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The paper proposes the author's interpretation of the concept of "regional inequality" through the category of accessibility, namely the availability of goods and services that are assessed by residents of the regions as necessary for the implementation of their life strategies.

The purpose of the article is to construct an up-to-date research methodology which will allow to examine territories within the context of sustainable development issues. Sustainable development of socio-economic and natural systems in its entirety is impossible without a comprehensive consideration of key factors and conditions that affect the state and prospects for their development, and without a targeted impact on these factors and conditions. The main result of the study is the adaptation of the methodology to the study of sustainable development of territories with different economic specialization and growth potential. A successful solution to this task is impossible without the development and consistent application of the research methodology, adequate to the goals and tasks set, to the current situation and the long-term trends in the development of nature and society. The results of our research suggest the solution of applied socio-economic tasks for the development of territories (subjects of the Russian Federation, small and medium-sized cities) to improve the quality of life and sustainable economic growth.

Article on the use of systems analysis indexes that are based on the basic relations of the theory of self-organization. The author substantiates the thesis of the universal nature of laws, reflecting the effectiveness of competitive adaptation of economic systems in the environment.

The article examines the competition assessment methodology for retail electricity markets, practiced by antimonopoly regulation agency in Russia. On the side it reviews the system of ranking competition assessment used by regulatory authorities in the European countries with electricity markets successful liberalization and competitive environment. The appropriate recommendations are developed to enhance the competition assessment methodology for retail electricity markets in Russia.

The article is devoted to the Russian historiography of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire of the second half of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century. Its purpose is to study the main methodological approaches to research of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century in pre-revolutionary, Soviet and modern historiography by identifying the main approaches and characteristic features of research on this topic in different historiographic periods, identifying the most prominent representatives and the most popular problematic issues of Russian historiography, identifying key research methods at different stages. The relevance of the article is determined by the coverage of different points of view on the problems of the development of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire of the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries, concerning the financing of large infrastructure projects, modernization, the use of new financial instruments to increase government revenues, stabilize adverse macroeconomic problems context. This information can be used to solve modern strategic tasks of the state and rational use of financial resources. The novelty of the research is determined by the fact that to study the historiography of the credit and financial system of the Russian Empire in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries was first applied to institutional evolutionary theory. The publication identifies the main features of pre-revolutionary historiography (empiricism, a reflection of the ideology of its social group, pluralism of opinions, deep erudition of the authors), Soviet (conducting research in the framework of the formation approach, officially approved methodological principles, criticism and repression of dissidents), modern (rejection of the formation approach, the use of information technologies, the use of economic research methods, the study of the object in the context of new directions). The author covers research methods (general scientific, historical, economic), characteristic for different periods of Russian historiography, the most popular problems, and areas of study of the credit and financial system (gender history, biography, everyday history, etc.). The article shows the pluralism of opinions of pre-revolutionary researchers, the results of the application of the formation approach by Soviet researchers, expressed in the harsh criticism of predecessors, one-sided coverage of events, the use of various research methods by modern researchers, and the development of new directions.

The article is devoted to the methodological aspect of the philosophy of the «Common cause» of the founder of Russian cosmism. First of all, the author reveals the historical prerequisites for the reflexivity of the projective nature of human activity, achieved through the synergy of the philosophical and scientific worldview, which is expressed in the paradigmatic functioning of culture. It is shown that as social practice became more complex, there was a deepening of awareness of human nature and its activities in the context of philosophical anthropology. The key moments in the development of human thought in the indicated direction are analyzed: Socratic and Kantian revolutions in culture. It is proved that N. F. Fedorov makes another revolution, removing the Kantian dualism of the subjective and objective and thus satisfying the urgent need to realize the attribution of the projective nature of human activity, which organically combines the theoretical and practical sides of social development. It is proved that at the same time Fedorov reproduces the Socratic revolution on a qualitatively new level, rooting after Socrates the moral regulation of «the sons of men « in the Foundation of being. The influence of Russian thought on the birth of the philosophy of «Common cause» is noted. The content of the Fedorov project is investigated: its subject and object, its goal in itself and the conditions for implementation. At the same time, the core of the theoretical justification of the project is revealed. It consists in the recognition of the transformation of the contemplative type of worldview into an active one, which leads to the formulation of the problem of freedom in the context of the relationship between subjective and objective factors in order to understand what depends and what does not depend on the subject of the project in realizing the goal. It is concluded that the theoretical depth and methodological validity of the Fedorov project consists in revealing the dialectics of the essence and phenomenon, i.e. in justifying the need to replace «the question of universal enrichment with the question of universal return of life». The goal of the comparative analysis of global projects is to reflexive the criterion of a truly philosophical project, which consists in the synergy of methodological optimality and worldview sense.

The section is devoted to the comparative analysis of Russian and foreign Oriental studies, their similarities and differences, as well as to the analysis of the methodology used by historians and political scientists in the study of modern political process in Asia and Africa. The authors also explain the differences between Western and non-Western societies, as well as the advantages and disadvantages of the analytical and spatial approaches to building typology of Eastern regions. ; Настоящий раздел посвящен анализу направлений отечественного и зарубежного востоковедения, их схожим и отличным чертам, а также анализу методологии, используемой как востоковедами-историками, так и востоковедами-политологами в исследовании современных политическим процессов на Востоке. Авторы также объясняют различия между обществами западного и незападного типа, а также достоинства и недостатки аналитического и пространственного подходов к выделению регионов Востока.

Modern trends in social development transform environmental pollution risk into a fundamental category without which economic activity is impossible. In essence, the environmental risk indicator is on a par with such important economic categories as profit, cost, profitability, gross domestic or regional product, etc. At the same time, let us pay attention to a variety of approaches existing in the world practice for assessing environmental risks and their components (contamination likelihood and environmental harm) together with multifaceted specifics of economic entities activities. All these require a systemic consideration of methodological principles and methodological support, identifying the problems and areas in improving the applied calculation tools. The purpose of the study is to review the world experience in terms of methodology and methodological support of environmental risk assessment. The research methods incorporate environmental and economic analysis, content analysis, information modeling. The key findings of the study highlight the shortcomings and contradictions in understanding and assessing environmental risk, develop a broad systemological classification of the types and characteristics of environmental risks methodology, streamline and methodological support of these risks and show the directions to improve the assessment approaches. The scope of application encompasses environmental audit and expertise, eco-insurance, as well as regulatory
documents of ministries (RF Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, RF Ministry of Health, the Moscow Region Ministry of Ecology and Nature Management) and departments (Rostekhnadzor, Rosprirodnadzor, Rospotrebnadzor, Rosvodresursy, Rosleskhoz, Rosnedra, etc.), scientific and educational publications on environmental risk assessment.

The object of the research is human-oriented economy. The purpose of the study is to develop a model for the development of human-centered economy through its gradual complication. The author puts forward a hypothesis that the development of an hierarchy of objectively necessary human needs will provide a basis for identifying the structure of a new economic system with targets focused on gradual development of each economic entity and the economy as a whole. The study applies the methods of content analysis and the «Final information flow» method. The author first performs identification and cognition of qualitative characteristics of human-oriented economy based on the «Finite information flow» method using such parameters as logical level, logical limit and transformability. He then formulates the logical levels of human-centered economy development on the basis of human needs allocation, determines the presence of diverse structures within the framework of a human-centered economy, and presents human-oriented economy as a object gradually becoming more complex. The practical and theoretical findings of the study prove that the comprehension of human-centered economy through «Final information flow» method may serve as a basis for further research aimed at building a scientifically grounded theory of the phenomenon under study.

The article reviews the methodological basis of macroprudential stress-testing used as a quantitative tool to analyze and forecast financial stability. This tool has been actively used by regulators world wide especially after the 2007-2008 global financial crisis. We analyze the experience of macroprudential stress-testing of the US and EU banking sector with a particular focus on the Bank of Russia methodology. Using general scientific methods of analysis and synthesis of literature, the authors examine various aspects of macroprudential stress-testing. The result of this work is a review of empirical studies on macroprudential stress-testing and the analysis of its practical implementation in Russia and abroad.

General issues of methodology are considered in the article in the frames of international integration concept. The accent is put on the interaction of national and integration systems. The attention is paid to different variations of interaction between the subjects of regional integration and consequently the necessity to percept the methodology in multifaceted format is analyzed. In particular the authors propose not to limit regional integration to standard mechanisms of international cooperation but provide for combination of treaty regulation and method of subordination. This tendency is well founded and its effective realization depends upon the mechanism of implementation. The attention is paid to the analysis of the regime of integration interaction of some regions. In particlar, the analysis of the experience of the European Union let the authors conclude that while integrating there is a gradual transition from traditional interstate method of regulation to the methods of integration, which are characterised by different level of rigidity, prescriptiveness and based upon different mechanisms of balancing of supranational and sovereign in integration community. The experience of Asia in use of special methodology in integration is synthesized. ; Рассматриваются общие проблемы методологии в рамках концепции международной интеграции. Актуализируются вопросы взаимодействия национальной и интеграционной систем. При этом обращается внимание на различные вариации взаимодействия между субъектами региональной интеграции и как следствие — анализируется необходимость восприятия методологии в многоаспектном формате. В частности предлагается в рамках региональной интеграции не ограничиваться классическими механизмами международно-правового сотрудничества, а обеспечить сочетание договорного регулирования и метода субординации. Такая тенденция вполне обусловлена, и ее успешная апробация зависит от механизма имплементации. Уделяется внимание анализу особого режима интеграционного взаимодействия отдельных регионов. Так, анализ практики Европейского союза позволил обозначить, что при интеграции происходит постепенный переход от традиционного межгосударственного метода регулирования к регулированию методами межгосударственной интеграции, обладающими различной степенью жесткости, императивности, построенными на различных механизмах балансировки наднационального и государственного в интеграционном сообществе. Обобщается практика использования специальной методологии при интеграционных процессах в Азии.

The subject of this study is corporate social and environmental responsibility. The object is the assessment of responsibility information disclosure quality based on the methodology developed by the authors and responsibility model. Analysis of the disclosure quality is based on data from public sources — annual nonfinancial reports of companies. This study shows examples of assessment methodology application for six Russian oil and gas companies — «Gazprom Neft», «Lukoil», «Rosneft», «Zarubezhneft», «Surgutneftegaz» and «Novatek» — based on their 2014 annual reports. The purpose of the research is to present a methodology for assessing the information disclosure quality in companies' public sources of information about their social and environmental responsibility practices. The main results of the study is to present the methodology with practical examples of its use. The uniqueness of the study lies in the fact that the methodology is based on indicators of the Model of corporate social and environmental responsibility which is developed by the authors'. The practical significance of the study is determined by the possibility to apply the developed methodology for assessing the disclosure quality of social and environmental responsibility for companies from other sectors and based in other countries. Study the disclosure of social and environmental responsibility in the companies' annual reports is part of a larger study of environmental and social responsibility of Russian oil and gas companies that have their projects in the Arctic region.