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With the creation of the Lithuanian armed forces in the early 20th century, the question ofhaving officers loyal to the idea of the nation-state inevitably arose. It became especially relevantduring the Wars of Independence that followed the First World War. Due to the need tocreate the armed forces urgently, individuals from different backgrounds and with differentexperiences joined the corps of officers in the emerging Lithuanian army. Therefore, a varietyof tensions of a political and social nature arose between them, which in some cases grewinto open conflict. The article examines the question of whether these conflicts were based ondifferences in officers' education, social background, national engagement or experience. Canwe explain the conflicts between the officers by the generation gap? And what role was playedin these conflicts by the experience of military service acquired by some officers in the ImperialRussian army, including experience in the First World War?KEY WORDS: Lithuanian army, Russian army, officer corps, relations between officers and politicians,generational conflicts, prosopography.

This paper presents some data from an empiric study carried out in Winter-Spring 2019, which was a presidential election and election to municipalities year in Lithuania; therefore, respondents had immediate and recent insights into issues related to citizenship. Almost 300 respondents: law enforcement officers, the absolute majority being police officers or future police officers, also representatives of other law enforcement agencies, such as state border guards, participated in the study. Due to ample data, a part of results was presented in a publication in 2019; in this paper in 2020 other part of results is analysed to a greater depth. Notwithstanding the limitations of the study, which is related to the convenience sample, the results provide certain insights, useful for educational settings. The findings of empiric survey enabled conclusion about the need to address issues of citizenship education in educational settings in order to support officer's nearly impossible quest towards perfection in one's profession via emphasising the rights and entitlements an officer legally has as a citizen, as a member of democratic society, which may contribute to having a more rewarding professional and social life.

As soon as the Freedom Struggles for independence finished, the Lithuanian Armed Forces began focusing on development of military science. In addition to other sciences, a lot of attention was given to application of mathematics in military arts. In 1922–1940, journal of military science and history "Mūsų žinynas" ("Our Directory") published 87 articles on various applications of mathematics in the Armed Forces. Among these, 28 articles were issued on application of mathematics in military topography, 28 – in artillery, 14 – in weaponry of infantrymen, 14 – in aviation and air defence artillery, and 3 – on use of mathematics for other purposes. The articles were written by 41 known and 3 unknown authors. Among the 41 known authors, there were 39 army officers and 2 civilians. In their work, the majority of authors used methods of elementary mathematics as a base; some authors applied methods of higher mathematics. Almost all of the latter were also lecturing at schools of higher education. In their articles, the majority of the authors built upon the experience of foreign armed forces (Russia and the Western world) and works of famous foreign mathematicians. The fate of authors of the articles was typical to all intelligentsia of the independent Republic of Lithuania in the pre-war period and especially to its most patriotic part – the officers: forced emigration to the West, exile and imprisonment in the East, or struggle and heroic death in the post-war partisan battles. Only very few of the authors had a chance to apply their knowledge in civilian activities, as subsequent to the occupation of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Armed Forces were dismissed and further activities in military arts became impossible.

As soon as the Freedom Struggles for independence finished, the Lithuanian Armed Forces began focusing on development of military science. In addition to other sciences, a lot of attention was given to application of mathematics in military arts. In 1922–1940, journal of military science and history "Mūsų žinynas" ("Our Directory") published 87 articles on various applications of mathematics in the Armed Forces. Among these, 28 articles were issued on application of mathematics in military topography, 28 – in artillery, 14 – in weaponry of infantrymen, 14 – in aviation and air defence artillery, and 3 – on use of mathematics for other purposes. The articles were written by 41 known and 3 unknown authors. Among the 41 known authors, there were 39 army officers and 2 civilians. In their work, the majority of authors used methods of elementary mathematics as a base; some authors applied methods of higher mathematics. Almost all of the latter were also lecturing at schools of higher education. In their articles, the majority of the authors built upon the experience of foreign armed forces (Russia and the Western world) and works of famous foreign mathematicians. The fate of authors of the articles was typical to all intelligentsia of the independent Republic of Lithuania in the pre-war period and especially to its most patriotic part – the officers: forced emigration to the West, exile and imprisonment in the East, or struggle and heroic death in the post-war partisan battles. Only very few of the authors had a chance to apply their knowledge in civilian activities, as subsequent to the occupation of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Armed Forces were dismissed and further activities in military arts became impossible.

As soon as the Freedom Struggles for independence finished, the Lithuanian Armed Forces began focusing on development of military science. In addition to other sciences, a lot of attention was given to application of mathematics in military arts. In 1922–1940, journal of military science and history "Mūsų žinynas" ("Our Directory") published 87 articles on various applications of mathematics in the Armed Forces. Among these, 28 articles were issued on application of mathematics in military topography, 28 – in artillery, 14 – in weaponry of infantrymen, 14 – in aviation and air defence artillery, and 3 – on use of mathematics for other purposes. The articles were written by 41 known and 3 unknown authors. Among the 41 known authors, there were 39 army officers and 2 civilians. In their work, the majority of authors used methods of elementary mathematics as a base; some authors applied methods of higher mathematics. Almost all of the latter were also lecturing at schools of higher education. In their articles, the majority of the authors built upon the experience of foreign armed forces (Russia and the Western world) and works of famous foreign mathematicians. The fate of authors of the articles was typical to all intelligentsia of the independent Republic of Lithuania in the pre-war period and especially to its most patriotic part – the officers: forced emigration to the West, exile and imprisonment in the East, or struggle and heroic death in the post-war partisan battles. Only very few of the authors had a chance to apply their knowledge in civilian activities, as subsequent to the occupation of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Armed Forces were dismissed and further activities in military arts became impossible.

As soon as the Freedom Struggles for independence finished, the Lithuanian Armed Forces began focusing on development of military science. In addition to other sciences, a lot of attention was given to application of mathematics in military arts. In 1922–1940, journal of military science and history "Mūsų žinynas" ("Our Directory") published 87 articles on various applications of mathematics in the Armed Forces. Among these, 28 articles were issued on application of mathematics in military topography, 28 – in artillery, 14 – in weaponry of infantrymen, 14 – in aviation and air defence artillery, and 3 – on use of mathematics for other purposes. The articles were written by 41 known and 3 unknown authors. Among the 41 known authors, there were 39 army officers and 2 civilians. In their work, the majority of authors used methods of elementary mathematics as a base; some authors applied methods of higher mathematics. Almost all of the latter were also lecturing at schools of higher education. In their articles, the majority of the authors built upon the experience of foreign armed forces (Russia and the Western world) and works of famous foreign mathematicians. The fate of authors of the articles was typical to all intelligentsia of the independent Republic of Lithuania in the pre-war period and especially to its most patriotic part – the officers: forced emigration to the West, exile and imprisonment in the East, or struggle and heroic death in the post-war partisan battles. Only very few of the authors had a chance to apply their knowledge in civilian activities, as subsequent to the occupation of Lithuania, the Lithuanian Armed Forces were dismissed and further activities in military arts became impossible.

The graduates of the Warsaw Cadet School made a bigger contribution to the warfare of the Republic and its political life. It should be noted that the Cadet School established by Stanislaw Augustus nurtured not only a new generation of competent Polish and Lithuanian officers, but also the leaders of the reconstruction and revival of the Republic. Warsaw cadet graduates were evidence of the country's independent development and its potential to restructure. Teachers of different nationalities taught in the Lunéville and Warsaw schools where the Lithuanian noblemen studied. Among them were a number of French officers who shared their knowledge and experience providing valuable military education for young people of the Republic. This article examines the impact these schools had on the Lithuanian officers trained there, and the significance of the activities of cadet schools for the entire country, in the military and political sense. In addition to various publications published, data about the Lunéville school found in the French military archives (Service historique de l'armée de terre – SHAT, in the city of Vincennes) was also used in the article. The information about the Warsaw Cadet School was found in the Czartoryski Library in Krakow (Biblioteka Książąt Czartoryskich) and the State Historical Fund in Warsaw (Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie).

The graduates of the Warsaw Cadet School made a bigger contribution to the warfare of the Republic and its political life. It should be noted that the Cadet School established by Stanislaw Augustus nurtured not only a new generation of competent Polish and Lithuanian officers, but also the leaders of the reconstruction and revival of the Republic. Warsaw cadet graduates were evidence of the country's independent development and its potential to restructure. Teachers of different nationalities taught in the Lunéville and Warsaw schools where the Lithuanian noblemen studied. Among them were a number of French officers who shared their knowledge and experience providing valuable military education for young people of the Republic. This article examines the impact these schools had on the Lithuanian officers trained there, and the significance of the activities of cadet schools for the entire country, in the military and political sense. In addition to various publications published, data about the Lunéville school found in the French military archives (Service historique de l'armée de terre – SHAT, in the city of Vincennes) was also used in the article. The information about the Warsaw Cadet School was found in the Czartoryski Library in Krakow (Biblioteka Książąt Czartoryskich) and the State Historical Fund in Warsaw (Archiwum Główne Akt Dawnych w Warszawie).

When the World War I began Lithuania was on the vanguards of the military operations. Around 60,000 Lithuanians were recruited in the Russian Army and employed on the operational fronts of the war. However, they were not blind performers of Tsarist ambitions, but, as The Amber Declaration showed, nurtured political ambitions of their own. The document issued on 4/17 August 1914 was signed, inter alia, by the patriarch of national credo, Jonas Basanavičius , and clearly affirmed the Lithuanian ideals, i.e. the aim of unifying Lithuania with Lithuania Minor then in German hands and the awarding of an autonomous status to a united Lithuania within the Russian Empire. This article tackles an enticing moment in the process of national rebirth, the Congress of the Representatives of the Lithuanian Military Officers of the Romanian Front held in Bender (Tighina), in southern Bessarabia, on 1-3 November 1917, calling for the creation of a Lithuanian national state. How this congress and the proclamation it issued fitted into the general frame of self-determination movements and Lithuanian national revival of 1917-1918, which led to the rebirth of the Lithuanian state? Who were the conveners and the participants to this congress? What arguments did they put forward in their national-building claims? What role did it play on the pathway to Lithuanian independence? Overlooked in most of the Lithuanian historical treatises, the Congress of the Representatives of the Lithuanian Military Officers of the Romanian Front in Bender City had in fact of greater significance than it allows to be understood when counting solely the relatively lower visibility of its leaders or the direct institutional lineage to the proclamation of independence.

The aim of this research paper is to examine the career prospects of female soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The article tackles the concept of career and legal regulation of careers in the military. The empirical part of the paper is based on an original survey of female noncommissioned officers' opinion, which was conducted at the end of 2019 at the command of the Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf". The opinion of female non-commissioned officers showed that the legal basis of career making for all soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces is the same for both women and men, but some of the participants in the study pointed out that this is not sufficiently relevant to pregnant women and women on maternity leave, as, for example, women on maternity leave are often transferred to the personnel reserve, and their positions are filled by other soldiers, etc. The respondents' opinion on women's opportunities to pursue a career in the Lithuanian Armed Forces compared to men was divided, as some of the respondents believed that women and men have equal opportunities in all areas of their professional activities, while others stated that opportunities are equal only in administration, service and similar areas. It was found that some female NCOs find it difficult to pursue a vertical military career on equal terms with men, that few female soldiers are in senior positions in the army, in other words, women often face the phenomenon of the 'glass ceiling' when pursuing vertical careers. In contrast, there are better opportunities for women soldiers to pursue horizontal careers in the army. Factors that encourage women's careers in the military include their personal motivation and financial, material and non-material incentives, while those that hinder them include the stereotypes that still exist in the military, the personalities of commanders, the exclusion of women from decision-making processes, etc.

The aim of this research paper is to examine the career prospects of female soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The article tackles the concept of career and legal regulation of careers in the military. The empirical part of the paper is based on an original survey of female noncommissioned officers' opinion, which was conducted at the end of 2019 at the command of the Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf". The opinion of female non-commissioned officers showed that the legal basis of career making for all soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces is the same for both women and men, but some of the participants in the study pointed out that this is not sufficiently relevant to pregnant women and women on maternity leave, as, for example, women on maternity leave are often transferred to the personnel reserve, and their positions are filled by other soldiers, etc. The respondents' opinion on women's opportunities to pursue a career in the Lithuanian Armed Forces compared to men was divided, as some of the respondents believed that women and men have equal opportunities in all areas of their professional activities, while others stated that opportunities are equal only in administration, service and similar areas. It was found that some female NCOs find it difficult to pursue a vertical military career on equal terms with men, that few female soldiers are in senior positions in the army, in other words, women often face the phenomenon of the 'glass ceiling' when pursuing vertical careers. In contrast, there are better opportunities for women soldiers to pursue horizontal careers in the army. Factors that encourage women's careers in the military include their personal motivation and financial, material and non-material incentives, while those that hinder them include the stereotypes that still exist in the military, the personalities of commanders, the exclusion of women from decision-making processes, etc.

The aim of this research paper is to examine the career prospects of female soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The article tackles the concept of career and legal regulation of careers in the military. The empirical part of the paper is based on an original survey of female noncommissioned officers' opinion, which was conducted at the end of 2019 at the command of the Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf". The opinion of female non-commissioned officers showed that the legal basis of career making for all soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces is the same for both women and men, but some of the participants in the study pointed out that this is not sufficiently relevant to pregnant women and women on maternity leave, as, for example, women on maternity leave are often transferred to the personnel reserve, and their positions are filled by other soldiers, etc. The respondents' opinion on women's opportunities to pursue a career in the Lithuanian Armed Forces compared to men was divided, as some of the respondents believed that women and men have equal opportunities in all areas of their professional activities, while others stated that opportunities are equal only in administration, service and similar areas. It was found that some female NCOs find it difficult to pursue a vertical military career on equal terms with men, that few female soldiers are in senior positions in the army, in other words, women often face the phenomenon of the 'glass ceiling' when pursuing vertical careers. In contrast, there are better opportunities for women soldiers to pursue horizontal careers in the army. Factors that encourage women's careers in the military include their personal motivation and financial, material and non-material incentives, while those that hinder them include the stereotypes that still exist in the military, the personalities of commanders, the exclusion of women from decision-making processes, etc.

The aim of this research paper is to examine the career prospects of female soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces. The article tackles the concept of career and legal regulation of careers in the military. The empirical part of the paper is based on an original survey of female noncommissioned officers' opinion, which was conducted at the end of 2019 at the command of the Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Iron Wolf". The opinion of female non-commissioned officers showed that the legal basis of career making for all soldiers in the Lithuanian Armed Forces is the same for both women and men, but some of the participants in the study pointed out that this is not sufficiently relevant to pregnant women and women on maternity leave, as, for example, women on maternity leave are often transferred to the personnel reserve, and their positions are filled by other soldiers, etc. The respondents' opinion on women's opportunities to pursue a career in the Lithuanian Armed Forces compared to men was divided, as some of the respondents believed that women and men have equal opportunities in all areas of their professional activities, while others stated that opportunities are equal only in administration, service and similar areas. It was found that some female NCOs find it difficult to pursue a vertical military career on equal terms with men, that few female soldiers are in senior positions in the army, in other words, women often face the phenomenon of the 'glass ceiling' when pursuing vertical careers. In contrast, there are better opportunities for women soldiers to pursue horizontal careers in the army. Factors that encourage women's careers in the military include their personal motivation and financial, material and non-material incentives, while those that hinder them include the stereotypes that still exist in the military, the personalities of commanders, the exclusion of women from decision-making processes, etc.

The aim of the publication is to reveal the necessary changes in the basic structure and content of officers' qualifications arising from the digitization of business processes and other aspects of the development of Industry 4.0. The article discusses the reasons for the change in officers' education and training qualifications, presents the officer education and training model, the primary input of which is "emerging threats", justifies that all fourofficer education and training models "Jena", "Falkland Islands", "Kosovo" arose when the troops faced challenges (threats), all changes are usually reactive in nature. The article reveals "Industry 4.0", "Industrial Revolution 4" and other directly used concepts, presents the components/features of "Industry 4.0": high-speed Internet, powerful sensors, artificial intelligence, cyber-physical systems, and a myriad of other components and connectors. With the rapid development of technology and the creative discovery of new combinations of them in unpredictable ways, the potential scale of threats and opportunities is not widely assessed, and future officers should begin to prepare for new challenges now. The empirical part of the article is based on a survey of the opinion of soldiers (non-commissioned officers, officers) serving/retired, which was conducted in 2021 at the Lithuanian Military Academy. The study found that the structure and content of the basic officer training program is constantly changing, formal and informal changes are seen, some changes are consolidated by changing the programs, others take place to adapt to the current, real situation. The informants revealed six factors that led to changes in the programs, all of which are thought to be of a reactionary nature. The survey did not provide evidence that program changes would be driven by the future penetration of future technologies. During the research, all informants provided examples of technological innovations and the application of innovations in the Lithuanian Armed Forces. Most of the informants said that drones are widely used in LAF and drones are changing the war, but there is no formal training in training future officers. The informants confirmed that they are monitoring the penetration of new technologies in LAF, and they also see the need to change/supplement the curriculum of future officers' education and training so that future officers receive technological training. It was also emphasized that it was necessary to combine academic and military education and training efforts and seek synergies in the training of fully-fledged future officers.