The article analyzes the fundamental concepts and pedagogical views of the British teacher, philosopher, representative of empiricism and liberalism John Locke, known in the world as one of the most influential thinkers of the Enlightenment and theorist of liberalism. The practical rationalism of the Anglo-Saxon culture is studied, as well as the influence and significance that the great thinker had on the education and training system in English schools. The article analyzes the philosophical-psychological theory of the "clean board" (Latin Tabula rasa), which consists in denying the existence of "innate" ideas and concepts in the human mind, showing that the human psyche is born from birth like a clean board or a blank sheet, where there are no inscriptions. The goal of education is to bring up a true gentleman, a nobleman by birth, a business man who knows how to manage his business intelligently and favorably, has good physical training and is distinguished by his "grace" behavior in society.
The author offers an analysis of the logical model of "natural state" in the writings of the three mentioned authors and attempts to define its role in their theories of law. The analysis demonstrates that all three models share the same basic idea: namely, the concep-tion of an independent reasonable individual; this very idea is exactly what these different models are based upon. The concept of an individual itself does not have a substantiation. ; Автор предлагает анализ логической модели естественного состояния у трех выдающихся философов Нового времени, и пытается установить ее роль в пред-ложенных ими концепциях права. Анализ показывает, что в основе всех трех мо-делей лежит единое основание – концепция независимого разумного индивида, именно на ней держатся три столь разные учения о праве. Сама же концепция индивида обоснования не получает. ЛИТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380. ; Автор пропонує аналіз логічної моделі природного стану в трьох видатних фі-лософів Нового часу та намагається встановити її роль у запропонованих ними концепціях права. Аналіз показує, що в основі всіх трьох моделей лежить одне – концепція незалежного розумного індивіда, саме на ній базуються такі різні вчення про право. Сама концепція індивіда обґрунтування не має. ЛІТЕРАТУРА . Валлон А. Педагогические и психологические идеи романа-трактата Ж.–Ж. Руссо «Эмиль, или О воспитании» // Руссо Ж.-Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 2. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – С. 269–299. Гоббс Т. О гражданине // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1989. – С. 270–506. Гоббс Т. Левиафан // Гоббс Т. Сочинения в 2-х тт. Т. 2. – М.: Мысль, 1991. – С. 3–545. Кассирер Э. Философия Просвещения. – М.: «Российская политическая энциклопедия» (РОССПЭН), 2004. – 400 c. Леви-Строс К. Руссо – отец антропологии // Леви-Строс К. Первобытное мышление. – М.: Республика, 1994. – С. 19–28. Локк Д. Два трактата о правлении // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988а. – С. 135–405. Локк Д. Опыт о человеческом разумении. Ч. І–ІІІ. // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 1. – М.: Мысль, 1985. – С. 78–582. Локк Д. Опыты о законе природы // Локк Д. Сочинения в 3-х тт. Т. 3. – М.: Мысль, 1988b. – С. 3–54. Монтескье Ш.Л. О духе законов / Сост., перевод и комментирование примечаний ав-тора A.B. Матешук. – М.: Мысль, 1999. – 672 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. – М.: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково по-ле, 1998. – 416 с. Руссо Ж.-Ж. Эмиль, или О воспитании // Руссо Ж.–Ж. Педагогические сочинения. Т. 1. – М.: Педагогика, 1981. – 654 c. Фрагменты ранних стоиков / Составление, перевод и комментарии А. А. Столярова. Т. 3. Ч. 2. – М.: Греко-латинский кабинет Ю. А. Шичалина, 2010. – 267 c. [В ссы-лках – ФРС]. Шмитт К. Левиафан в учении о государстве Томаса Гоббса. – СПб: «Владимир Даль», 2006. – 300 c. Штраус Л. Естественное право и история. – М.: Водолей, 2007. – 312 c. Ashcraft R. Locke's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Locke / Ed. by Vere Chappell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. – P. 226–251. Brooke Ch. Rousseau's Political Philosophy: Stoic and Augustinian Origins // The Cam-bridge Companion to Rousseau / Ed. by Patrick Riley. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. – P. 94–123. Gert B. Hobbes's psychology // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes / Ed. by Tom Sorell. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. – P. 157–174. Goldsmith M. M. Hobbes on law // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 274–304. Grant H. Hobbes and mathematics // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 108–128. Hobbes T. De Cive. The English version (Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society) / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987. – 336 p. Hobbes T. De Cive. The Latin Version Entitled in the First Edition Elementorum Philoso-phiae Sectio Tertia de Cive, and in Later Editions Elementa Philosophica de Cive / A Critical Edition by H. Warrender. – Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. – 340 p. Hobbes T. Leviathan / Ed. by M. Missner, D. Kolak. – New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. – 304 p. Locke J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government // Locke J. Political essays / edited by Mark Goldie. – Cambridge, New York : Cambridge UP, 1997. – Р. 54–78. Locke J. An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding / ed. with an introd., critical apparatus and glossary by Peter H. Nidditch. – Oxford: Clarendon Рress, 1975. – 867 р. Locke J. Questions Concerning the Law of Nature / Definitive Latin text, with facing accurate English trans. in Robert Horwitz et al. – Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. – 260 p. Jesseph D. Hobbes and method of natural science // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 86–107. Montesquieu, Ch.-L. de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de De l'esprit des lois / chronologie, introduction, bibliographie par Victor Goldschmidt. – Paris : Garnier, Flammarion, 1979. – 2 vol. – 507 p. + 638 p. Rousseau J.-J. Du Contrat social ou Principe du droit politique / éd. E. Dreyfus-Brisac. – Paris: Félix Alcan, 1896. – 425 p. Rousseau J.-J. Discours sur l'origine de l'inégalité parmi les hommes // Rousseau J.-J., Oeuvres. Vol. 2. – P. : Dalibon, 1826. – P. 211–392. Rousseau J.-J. Émile ou de l'Éducation. – Paris: Garnier frères, 1866. – 567 p. Riley P. Rousseau's General Will // The Cambridge Companion to Rousseau…, 2001. – P. 124–153. Ryan A. Hobbes's political philosophy // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 208–245. Shklar J. Men and Citizens: A Study of Rousseau's Social Theory. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1969. – 245 p. Skinner Q. Review Article. Hobbes's «Leviathan» // The Historical Journal. – 1964. – Vol. 7, 2. – P. 321–333. Skinner Q. Hobbes on Persons, Authors and Representatives // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes's Leviathan / Ed. by Patricia Springborg. – Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2007. – P. 157–180. Sorell T. Hobbes's scheme of the sciences // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 45–61. Springborg P. Hobbes on religion // The Cambridge Companion to Hobbes…, 1996. – P. 346–380.
Проведен анализ необходимой величины коэффициента блокировки межколесного дифференциала для получения максимальной силы тяги машины по сцеплению в зависимости от возможного сочетания коэффициентов сцепления под бортами. Обоснован переход от коэффициента блокировки к блокировочному моменту дифференциала для машин, рассчитанных на движение при возможном полном вывешивании одного или нескольких колес. Предлагается алгоритм построения зависимости необходимого блокировочного момента межколесного дифференциала от частоты относительного вращения полуоси и корпуса дифференциала на примере колесного бронетранспортера БТР-4. ; The analysis of existing technical solutions for lockable and self-locking differentials wheeled vehicles intended for off-road. Were evaluated the required value of lock ratio of cross-axle differential for maximum traction force of the machine depending on the possible combinations of coefficients of adhesion under the wheels. Substantiated transition from lock ratio to the locking torque of differential for machines designed for movement with the possible full hanging one or more wheels. An algorithm for plotting the necessary locking torque of cross-axle differential from the frequency the relative rotation of axis and the differential case on the example of a wheeled armored personnel carrier BTR-4 is proposed. This could be relevant for the development of an electronic system of automatic control lock ratio and for generating performance requirements of gerotor differential.
John Locke'un meşhur An Essay Concerning Human Understanding eserinin 1694 yılındaki ikinci baskısının ikinci kitabına 27. bölüm olarak eklediği Of Identity and Diversity (Özdeşlik ve Başkalığa Dair) başlığı ilk yayımlandığı günden itibaren sayısız tartışmayı beraberinde getirmiştir. Locke'un bu teorisinin bu kadar yoğun şekilde tartışılmasının sebepleri arasında teorinin anlaşılmasın güçlüğü ön plana çıkar. Locke kişisel özdeşliği tanımlarken hem materyalist hem de ruhsal töz öğretilerinden bağımsız biz pozisyon almaya gayret gösterir. Bu durum onu kişi, töz ve özdeşlik gibi terimlerin tanımını en baştan yapmaya zorlar ki bu tanımların her biri beraberinde yeni problemler getirmektedir. Locke kişisel özdeşlik sorununun çözümünde bilinci anahtar rolde kullanır ve Locke bunu düşünen tözden farklı bir şey olarak tanımlar. Bu çaba zihin felsefesi çalışmalarının geleceğini şekillendirecek bir girişim olsa da Locke'un döneminde bilinç henüz yeni yeni tartışılan bir kavramdır ve Locke'un bilinç ile tam olarak neyi kastettiği çoğu zaman anlaşılamamıştır. Onun bilinç ile aslında hafızayı kastettiğini düşünenlerin sayısı az değildir ve bu yorum Locke'un teorisini ciddi eleştirilere açık hale getirmektedir. Bir diğer eleştiri ise bu teorinin kendi içerisinde tutarsız olduğudur. Bu görüşe göre Locke'un bölümün başında özenle kurmaya çalıştığı düşünen töz-bilinç ayrımı bölümün son kısımlarına gelindiğinde yine Locke tarafından ortadan kaldırılmış veya en azından, bu ikisi arasında keskin bir ayrım yapılamayacağı kabul edilmiştir. Kısaca kişiyi geçmişteki veya gelecekteki olası haliyle özdeş kılan şeyin ne olduğunu soran kişisel özdeşlik problemi; töz, ruh ve zihin hakkında ciddi tartışmaları da beraberinde getirmiştir. Teorinin içerisindeki sorunlara rağmen veya belki de bu sayede, Locke'un kişisel özdeşlik öğretisi kendinden sonraki İngiliz felsefesinin temel tartışma konularından biri haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışma Locke'un kişisel özdeşlik öğretisindeki problemleri üç ana başlık altında ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır.
In: Sovetskoe gosudarstvo i pravo: organ Instituta Prava Imeni A. Ja. Vyšinskogo Akademii Nauk SSSR i Vsesojuznogo Instituta Juridičeskich Nauk Ministerstva Justicii SSSR, Issue 9, p. 28-35
Das erklärte Ziel des Gesetzes über das staatliche Unternehmen ist die Sicherung der Rechtsstellung der Unternehmen im Wirtschaftsleitungssystem. Bisher ist es nicht gelungen, die Beziehungen der Unternehmen zu übergeordneten Wirtschaftsleitungsinstanzen grundlegend zu verändern. Der Übergang von administrativen zu ökonomischen Wirtschaftsleitungsmethoden kann noch nicht realisiert werden. Die Praxis zeigt deutlich die Hoffnungslosigkeit aller Versuche, das administrativ-bürokratische Leitungssystem zu lockern und durch gesetzliche Vorschriften die Entscheidungskompetenzen und Rechte der Betriebe auszuweiten. Hier machen sich Gesetzeslücken bemerkbar, denn das Gesetz läßt den Ministerien einen weiten Spielraum für die Durchsetzung ihrer zentralistischen Interessen zu. (BIOst-Ldg)
The presented article substantiates the role and significance of the separation of powers in modern society and the state, consisting in the fact that this concept represents an instrument of limiting state power in order to protect the rights and interests of individual rights. As a rule, the separation of powers is opposed to the concept of autocracy, the concentration of power in the hands of one person or body. The author recognizes the theory of separation of powers ideologically related to the political legacy of Locke and Montesquieu and notes that the genesis of the theory of separation of powers is associated with the emergence of bourgeois political and legal theories, primarily in England in the XVII century, whose most authoritative political thinker was D. Locke. However, the classical formulation of this theory has received in the writings of the great French philosopher, lawyer and educator Charles Louis Montesquieu. In article are analyzed the features of the original doctrines of separation of powers of these eminent thinkers, the first addition to the concept of a democratically organized state, the optimal organization of the system of state authorities.
Im Mittelpunkt der Außenhandelsreform steht der Übergang zur Konvertibilität des Rubel. Die Lösung dieser Aufgabe ist ein vorrangiges Ziel der Wechselkurspolitik. Trotz der Außenhandelsreform ist es nicht gelungen, das administrative Monopol auf die Verfügung und Verteilung von Devisen zu lockern. Die Unternehmen haben keine Devisenrechte und kaum Devisen und Importrechte. Der sowjetische Binnenmarkt ist von der Weltwirtschaft nach wie vor isoliert. Es fehlt noch ein konkretes Konzept des Programms zur Einführung der Konvertibilität. Als dringend notwenndig erscheint eine allmähliche Einführung einer begrenzten Konvertibilität parallel zu der Entwicklung der marktwirtschaftlichen Beziehungen und der Demontage der administrativen Monopole auf die Währungsoperationen. Als weitere Voraussetzung für die Einführung der Konvertibilität ist die Umrechnung von ausländischen Währungen zu einem einheitlichen Währungskurs des Rubel. (BIOst-Ldg)
The object of the research: world economy at the modern era. The main aim of the research: to identify new and clarify the existing cascading effects of the world economy development at the present stage of development. The methods: general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis, methods of grouping, detailing, generalization and systematization of data, as well as economic and mathematical models. The results: on the basis of a comprehensive study of the most important areas of the world economy, the key cascading effects have been identified, that significantly influence on the social and economic components of world politics and trade. The research results can be used in the creation and/or adjustment of national strategies to overcome the covid-19 pandemic effects, affecting all aspects of global social and economic processes, as well as to adapt national measures to new realities in the global economy, taking into account the fostering of «hidden» protectionist measures in different spheres. Conclusions: The long-term impact of the cascading effects of the covid-19 pandemic pave the way to review approaches to public administration and national and world economies' architecture. Any crisis requires the mobilization of all available resources, including the moral strength of individuals. The best strategy would be to mitigate and to neutralize social and economic cascading effects before the impending global economic crisis has its impact.
The article provides the reconstruction of the English terminological system of morality and its language features in one of the most famous papers of John Locke An Essay Сoncerning Human Understanding (1689). We study this philosophical paper within the framework of cognitive and discursive paradigm of linguistic knowledge and aim to investigate the ideas about human nature and the principles behind the work of human mind. Laws and principles were formulated by the scholar on the basis of nature determination in human thinking and ideas appearance in individual psychological system. The article investigates in detail conceptual dominants of the moral philosophy and terminology in Locke's paper and, besides that, key metaphors in Locke's discourse used for the description of human thinking including tabula rasa, empty cabinet, fountains of knowledge, knowledge is light. On the one hand, these conceptual metaphors are deeply rooted in the historical and philosophical context, and on the other, they were understandable to his contemporaries, as he used recognizable words and images. Locke not only changes the actual linguistic representation of some of the traditional philosophical metaphors, but shifts the emphasis, leading to novel interpretations and complicating the system of ideas as a whole. To understand main components of the philosopher's framework we took into account earlier papers of various scholars as the material for comparison. These components include the process by which new types of knowledge are formed and pathways by which the already existing types are recategorized under the impact of sociocultural factors. It was shown that the system of morality is grounded on the 17th-century views on how the human mind works and embodies the language representation of terminological sphere of morality.
The article analyzes theoretical statements concerning interaction of state and civil society, which were formed in the European philosophy of the XVII-XIX centuries (D. Locke, G. Hegel, K. Marx). On the basis of the comparative analysis the generalized concept of civil society is formulated. The specific interaction mechanisms of institutions of the modern Russian state and their impact on the formation and development of civil society are discussed. ; Анализируются теоретические положения о взаимодействии государства и гражданского общества, которые сформировались в европейской философии XVII-XIX вв. (Д. Локк, Г. Гегель, К. Маркс). На основе сравнительного анализа формулируется обобщенный концепт гражданского общества. Рассматривается специфика конкретных механизмов взаимодействия институтов современного российского государства и их влияния на становление и формирование гражданского общества.
The article deals with necessary state interference to data dissemination inthe Internet, due to the widespread use of network resources. In 2013 a burst oflegislative activity is recorded, it limits the spread of prohibited information.The increasing of the number of copyright infringement has led to amendmentsthat lock resources with illegal content. Protecting children from harmful informationon the Internet is also the main focus of legislative activity. In thisarticle basic federal laws aimed at regulation of the spread of illegal informationon the Internet that have been taken over the last year. There are severallegislative initiatives that are in the design stage and public debate. ; Статья посвящена вопросам необходимого вмешательства состороны государства в распространение информации в сети «Ин-тернет», вызванного повсеместным использованием ресурсов сети.В 2013 году зафиксирован всплеск законодательной активности,ограничивающей распространение запрещенной информации. Уве-личение числа нарушений авторских прав привело к появлениюпоправок, разрешающих блокировать ресурсы с размещенным не-легальным контентом. Защита детей от вредной информации в сети«Интернет» также является основным направлением законотворче-ской деятельности. В статье рассматриваются основные федераль-ные законы, направленные на регулирование распространения не-правомерной информации в сети «Интернет», которые вступили всилу за последний год. Приведены некоторые законодательныеинициативы, находящиеся в стадии проекта и общественного обсу-ждения.
The article is focused on Kant's theory of law. Kant strives to deduce it from the concept of freedom, but the material basis of law is property. Law and property appear as projections of freedom. The author substantiates the idea that the theory of law on this base became possible thanks to Kant's special concept of freedom: the subject's freedom as the law of reason is directed at the external world and requires its realization — first of all, in a plot of land. These special concepts of freedom and property cause the characteristic features of Kant's theory of law which has evoked a lot of controversies. ; В статье рассматривается учение Канта о праве. Кант стремится вывести его из понятия свободы, но вещественной основой права оказывается собственность. Право и собственность предстают как проекции свободы. В статье выражена идея, что создание правового учения на такой основе оказывается возможным в силу специфики Кантовского понятия свободы: свобода субъекта как закон разума направлена на внешний для субъекта мир, она требует своего воплощения – прежде всего, в участке земли. Именно такое своеобразное понимание свободы и собственности обуславливают особенности Кантовского учения о праве, вызвавшего множество противоречивых оценок.СПИСОК ЛИТЕРАТУРЫАрендт (2012): Арендт, Х. Лекции по политической философии Канта. СПб.: Наука, 2012, 303 с.Гегель (1990): Гегель, Г.В.Ф. Философия права. Москва: Мысль, 1990, 524 с.Кант (1994): Кант, И. «Трактаты и статьи (1784–1796)». В: Кант, И. Сочинения на немецком и русском языках. Москва: Ками, 1993, Т. I., 586 с.Кант (2014): Кант, И. «Метафизика нравов». Ч. 1. В: Кант, И. Сочинения… Под ред. Б. Тушлинга, Н. Мотрошиловой. Москва: Канон+, Реабилитация, 2014, Т.V, 1120 с.Кассирер (1997): Кассирер, Э. Жизнь и учение Канта. СПб.: Университетская книга, 1997, 447 с.Локк (1988): Локк, Д. «Два трактата о правлении». В: Локк, Д. Соч. в 3-х тт. Москва: Мысль, 1988, Т. 3, С. 135–405.Руссо (1998): Руссо, Ж.Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. Москва: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково поле, 1998, 416 с.Соловьев (2005): Соловьев, Э.Ю. Категорический императив нравственности и права. Москва: Прогресс-Традиция, 2005, 416 с.Тушлинг (2014): Тушлинг, Б. «Право из понятия». В: Кант, И. Метафизика нравов. Ч. 1…, 2014, С. 476–721.Фишер (1906): Фишер, К. «Иммануил Кант и его учение». Ч. II. В: Фишер, К. История новой философии. СПб., 1906, Т. 5, 656 с.Шопенгауэр (1993): Шопенгауэр, А. «Мир как воля и представление». В: Шопенгауэр, А. О четверояком корне… Мир как воля и представление. Москва: Наука, 1993, Т. 1, С. 125–608.Ясперс (2014): Ясперс, К. Кант: жизнь, труды, влияние. Москва: Канон, 2014, 416 с.Hegel (1979): Hegel, G.W.F. «Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts». In: Hegel, G.W.F. Werke. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1979, Band 7, 513 S.Höffe (2007): Höffe, O. Immanuel Kant. Berlin: Beck, 2007, 348 S.Locke (1823): Locke, J. «Two Treatises of Government» In: Works of John Locke. London, 1823, Vol. V, P. 207–485.Murphy, Coleman (1990): Murphy, J.G., Coleman, J.L. Philosophy of Law. An Introduction to Jurisprudence. Boulder: Westview Press, 1990, (xvi) 240 p.Rosen (1993): Rosen, A.D. Kant's Theory of Justice. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, 1993, 237 p.Rousseau (1755): Rousseau, J-.J. Discours sur l'origine et les fondemens de l'inégalité parmi les hommes. Amsterdam: M.M. Rey, 1755, 262 p.Rousseau (1762) : Rousseau, J.-J. Du Contrat social; ou, Principes du droit politique. Amsterdam: M.M. Rey, 1762, 324 p.Schopenhauer (1977): Schopenhauer, «A. Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung». In: Schopenhauer, A. Zürcher Ausgabe. Werke in zehn Bänden. Zürich: Diogenes, 1977, Band 1, 651 S. ; У статті розглядається вчення Канта про право. Кант намагається вивести його з поняття свободи, але речовою основою права виявляється власність. Право та власність постають як проекції свободи. Автор статті обґрунтовує думку, що можливість правового вчення на таких засадах виникає за умовою особливості Кантівського розуміння поняття свободи: для суб'єкта свобода як закон розуму спрямована на зовнішній світ, вони потребує обов'язкового втілення – поперед всього, у земельній ділянці. Саме через таку своєрідність розуміння поняття свободи і власності знаходять пояснення особливості Кантівського вчення про право, яке викликало багато протилежних оцінок.СПИСОК ЛІТЕРАТУРИАрендт (2012): Арендт, Х. Лекции по политической философии Канта. СПб.: Наука, 2012, 303 с.Гегель (1990): Гегель, Г.В.Ф. Философия права. Москва: Мысль, 1990, 524 с.Кант (1994): Кант, И. «Трактаты и статьи (1784–1796)». В: Кант, И. Сочинения на немецком и русском языках. Москва: Ками, 1993, Т. I., 586 с.Кант (2014): Кант, И. «Метафизика нравов». Ч. 1. В: Кант, И. Сочинения… Под ред. Б. Тушлинга, Н. Мотрошиловой. Москва: Канон+, Реабилитация, 2014, Т.V, 1120 с.Кассирер (1997): Кассирер, Э. Жизнь и учение Канта. СПб.: Университетская книга, 1997, 447 с.Локк (1988): Локк, Д. «Два трактата о правлении». В: Локк, Д. Соч. в 3-х тт. Москва: Мысль, 1988, Т. 3, С. 135–405.Руссо (1998): Руссо, Ж.Ж. Об общественном договоре. Трактаты. Москва: КАНОН-пресс, Кучково поле, 1998, 416 с.Соловьев (2005): Соловьев, Э.Ю. Категорический императив нравственности и права. Москва: Прогресс-Традиция, 2005, 416 с.Тушлинг (2014): Тушлинг, Б. «Право из понятия». В: Кант, И. Метафизика нравов. Ч. 1…, 2014, С. 476–721.Фишер (1906): Фишер, К. «Иммануил Кант и его учение». Ч. II. В: Фишер, К. История новой философии. СПб., 1906, Т. 5, 656 с.Шопенгауэр (1993): Шопенгауэр, А. «Мир как воля и представление». В: Шопенгауэр, А. О четверояком корне… Мир как воля и представление. Москва: Наука, 1993, Т. 1, С. 125–608.Ясперс (2014): Ясперс, К. Кант: жизнь, труды, влияние. Москва: Канон, 2014, 416 с.Hegel (1979): Hegel, G.W.F. «Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts». In: Hegel, G.W.F. Werke. Frankfurt a. M.: Suhrkamp, 1979, Band 7, 513 S.Höffe (2007): Höffe, O. Immanuel Kant. Berlin: Beck, 2007, 348 S.Locke (1823): Locke, J. «Two Treatises of Government» In: Works of John Locke. London, 1823, Vol. V, P. 207–485.Murphy, Coleman (1990): Murphy, J.G., Coleman, J.L. Philosophy of Law. An Introduction to Jurisprudence. Boulder: Westview Press, 1990, (xvi) 240 p.Rosen (1993): Rosen, A.D. Kant's Theory of Justice. Ithaca and London: Cornell UP, 1993, 237 p.Rousseau (1755): Rousseau, J-.J. Discours sur l'origine et les fondemens de l'inégalité parmi les hommes. Amsterdam: M.M. Rey, 1755, 262 p.Rousseau (1762) : Rousseau, J.-J. Du Contrat social; ou, Principes du droit politique. Amsterdam: M.M. Rey, 1762, 324 p.Schopenhauer (1977): Schopenhauer, «A. Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung». In: Schopenhauer, A. Zürcher Ausgabe. Werke in zehn Bänden. Zürich: Diogenes, 1977, Band 1, 651 S.
Anahtar Kelimeler : Egemenlik, Schmitt, Demokrasi, Milli İrade, KararÖZETEGEMENLİK KAVRAMI VE CARL SCHMITTEgemenlik, önemi ortaya çıktığı ilk zamanlardan günümüze artarak devam eden bir kavramdır. Çalışmamızın ilk bölümünde öncelikle kavramın ortaya çıkış süreci ve tanım sorunu analiz edilmiştir. İkinci bölümde, kavrama yön veren düşünürlere yer verilmiş; kavramı ilk defa ortaya çıkaran Machiavelli, kavramsallaştıran Bodin, ve kavramı sözleşme ile irtibatlandıran Hobbes incelenmiştir. Bu süreçte sınırsız egemenlik anlayışının sınırlandırılması yönünde fikirleriyle John Locke, Montesqueiu, Benjamin Constant ve John Stuart Mill analiz edilmiştir. Rousseau ile beraber kavram demokratik bir şekle bürünmüş, buna bağlı olarak da Milli İrade ve Milli Egemenlik kavramları üzerinde durulmuş, kavramlara yönelik eleştiriler çerçevesinde Duguit'nin görüşlerine ve doktrinde ifade edilen muhtelif görüşlere yer verilmiştir. Liberal Demokrasi ve Hukuk Devleti kavramları karşısında Milli İrade ve Milli Egemenlik Doktrininin konumu araştırılmıştır. Daha sonra Egemenliğin bölünmesi sorunu incelenmiş ve bu kapsamda Federal Devlet'in konumu irdelenmiştir. Üçüncü bölümde Carl Schmitt'in egemenlik kuramı kendisine kadar geliştirilmiş görüşler karşısında eleştirileri dikkate alınarak ortaya konulmuş ve bu çerçevede özellikle Schmitt'in "Siyasi İlahiyat: Egemenlik Hakkında Dört Bölüm" adlı eserinden yola çıkılarak yorumları ve değerlendirmeleri tartışılmıştır. Nitekim Schmitt, egemenin verili şartlar içerisinde, mesela milli iradenin temsil yoluyla etkin olduğu demokratik toplumlarda, karar (entscheidung) merciinin ne veya kim olacağının önceden belirlenemeyecek bir tarzda etkin olduğunu savunmuştur. Son bölümde ise Schmitt'in kuramına doktrinde yöneltilen eleştirilere yer verilmiştir. Keywords : Sovereignty, Schmitt, Democracy, National Will, DecisionABSTRACTTHE CONCEPT OF SOVEREIGNTY AND CARL SCHMITTSovereignty is a concept that continued to increase its importancy since the first time it appeared. In the first part of this study, the occurance of Sovereignty and the problem of definition is analyzed. In the second part, the thinkers which gave direction to the concept will be stated in; Machiavelli, who discovered the concept, Bodin, who conceptualizated, and Hobbes, who added a contract connection to the concept. In this process, the ideas of John Locke, Montesquieu, Benjamin Constant and John Stuart Mill were analyzed with their thoughts on limiting of the unlimited Sovereignty. With Rousseau, souvereignty turned into a democratic shape, so we accordingly emphasized his thoughts on the concept of National Will and National Sovereignty, and in the frame of the critics against those concepts, the opinions of Duguit and the various critics from doctrine have been shown. The doctrines of National Will and National Sovereignty have been investigated in the face of the concepts of Liberal Democracy and Constitutional State. Then, the problem of the division of Sovereignty will be examined and in this context, the position of the Federal State discussed. In the third part, Schmitt's theory on Sovereignty has been discussed especially within his Work "Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty", against the opinions to the concept which developed until his time. Schmitt indeed, argued that a decision (entscheidung) authority could not be predetermined, for example in the democratic sociaties which their national will are represented, it is not possible to foresee the limits and the frame of the Sovereign. On the fourth and the last part, various critics from doctrine against Schmitt have been discussed.
17.yüzyıl düşünürü olan J. J. Rousseau, temelinde sosyal sözleşmenin olduğunu iddia ettiği siyasal iktidara, özgürleşme garantisi veren bir toplum biçimini oluşturması için bazı yetkiler vermiş ve önerilerde bulunmuştur. Siyasal iktidar iyi yurttaşlar yetiştirmek ve sadık bir uyruk yaratabilmek için toplumla ilgili inanç belirtilerini kullanmalıdır. Kuralları egemen tarafından belirlenecek bu din sivil dindir. Rousseau'ya göre politik olarak vazgeçilmez olan sivil din, bir projedir; bu projenin tanrısı ise sosyal sözleşmedir. Rousseau tarafından sistematikleştirilen sivil din kavramı, Rousseau'nun ardından pek çok düşünür tarafından üzerine tartışılan bir kavram olmuştur. Bununla birlikte, pek çok devlet kendisine ait bir strateji belirlerken sivil dinin birleştirici gücünden faydalanmıştır. Söz konusu devletler, sivil dinin milli birlik duygusunu şekillendirmeye katkı sağladığının farkında olarak hareket etmişlerdir. Bağımsızlık ve uluslaşma sürecinde John Locke ve J. J. Rousseau başta olmak üzere, pek çok aydınlanma çağı düşünürü fikirlerinin izlerine rastlanan Amerika Birleşik Devletleri, sivil din önerisinin hayata geçirildiği en başarılı örneklerden biridir. Bugün birden çok milletten insanı barındıran Amerika, özellikle ulus olma sürecinde, devlet başkanları aracılığıyla sivil dine pek çok yerde atıf yapmış ve sivil dini hayata geçirmiştir. Bu bağlamda, Amerika Birleşik Devletleri kutsal günler ve kutsal kişiler yaratarak iç siyasetini şekillendirmiştir. 1776 Amerikan Bağımsızlık Bildirgesi'yle birlikte kullanılmaya başlanan ve Amerika'nın seçilmiş millet olduğu inancının yerleştirilmesi bağlamında kullanılan sivil din, bayrak, başkanlık konuşmaları ve milli bayramlar gibi laik sembollere kutsallık yükleme noktasında temellerini bulmuştur. Bu bağlamda, one nation under God ve In God we trust sloganları Amerikan sivil dininin birer yansıması olarak göze çarpmaktadır. ; The 17th century philosopher J.J. Rousseau has given certain powers and suggestions to political power, which was claimed the basis of social contract by him, in order to form a society that guarantees the liberation. Political power must use signs of faith in society in order to raise good citizens and create a loyal nationality. This religion, which will be determined by sovereign rules, is the civil religion. According to Rousseau, civil religion, which is politically indispensable, is a project; the god of this project is social contract. The concept of civil religion, systematized by Rousseau, has been discussed by many thinkers after Rousseau. In addition, many states have benefited from the unifying power of civil religion in determining their own strategies. These states acted aware that civil religion contributes to shaping the sense of national unity. In the process of independence and nationalization, the United States of America, found in the footsteps of many enlightenment thinkers, especially John Locke and J. J. Rousseau, is one of the most successful examples of civil religion propose. Today, the United States, which hosts people from more than one nation, has referred to civil religion in many places through the heads of state, especially in the process of becoming a nation, and has implemented civil religion. In this context, the United States has shaped its internal politics by creating sacred days and sacred persons. Civil religion, which began to be used in conjunction with the American Declaration of Independence in 1776 and was used in the context of the placement of the belief in the elected nation of America, has found its foundation at the point of dispensing sacred symbols to secular symbols such as flags, presidential speeches and national holidays. In this context, the slogan One Nation Under God and In God We Trust stands out as a reflection of American civil religion.
