 2000, les politiques d'aménagement s'orientent désormais vers des objectifs de durabilité des systèmes territoriaux. Le décret n°2006 -821 du 7 juillet 2006 (Loi sur le Développement des Territoires Ruraux) donne aux départements de nouveaux moyens pour développer une politique de protection et de mise en valeur des espaces agricoles, forestiers et périurbains (périmètres de protection, droit de préemption). Pour accompagner ces dispositifs d'actions les acteurs de l'aménagement ont besoins d'indicateurs sur l'état actuel de l'occupation des sols ainsi que sur les dynamiques de changements en termes qualitatif et quantitatif. A l'issue d'une étude méthodologique sur le suivi de l'artificialisation des terres agricoles commanditée par la DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, auprès de l'UMR TETIS (Cemagref) et de l'UMR LISAH (INRA), une série d'indicateurs spatiaux ont été développés. Cette communication présente la réflexion menée pour la production de ces indicateurs. Ceux-ci sont destinés à constituer une aide à la décision, à la communication et à la sensibilisation sur les problématiques de disparition du potentiel agronomique des sols. En effet, la possibilité de disposer d'outils et de méthodes apparaît pour les acteurs agricoles un enjeu fort dans leur implication "récente" à l'élaboration des documents d'urbanisme. L'objectif des travaux de recherches de la thèse, menée en parallèle de cette étude, sont d'évaluer la pertinence de ces indicateurs spatiaux à révéler les spécificités des dynamiques en ½uvre et ainsi à répondre aux enjeux de planification « durable » des espaces périurbains languedociens. / France set up new regional development and urbanism rules with national laws: Voynet Law (1999) which gives sustainable development tools like SRADDT (regional scheme for territorial planning and sustainable development) for the level of Regions, urban solidarity and renewal law (2000) which gives new planning tools like SCOT (scheme for territorial coherence) and PLU (Local Urbanism Plan) at the inter-communal cooperation level. A law on the Development of rural areas (2006) gives Departements new ways to develop a policy for the protection and enhancement of agricultural, forest and peri-urban spaces (protected area, pre-emptive right). These planning policies now move towards the principles of sustainable territorial systems. To accompany these policies, the actors of the local and regional development and planning need indicators about the state of land cover and dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. In the context of the Mediterranean area of Languedoc, urban sprawl dynamics are particularly intense with a massive population growth and land crisis. Increase and dispersion of built-up areas from city centre towards periphery are made at the expense of natural and agricultural spaces. To accompany these plans of action planning actors need indicators about the current state of land cover and about the dynamic changes in terms of quantity and quality. After a methodological study about monitoring of agricultural land urbanisation command by DRAF Languedoc Roussillon, to the UMR TETIS (Cemagref) and the UMR LISAH (INRA), a series of spatial indicators have been developed. The communication presents the thought which has been conduct for the production of these indicators. These are intended to provide a decision, communication and awareness help on issues of loss of the agricultural soil potential. Indeed, availability of adapted tools and methods is a very important stake for actors of the agricultural sector with the application of the local planning tools (PLU, SCOT). The main objective of this research is to evaluate the relevance of these spatial indicators to show explicitly specificities of current dynamics and to throw light on challenges of sustainable planning of the Mediterranean peri-urban spaces.

SUMMARY Background: Number of foreign children arriving to Ireland unaccompanied or separated from their parents or guardians have been growing during the last decade. Separated children are in state care and their care is organised through social services. Ireland has renewed its social care services within the past years and has set standards for the quality on child care and residential child care. Through 2000's separated children have been highlighted in the media, they have been on cover page news especially underpinning their living conditions and access to services Purpose of this research was to find out whether the Irish social service system responds adequately to the needs of separated children entitled to state care services. The Key research question was: Do separated children enjoy services and protection they are entitled as children or are they excluded from the collective services, i.e. are they considered as members of the Irish society with all rights of the Irish children? Theoretical approach of the study was to view the question from the aspect of poverty and social exclusion and inclusion, adopting the club theory. Research materials include 37 articles from 5 leading Irish newspapers between years 2000 and 2008, and a set of legislative documents as well as official statistical data in Ireland. For the analysis of the data I used qualitative methods: thematic qualitative content analysis alongside with methodological triangulation. The results of the research showed that based on the newspaper texts analysed and compared with the official standards and guidelines separated children seem not to receive equal services with the Irish children. This indicates that the Irish state is operating a two-tier child care services as they are offering services to separated children that are not in line with the national legislation and standards and international standards and agreements ratified by the Irish government. Conclusions: To develop the services for separated children there is a serious need to improve procedures to follow the current legislation and standards. Key words: Separated children, unaccompanied minors, child care, poverty, migration, asylum seeking, social exclusion, thematic qualitative content analysis, methodological triangulation. TIIVISTELMÄ: Tutkimuksen taustaa: Viime vuosikymmenellä ilman huoltajaa maahan tulleiden turvapaikkaa vailla olevien maahanmuuttajalasten määrä Irlannissa on kasvanut voimakkaasti. Alaikäiset yksin maahan tulleet ovat sosiaaliviranomaisten hoidossa ja vastuulla. Irlannin lastensuojelu- ja sosiaalipalvelut ovat uudistuneet viime vuosina. Oman kodin ulkopuolelle sijoitettujen lasten hoidosta, huolenpidosta ja niiden laadusta on otettu käyttöön kansainväliset ja valtakunnalliset ohjeet. 2000-luvulla turvapaikkaa vailla olevat maahanmuuttajalapset ovat olleet näkyvästi mediassa, missä heidän elinoloihinsa ja palvelujen saatavuuteen on kiinnitetty huomiota. Tutkimuksen tarkoitus oli selvittää vastaako irlantilainen lastensuojelu- ja sosiaalipalvelujärjestelmä turvapaikkaa vailla olevien maahanmuuttajalasten tarpeisiin. Avainkysymys tutkimuksessa oli: Kohdellaanko turvapaikkaa vailla olevia ja ilman huoltajaa maahan tulleita lapsia samanarvoisesti kuin irlantilaisia lapsia lastensuojelu- ja sosiaalipalveluissa? Ovatko he yhteiskunnassa samanarvoisessa asemassa irlantilaisten lasten kanssa ja onko heillä yhtäläiset oikeudet ja mahdollisuuudet irlantilaisessa yhteiskunnassa? Teoreettinen lähestyminen sovelsi näkökulmaa, jossa club-teorian kautta tarkasteltiin tutkittavana olevan lapsiryhmän köyhyyttä ja erityisesti sosiaalisesta yhteisöstä eristämistä tai siihen liittämistä. Tutkimusaineistona oli 37 lehtiartikkelia viidestä johtavasta irlantilaisesta sanomalehdestä vuosilta 2000-2008, kansainvälisiä ja valtakunnallisia sopimuksia, ohjeita ja tilastoja lastensuojelusta sekä lastensuojelulainsäädäntöä. Analysoin aineistoa kvalitatiivisella otteella käyttämällä analyysimetodina temaattista sisällönanalyysia sekä soveltamalla metodologista triangulaatiota. Tutkimuksen tulokset osoittivat, että perustuen lehtiartikkeleista saatuun tietoon, turvapaikkaa vailla olevat alaikäiset ilman huoltajaa maahan tulleet lapset eivät näytä saavan valtakunnallisten sekä kansainvälisten sopimusten ja ohjeistusten tai lainsäädännön mukaista hoivaa ja huolenpitoa. Tämä viittaa siihen, että lastensuojelun näkökulmasta irlantilainen lastensuojelu- ja sosiaalipalvelujärjestelmä kohtelee turvapaikkaa vailla olevia alaikäisiä maahanmuuttajia eriarvoisesti verrattuna irlantilaisiin lapsiin. Ratkaisuna tutkimuksessa ilmenneeseen epäkohtaan tulisi turvapaikkaa vailla olevien maahanmuuttajalasten hoidon ja huolenpidon taso nostaa vastaamaan vallitsevan lainsäädännön, sopimusten ja ohjeistusten tarkoittamaa tasoa. Avainsanat: Ilman huoltajaa maahan tulleet lapset, turvapaikkaa vailla oleva maahanmuuttajalapsi, lastensuojelu, maahanmuutto, yhteiskunnallinen jäsenyys, temaattinen ja kvalitatiivinen sisällönanalyysi, metodologinen triangulaatio.

Background: Medical education in Iran has been integrated into the health care system through a complex organizational change that included the formation of a single government division called the Ministry of Health and Medical Education. This division is responsible for both medical education and health services at the national level, whereas health care at the provincial level is provided by medical universities. Due to this restructuring, medical academic leadership in the country has been facing extensive tasks and responsibilities, as well as managerial, organizational, and cultural challenges. In general, it is difficult to manage a large organization comprising many medical universities and schools, hospitals, clinics, and health centers as is the case in Iran. The aim of the present research project was to study faculty members, academic leaders, and medical education experts in Iranian medical schools and universities with regard to their views on the requirement dimensions, challenges, organizational culture, values, and routines related to effective academic leadership. Methods: We used methodological and data triangulation, and performed two qualitative and quantitative studies. In the former we had an expert panel of 24 key informants in medical education and 18 in-depth interviews with academic leaders, and in the latter 125 academic leaders and 344 faculty members participated in two nationwide surveys. Findings: The requirements of effective academic leadership in Iranian medical schools and universities could be grouped into six themes: 1) shared vision, goals, and strategies; 2) teaching and research leadership; 3) transformational and collaborative leadership; 4) development and recognition performance; 5) fair and efficient management; 6) climate of mutual trust and respect. There are some barriers to effective academic leadership, for example politicization, instability, paradoxical management, lack of meritocracy, centralization, bureaucracy, and belief in misconceptions. Administrative management had a negative impact on academic leadership, indicated as lack of fair and efficient supervision, a climate not conducive to creativity and innovation, low motivation, and the absence of an efficient evaluation system. Results revealed that academic leadership is confronted with major multifaceted challenges, including the following: inefficacy of governmental academic leadership, an extensive set of missions and responsibilities, lack of concern about selection of managers, inappropriate management styles, mismatch between authorities and responsibilities and leadership capabilities, a tendency towards governmental management, boss-centered management, and low motivation. Discussion: Effective academic leadership in Iranian medical schools is hampered by politicization, centralization, conservativeness, lack of meritocracy, and instability of management. Consequently, medical school management needs to create a balance between academic freedom and authority in order to reconstruct its organizational culture and values. The most important factor that can promote effective academic supervision of Iranian medical schools is to ensure that appropriate managerial skills exist to tackle the tension between management, academic leaders, and faculty members. Iranian academic leadership needs to restructure itself into a department-based system that decreases the multiple levels of decision making, while increasing each department s autonomy in favor of participatory decision making and networking. The academic leaders have overwhelming tasks and responsibilities, and they are not sufficiently prepared to lead. Moreover, medical universities do not offer appropriate practical support for scientific endeavors and efforts that can result in international ranking. There is a need for development of academic leadership, including training and legislation regarding the prerequisites for managerial and teaching positions. Our research also suggests that it would be wise to have a more proportionate set of missions, responsibilities, and tasks. The Ministry should evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of its restructuring in order to support health care and move towards solving the critical need for leaders and leadership development. Conclusions: The requirements of academic leadership in a developing country like Iran can be considered to be the same as those existing in any Western country, with the addition of many negative effects of governmental management. Therefore, to achieve changes in Iran, it will be necessary to take into account more than the previous effects of organizational culture, values, and routines on effective leadership, especially during substantial restructuring. The academic leaders will have to contemplate altering the restructuring to focus on departmentbased and participative management, academic autonomy, and improvement of scientific culture in medical universities.

Pension reforms have been high on the political agenda in many developed countries over recent years and pension issues have been discussed intensely in the public as a result. In recent years, much effort has been devoted to make state, public and private pension systems fiscally more sustainable in the light of demographic change. In many developed countries, this has been achieved - at least ex ante - by encouraging greater private sector and personal involvement. Equally, many governments in emerging economies and developing countries have been pursuing their own pension reform agendas. Nevertheless, despite this spotlight on pensions, many important facets remain badly understood and need to be discussed in greater detail. Most observers would agree that societies have not yet reached the end of the reform process and that dealing with pensions may always remain "work in progress" as new information becomes available – such as on trends in life expectancy - and as societies evolve. Furthermore, additional effort will most likely be required to ensure that the desired outcomes will eventually materialise. The purpose of this note is to ask some of the key questions that could inform future research into pensions. The general issue under consideration is not new. How to structure the future provision of pensions, taking into account wider economic, demographic and societal considerations at home and abroad? Governments around the world have been dealing with this issue for years, international organisations, think tanks and trade unions have given advice, and universities have provided valuable analysis. Societies have been dealing with this in their own particular ways, reflecting differences in cultural and historical backgrounds, and economic and demographic circumstances. Despite the closer integration of the world economy, in most countries, this issue has been treated as a domestic issue. The private sector has played its own important part in many countries by offering occupational pensions or by offering financial products, helping both the sponsors of pensions as well as individuals prepare financially for retirement. The fact that governments across the world have reduced ex ante their future fiscal burden by encouraging greater private sector and personal involvement does not mean though that this will also be ex post the eventual outcome. For the desired outcome to materialise, the private sector and personal involvement must develop as intended. Experience from around the world shows that this has not always been the case, requiring frequent and potentially costly policy changes and putting additional burdens on individuals and businesses alike. The complex interactions between fiscal policy and pension savings also play a role for both – an area touched on briefly later in this essay when we examine the role of tax relief. In a number of developed countries, for example, defined benefit pension plans have been closed to new members as scheme sponsors face increasing liabilities in the light of ever higher life expectancy and find the resulting regulatory funding requirements increasingly unaffordable. Does this trend require adjustments elsewhere in a country's pension arrangements? Will today's structures deliver the desired outcomes or do participants such as governments and financial markets need to innovate? There are a number of ways the issue of future pension provision could be approached. For example, one might want to think about the issue in terms of desirable objectives for a pension system such as: Efficiency (static and dynamic) Equity (fairness) Affordability and sustainability (both financial and social) These objectives could then be used as a core set of overlapping "lenses" when looking at the issue of future pension provision, though other "lenses" are feasible too. Importantly, as we shall demonstrate, these "lenses" can be used to study pensions simultaneously at a range of scales from large "big picture" macroeconomic themes such as political uncertainty to subtler, smaller scale but equally important issues such as the management of assets and liabilities for an individual pension fund. There is also the issue of credibility – in particular, political consistency – which cuts across all the lenses under consideration here and is touched on later in the essay. However, before doing so, this note provides some background on pension arrangements in developed and developing countries.