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[EN] The center of the Milky Way is the only galactic nucleus and the most extreme astrophysical environment that we can examine on scales of milli- parsecs. It contains the nearest example of a nuclear star cluster (NSC). NSCs have been found at the photometric and dynamical centers of the majority of galaxies in the local Universe. With e↵ective radii of a few parsecs and masses ranging between a few times 106–108 M!, they are among the densest known stellar structures. NSCs possess complex stellar populations and show clear signs of recurrent star formation, with the most recent event having occurred less than 100Myr ago in many of them. Moreover, NSCs can coexist with massive black holes (MBHs) at their centers. The Milky Way's nuclear star cluster (MWNSC) is located at a mere 8 kpc from Earth. While we can only study the integrated light in extragalactic NSCs, we can in the case of the Galactic center (GC) resolve physical scales on the order of a few milliparsecs (mpc) and thus study the properties, kinematics and even dynamics of individual stars. We possess unambiguous evidence for the existence of a 4 ⇥ 106 M! central black hole at the center of the MWNSC, thus making it an ideal target to study the interaction between a dense stellar cluster and a massive black hole. Due to the unique observational challenges – extreme crowding and extinction – the study of the NSC at the GC is confronted with unique difficulties. ; The high extinction limits imaging studies of the stars to the near-infrared (NIR). While this allows us, on the one hand, to use techniques like adaptive optics (AO) to obtain high angular resolution images from the ground, it poses, on the other hand, serious problems for stellar classification because the intrinsic colours of stars are small in the NIR. Because of the observational difficulties, our knowledge about the NSC still contains significant gaps, despite of several decades of observations. Existing work is a↵ected by either one or both of the following problems: (a) Low angular resolution, thus limiting it to the study of the brightest stars that represent less than one percent of the total population of the NSC; (b) limited spectral coverage, thus limiting their use for distinguishing between di↵erent types of stars. Spectroscopic studies with high angular resolution are necessarily limited to small numbers of stars or very small fields. They are therefore mostly limited to the central parsec. This thesis aims at providing answers to unresolved questions in our understanding of the GC, as well as provide new constraints on the structure of the MWNSC by using high resolution images and by improving the analysis. I examine images in a broad span of distances from the center of the Galaxy: from very large distances (⇠ 860 pc x 280 pc) to the innermost arcseconds where the supermassive black hole inhabits. Firstly, I aim to study the size and spatial structure of the MWNSC. I use data and methods that address potential shortcomings in previous work on the topic. I use 0.200 angular resolution Ks data to create a stellar density map in the central 86.4pc x 21 pc at the GC. I include data from selected AO assisted images obtained for the inner parsecs. In addition, I use IRAC/Spitzer MIR images. I model the Galactic bulge and the nuclear stellar disk in order to subtract them from the MWNSC. Finally, I fit a S´ersic model to the MWNSC and investigate its symmetry. I find that the MWNSC is flattened with an axis ratio of q = 0.71 ± 0.06, an e↵ective radius of Re = (5.1 ± 0.6) pc, and a S´ersic index of n = 2.2 ± 0.4. Its major axis may be tilted out of the Galactic plane by up to −10 degree. The distribution of the giants brighter than the Red Clump (RC) is found to be significantly flatter than the distribution of the faint stars. The MWNSC shares its main properties with other extragalactic NSCs found in spiral galaxies. The di↵erences in the structure between bright giants and RC stars might be related to the existence of not completely mixed populations of di↵erent ages. This may hint at recent growth of the MWNSC through star formation or cluster accretion. ; I also revisit the problem of inferring the innermost structure of the MWNSC, to clarify whether it displays a core or a cusp around the central black hole. The existence of dynamically relaxed stellar density cusp in dense clusters around massive black holes is a long-standing prediction of stellar dynamics, but it has so far escaped unambiguous observational confirmation. In order to study the distribution of stars around Sgr A*, I use data obtained with the NACO instrument at the ESO/Very Large Telescope (VLT) and I focus on two di↵erent methods to analyze three di↵erent stellar brightness ranges. I find that a Nuker law provides an adequate description of the nuclear cluster's intrinsic shape (assuming spherical symmetry). I find that the stellar density decreases with a 3D power-law index inside the range ! = 1.1 − 1.4 for distances smaller than the influence radius of Sgr A* (⇠ 3 pc). We can rule out a flat core with high confidence. The cusp is shallower than the predicted one by theory, but it can be explained if the star formation history of the NSC is taken into acount (Baumgardt et al., 2018). Finally, I peek at the very center of the Galaxy by improving the reduction and analysis of existing data. I use holographic technique and bootstrapping analysis. This has led to the detection of NIR emission of Sgr A* in epochs prior to 2003, when the first measurements were taken due to the development of AO. That allows Chen et al. (in preparation) to study the long-term NIR activity and explore the accretion flow onto the black hole in epochs where it had not been detected so far. ; [ES]El centro de la V´ıa L´actea es el ´unico n´ucleo gal´actico y el entorno astrof´ısico m´as extremo que podemos examinar en escalas de milli-parsecs. Contiene el ejemplo m´as cercano de un c´umulo estelar nuclear (o NSC, del ingl´es nuclear star cluster). Los NSCs han sido encontrados en los centros fotom´etricos y din´amicos de la mayor´ıa de las galaxias en el Universo local. Con radios efectivos de unos pocos parsecs y masas que van entre unas pocas veces 106–108 M!, se encuentran entre las estructuras estelares m´as densas conocidas. Adem´as, los NSCs pueden coexistir con agujeros negros masivos (o MBHs, del ingl´es massive black holes) en sus centros. El c´umulo estelar nuclear de la V´ıa L´actea (o MWNSC, del ingl´es Milky Way's NSC) est´a situado a tan s´olo 8 kpc de la Tierra. Mientras que podemos estudiar ´unicamente la luz integrada en NSCs extragal´acticos, en el caso del centro gal´actico (o GC, del ingl´es Galactic center) podemos resolver escalas f´ısicas del orden de unos pocos milli-parsecs (mpc) y, por lo tanto, estudiar las propiedades, cinem´atica, e incluso la din´amica de estrellas individuales. Contamos con evidencia inequ´ıvoca de la existencia de un agujero negro de masa 4⇥106 M! en el centro del MWNSC, convirti´endolo as´ı en un objetivo ideal donde estudiar la interacci´on entre un c´umulo estelar nuclear y un agujero negro masivo. Debido a sus desaf´ıos observacionales ´unicos - extremo hacinamiento y extinci´on - el estudio del NSC en el GC se enfrenta a dificultades ´unicas. La alta extinci´on limita los estudios de im´agenes de las estrellas al infrarrojo (o NIR, del ingl´es near-infrared). Mientras que esto nos permite el uso de t´ecnicas como la ´optica adaptativa (o AO, del ingl´es adaptive optics) para obtener im´agenes con alta resoluci´on angular desde la tierra por un lado, por otro lado tenemos serios problemas para la clasificaci ´on estelar debido a que el color intr´ınseco de las estrellas son peque˜nos en el NIR. A causa de las dificultades observacionales, nuestro conocimiento del NSC contiene todav´ıa brechas significativas, a pesar de varias d´ecadas de observaciones. El trabajo existente est´a afectado por uno o ambos de los siguientes problemas: (a) Baja resoluci´on angular, limit´andolo as´ı al estudio de las estrellas m´as brillantes, que representan menos que el uno por ciento de la poblaci´on total del NSC; (b) cobertura espectral limitada, lo que limita su uso para distinguir entre diferentes tipos de estrellas. Los estudios espectrosc´opicos con alta resoluci´on angular est´an necesariamente restringidos a peque˜nos n´umeros de estrellas o campos muy peque˜nos. Por lo tanto, est´an en su mayor´ıa limitados al parsec central. Esta tesis tiene como objetivo proporcionar respuestas a preguntas sin resolver en nuestra comprensi´on del GC, as´ı como proporcionar nuevas restricciones en la estructura del MWNSC mediante el uso de im´agenes de alta resoluci´on y la mejora del an´alisis. Examino las im´agenes en un amplio rango de distancias desde el centro de la Galaxia: desde distancias muy grandes (⇠ 860 pc x 280 pc) hasta los arco-segundos m´as profundos donde habita el agujero negro supermasivo. ; En primer lugar, mi objetivo es estudiar el tama˜no y la estructura espacial del MWNSC. Utilizo datos y m´etodos que abordan posibles deficiencias en trabajos anteriores sobre el tema. Utilizo 0.200 resoluci´on angular Ks datos para crear un mapa de densidad estelar en el GC en los 86.4 pc x 21 pc centrales. Incluyo datos de im´agenes asistidas por AO obtenidas para los parsecs internos. Adem´as, utilizo im´agenes del medio infrarrojo de IRAC/Spitzer. Modelo el bulbo gal´actico y el disco estelar nuclear para subtraerlos del MWNSC. Finalmente, ajusto un modelo S´ersic a el MWNSC e investigo su simetr´ıa. Encuentro que el MWNSC est´a aplanado con una relaci´on de eje de q = 0.71 ± 0.06, un radio efectivo de Re = (5.1 ± 0.6) pc, y un ´ındice S´ersic de n = 2.2 ± 0.4. Su eje mayor se puede inclinar desde el plano gal´actico hasta −10 grados. La distribuci´on de las estrellas gigantes m´as brillantes que el grupo rojo (o RC, del ingl´es red clump) es significativamente m´as plano que la distribuci ´on de las estrellas d´ebiles. El MWNSC comparte sus principales propiedades con otros NSCs extragal´acticos encontrados en galaxias espirales. Las diferencias en la estructura entre gigantes brillantes y las estrellas RC podr´ıan estar relacionadas con la existencia de poblaciones de diferentes edades no completamente mezcladas. Esto puede indicar un crecimiento reciente del MWNSC a trav´es de la formaci´on de estrellas o la acreci´on de c´umulos. Tambi´en reviso el problema de inferir la estructura m´as interna del MWNSC, para aclarar si muestra un coraz´on o una c´uspide alrededor del agujero negro central. La existencia de una c´uspide de densidad estelar din´amicamente relajada en grupos densos alrededor de agujeros negros masivos es una antigua predicci´on de la din´amica estelar, pero hasta ahora ha escapado de la confirmaci´on observacional sin ambig¨uedades. Para estudiar la distribuci´on de estrellas alrededor de Sgr A*, uso los datos obtenidos con el instrumento NACO en el telescopio ESO/Very Large Telescope (VLT) y me centro en dos m´etodos diferentes para analizar tres rangos de brillo estelar diferentes. Encuentro que una ley de Nuker proporciona una descripci´on adecuada de la forma intr´ınseca del c´umulo nuclear (asumiendo simetr´ıa esf´erica). Encuentro que la densidad estelar disminuye con un ´ındice 3D de ley de potencia dentro del rango ! = 1.1−1.4 para distancias m´as peque˜nas que el radio de influencia de Sgr A* (⇠ 3 pc). Podemos descartar un coraz´on plano con alta confianza. La c´uspide es menos profunda que la pronosticada por la teor´ıa, pero puede explicarse si se tiene en cuenta la historia de formaci´on estelar del NSC (Baumgardt et al., 2018). Finalmente, me asomo al mismo centro de la Galaxia mejorando la reducci´on y al an´alisis de los datos existentes. Gracias a la t´ecnica hologr´afica y el an´alisis bootstrapping, detectamos la emisi´on de NIR de Sgr A* en ´epocas anteriores a 2003, cuando se tomaron las primeras mediciones debido al desarrollo de AO. Esto permite a Chen et al. (in preparation) estudiar la actividad en el NIR a largo plazo y explorar el flujo de acreci´on en el agujero negro en ´epocas donde no se hab´ıa detectado hasta el momento. ; The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Research Council under the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) / ERC grant agreement nº [614922]. ; Peer reviewed

Public Policy and Ageing in Northern Ireland: Identifying Levers for Change Judith Cross, Policy Officer with the Centre for Ageing Research Development in Ireland (CARDI)��������Introduction Identifying a broad range of key public policy initiatives as they relate to age can facilitate discussion and create new knowledge within and across government to maximise the opportunities afforded by an ageing population. This article looks at how examining the current public policy frameworks in Northern Ireland can present opportunities for those working in this field for the benefit of older people. Good policy formulation needs to be evidence-based, flexible, innovative and look beyond institutional boundaries. Bringing together architects and occupational therapists, for example, has the potential to create better and more effective ways relevant to health, housing, social services and government departments. Traditional assumptions of social policy towards older people have tended to be medically focused with an emphasis on care and dependency. This in turn has consequences for the design and delivery of services for older people. It is important that these assumptions are challenged as changes in thinking and attitudes can lead to a redefinition of ageing, resulting in policies and practices that benefit older people now and in the future. Older people, their voices and experiences, need to be central to these developments. The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland The Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (CARDI) (1) is a not for profit organisation developed by leaders from the ageing field across Ireland (North and South) including age sector focused researchers and academics, statutory and voluntary, and is co-chaired by Professor Robert Stout and Professor Davis Coakley. CARDI has been established to provide a mechanism for greater collaboration among age researchers, for wider dissemination of ageing research information and to advance a research agenda relevant to the needs of older people in Ireland, North and South. Operating at a strategic level and in an advisory capacity, CARDI�۪s work focuses on promoting research co-operation across sectors and disciplines and concentrates on influencing the strategic direction of research into older people and ageing in Ireland. It has been strategically positioned around the following four areas: Identifying and establishing ageing research priorities relevant to policy and practice in Ireland, North and South;Promoting greater collaboration and co-operation on ageing research in order to build an ageing research community in Ireland, North and South;Stimulating research in priority areas that can inform policy and practice relating to ageing and older people in Ireland, North and South;Communicating strategic research issues on ageing to raise the profile of ageing research in Ireland, North and South, and its role in informing policy and practice. Context of Ageing in Ireland Ireland �۪s population is ageing. One million people aged 60 and over now live on the island of Ireland. By 2031, it is expected that Northern Ireland�۪s percentage of older people will increase to 28% and the Republic of Ireland�۪s to 23%. The largest increase will be in the older old; the number aged 80+ is expected to triple by the same date. However while life expectancy has increased, it is not clear that life without disability and ill health has increased to the same extent. A growing number of older people may face the combined effects of a decline in physical and mental function, isolation and poverty. Policymakers, service providers and older people alike recognise the need to create a high quality of life for our ageing population. This challenge can be meet by addressing the problems relating to healthy ageing, reducing inequalities in later life and creating services that are shaped by, and appropriate for, older people. Devolution and Structures of Government in Northern Ireland The Agreement (2) reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations in Belfast 1998 established the Northern Ireland Assembly which has full legislative authority for all transferred matters. The majority of social and economic public policy such as; agriculture, arts, education, health, environment and planning is determined by the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont. There are 11 Government Departments covering the main areas of responsibility with 108 elected Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLA�۪s). The powers of the Northern Ireland Assembly do not cover ��� reserved�۪ matters or ��� excepted�۪ matters . These are the responsibility of Westminster and include issues such as, tax, social security, policing, justice, defence, immigration and foreign affairs. Northern Ireland has 18 elected Members of Parliament (MP�۪s) to the House of Commons. Public Policy Context in Northern Ireland The economic, social and political consequence of an ageing population is a challenge for policy makers across government. Considering the complex and diverse causal factors that contribute to ageing in Northern Ireland, there are a number of areas of government policy at regional, national and international levels that are likely to impact in this area. International The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (3) and the Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century (4) provide important mechanisms for furthering research into ageing. The United Kingdom has signed up to these. The Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing commits member states to a systematic review of the Plan of Action through Regional Implementation Strategies. The United Kingdom�۪s Regional Implementation Strategy covers Northern Ireland. National At National level, pension and social security are high on the agenda. The Pensions Act (5) became law in 2007 and links pensions increases with earnings as opposed to prices from 2012. Additional credits for people raising children and caring for older people to boost their pensions were introduced. Some protections are included for those who lost occupational pensions as a result of underfunded schemes being wound up before April 2005. In relation to State Pensions and benefits, this Act will bring changes to state pensions in future. The Act now places the Pension Credit element which is up-rated in line with or above earnings, on a permanent, statutory footing. Regional At regional level there are a number of age related public policy initiatives that have the potential to impact positively on the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Some are specific to ageing such as the Ageing in an Inclusive Society (6) and others by their nature are cross-cutting such as Lifetime Opportunities: Governments Anti-Poverty Strategy for Northern Ireland (7). The main public policy framework in Northern Ireland is the Programme for Government: Building a Better Future, 2008-2011(PfG) (8) . The PfG, is the overarching high level policy framework for Northern Ireland and provides useful principles for ageing research and public policy in Northern Ireland. The PfG vision is to build a peaceful, fair and prosperous society in Northern Ireland, with respect for the rule of law. A number of Public Service Agreements (PSA) aligned to the PfG confirm key actions that will be taken to support the priorities that the Government aim to achieve over the next three years. For example objective 2 of PSA 7: Making Peoples�۪ Lives Better: Drive a programme across Government to reduce poverty and address inequality and disadvantage, refers to taking forward strategic action to promote social inclusion for older people; and to deliver a strong independent voice for older people. The Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (OFMDFM) have recently appointed an Interim Older People�۪s Advocate, Dame Joan Harbison to provide a focus for older peoples issues across Government. Ageing in an Inclusive Society is the cross-departmental strategy for older people in Northern Ireland and was launched in March 2005. It sets out the approach to be taken across Government to promote and support the inclusion of older people. The vision coupled with six strategic objectives form the basis of the action plans accompanying the strategy. The vision is: ���To ensure that age related policies and practices create an enabling environment, which offers everyone the opportunity to make informed choices so that they may pursue healthy, active and positive ageing.�۝ (Ageing in an Inclusive Society, Office of the First Minister and Deputy First Minister, 2005) Action planning and maintaining momentum across government in relation to this strategy has proved to be slower than anticipated. It is proposed to refresh this Strategy in line with Opportunity Age ��� meeting the challenges of ageing in the 21st Century (9). There are a number of policy levers elsewhere which can also be used to promote the positive aspects of an ageing society. The Investing for Health (10) and A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland (11), seek to ensure that the overall vision for health and wellbeing is achievable and provides a useful framework for ageing policy and research in the health area. These health initiatives have the potential to positively impact on the quality of life of older people and provide a useful framework for improving current policy and practice. In addition to public policy initiatives, the anti-discrimination frameworks in terms of employment in Northern Ireland cover age as well as a range of other grounds. Goods facilitates and services are currently excluded from the Employment Equality (age) Regulations (NI) 2006 (12). Supplementing the anti-discrimination measures, Section 75 of the Northern Ireland Act 1998 (13), unique to Northern Ireland, places a statutory obligation on public authorities in fulfilling their functions to promote equality of opportunity across nine grounds, one of which is age(14). This positive duty has the potential to make a real difference to the lives of older people in Northern Ireland. Those affected by policy decisions must be consulted and their interests taken into account. This provides an opportunity for older people and their representatives to participate in public policy-making, right from the start of the process. Policy and Research Interface ���Ageing research is vital as decisions in relation to policy and practice and resource allocation will be made on the best available information�۝. (CARDI�۪s Strategic Plan 2008-2011) As outlined earlier, CARDI has been established to bridge the gap to ensure that research reaches those involved in making policy decisions. CARDI is stimulating the ageing research agenda in Ireland through a specific research fund that has a policy and practice focus. My work is presently focusing on helping to build a greater awareness of the key policy levers and providing opportunities for those within research and policy to develop closer links. The development of this shared understanding by establishing these links between researchers and policy makers is seen as the best predictor for research utilization. It is important to acknowledge and recognise that researchers and policy makers operate in different institutional, political and cultural contexts. Research however needs to ���resonate�۪ with the contextual factors in which policy makers operate. Conclusions Those working within the public policy field recognise all too often that the development of government policies and initiatives in respect of age does not guarantee that they will result in changes in actual provision of services, despite Government recommendations and commitments. The identification of public policy initiatives as they relate to age has the potential to highlight persistent and entrenched difficulties that social policy has previously failed to address. Furthermore, the identification of these difficulties can maximise the opportunities for progressing these across government. A focus on developing effective and meaningful targets to ensure measurable outcomes in public policy for older people can assist in this. Access to sound, credible and up-to-date evidence will be vital in this respect. As well as a commitment to working across departmental boundaries to effect change. Further details: If you would like to discuss this paper or for further information about CARDI please contact: Judith Cross, Policy Officer, Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland CARDI). t: +44 (0) 28 9069 0066; m: +353 (0) 867 904 171; e: judith@cardi.ie ; or visit our website at: www.cardi.ie References 1) Centre for Ageing Research and Development in Ireland (2008) Strategic Plan 2008-2011. Belfast. CARDI 2) The Agreement: Agreement Reached in the Multi-Party Negotiations. Belfast 1998 3) Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing. http://www.un.org/ageing/ 4) UN Programme on Ageing (2007) Research Agenda on Ageing for the 21st Century: 2007 Update. New York. New York. UN Programme on Ageing and the International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics. 5) The Pensions Act 2007 Chapter 22 6) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Ageing in an Inclusive Society. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 7) Office of the First Minister and deputy First Minister (2005). Lifetime Opportunities: Government�۪s Anti-Poverty and Social Inclusion Strategy for Northern Ireland. Belfast. OFMDFM Central Anti-Poverty Unit. 8) Northern Ireland Executive (2008) Building a Better Future: Programme for Government 2008-2011. Belfast. OFMDFM Economic Policy Unit. 9) Department for Work and Pensions, (2005) Opportunity Age: Meeting the Challenges of Ageing in the 21 st Century. London. DWP. 10) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2002) Investing for Health. Belfast. DHSS&PS. 11) Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety (DHSS&PS) (2005) A Healthier Future:A 20 Year Vision for Health and Well-being in Northern Ireland Belfast. DHSS&PS. �� 12) The Employment Equality (Age) Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2006 SR2006 No.261 13) The Northern Ireland Act 1998, Part VII, S75 14) The nine grounds covered under S75 of the Northern Ireland Act are: gender, religion, race, sexual orientation, those with dependents, disability, political opinion, marital status and age.

This publication summarizes the current status of urban sanitation in Papua New Guinea, highlighting conditions in informal settlements in Port Moresby and peri-urban communities in selected provincial towns. It discusses opportunities to make sanitation more inclusive through the introduction of an operational fecal sludge management framework and offers lessons and practical recommendations for the government and sector stakeholders.

This study contributes to the literature on legal institutions and determinants of adult mortality. The paper explores the relationship between the presence of domestic violence legislation and women-to-men adult mortality rates. Using panel data for about 95 economies between 1990 and 2012, the analysis finds that having domestic violence legislation leads to lower women-to-men adult mortality rates. According to conservative estimations, domestic violence legislation would have saved about 33 million women between 1990 and 2012. The negative relationship between domestic violence legislation and women-to-men adult mortality rates is robust to several checks and also confirmed using the instrumental variables approach.

This is the tenth year that the paying taxes indicator has been part of the World Bank Doing Business project. The journey over the period of the study has been an eventful and interesting one and the economic backdrop continues to present a challenging environment for governments as they consider their future fiscal policies. Globalization, the march of technological change, changing demographic patterns and the persistent challenges that continue around climate change and the environment all come together to generate a turbulent mix of issues which have a significant impact on fiscal policy and the associated tax systems. Against this backdrop, this year the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has put forward proposals for changing the international tax rules to modernize them for today s globalized business and to address concerns over base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS). It is apparent that these proposals are already changing the way some tax authorities apply existing rules, leading to new and increased uncertainty for business, at least in the short term. Alongside all of this however there are two simple, mutually supportive objectives for governments; to ensure that there are sufficient public revenues for the future, to lay a foundation for sustained improvements in productivity, while at the same time incentivising investment and economic growth. This year the authors have also focused more on the compliance aspects of the information that authors collect through the study. Stable tax systems and strong tax administrations are important for businesses, helping them to operate in an environment where the tax treatment of transactions is predictable, and where governments operate transparently. The paying taxes study provides an unrivalled global database which supports an ongoing research program.

Doing business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports doing business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the doing business indicators for Swaziland. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January-December 2010).

Doing business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports doing business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the doing business indicators for Nigeria. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January-December 2010).

Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Congo, Democratic Republic of. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January- December 2010). The data not only highlight the extent of obstacles to doing business; they also help identify the source of those obstacles, supporting policy makers in designing regulatory reform.

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Kenya. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Hungary. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Korea, Republic of. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Luxembourg. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

This tenth edition of Doing Business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting eleven areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts, resolving insolvency and employing workers. Doing Business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 185 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. The indicators are used to analyze economic outcomes and identify what reforms have worked, where and why. This economy profile presents the Doing Business indicators for Nigeria. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2012 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January - December 2011).

Doing business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports doing business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the doing business indicators for Zimbabwe. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January-December 2010).

Doing business sheds light on how easy or difficult it is for a local entrepreneur to open and run a small to medium-size business when complying with relevant regulations. It measures and tracks changes in regulations affecting 10 areas in the life cycle of a business: starting a business, dealing with construction permits, getting electricity, registering property, getting credit, protecting investors, paying taxes, trading across borders, enforcing contracts and resolving insolvency. In a series of annual reports doing business presents quantitative indicators on business regulations and the protection of property rights that can be compared across 183 economies, from Afghanistan to Zimbabwe, over time. This economy profile presents the doing business indicators for Montenegro. To allow useful comparison, it also provides data for other selected economies (comparator economies) for each indicator. The data in this report are current as of June 1, 2011 (except for the paying taxes indicators, which cover the period January December 2010).