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The image of the European culture is given by the association of the concepts people – culture – history – territory, which provides certain local features. From this relation, we identify a cultural area with local, regional and national features beyond a certain European culture. Thus, we identify at least two cultural identity constructions on the European level: a culture of cultures, that is a cultural area with a particular, local, regional and national strong identity, or a cultural archipelago, that is a common yet disrupted cultural area. Whatever the perspective, the existence of a European cultural area cannot be denied, although one may speak of diversity or of "disrupted continuity".
The paper is a survey on the European cultural space in two aspects: 1. Europe with internal cultural border areas; 2. Europe as external cultural-identity border area. From a methodological point of view, we have to point out that despite the two-levelled approach the two conceptual constructions do not exclude each other: the concept of "culture of cultures" designs both a particular and a general identity area. The specific of the European culture is provided precisely by diversity and multiculturalism as means of expression on local, regional, or national levels. Consequently, the European cultural area is an area with a strong identity on both particular and general levels.

Discusses Thomas Hobbes's innovative 17th-century assertion (Leviathan) that senses, experience, & reason are natural God-given talents, best applied to the interpretation of theological matters. Hobbes's goal is to investigate the chain of testimonials & readings that intervene between the original revelation & the ultimate receiver of the message. While modern analysts of Hobbes's work are divided into schools of secular vs religious interpretation, an examination of Hobbes's philosophical explanations of the dogma of the Trinity shows that he was neither an atheist, nor a pure Calvinist, nor a rigidly orthodox Protestant thinker. Investigated is the influence of Roman humanist Lorenzo Valla's philologically based arguments (Elegantiae) to draw on the original Latin meaning of the term "persona" as used by early philosopher (Anicius Manlius Severinus) Boethius. Hobbes suggested that the philosophical trends of the time, rather than the Scriptures, gave rise to the dogma of the Trinity (the Nicene Creed). J. Sadler

An examination of Chpt 27 of the Second Book of John Locke's Essay concerning Human Understanding (Of Identity & Diversity) traces arguments concerning the issue of identity to Locke's rejection of the Cartesian doctrine of thought as the essence of the mind. For Locke, the "I" is not only a thinking thing, defined only by perception or conscience, but also a thing capable of pleasing or hurting, & thus concerned with itself & of its own present & past actions. Responsibility is defined in the context of an individual as a human. The responsible human being is conscious & preoccupied with personal happiness &, thus, the consequences of personal actions. J. Sadler

Discusses the debate between John Locke & the Remonstrants, especially Dutch theologians Philippus van Limborch, Jacobus Arminius, & Simon Episcopius, in the 17th century. The Remonstrants' concepts of indifference & the freedom of indifference are presented, & implications on theological & political ideals as found in the work of Ugo Grozio, Cornelius de Witt, & Adriaan van Paets are identified. Despite their strong friendship & intellectual affinities, Locke & van Limborch were sharply divided on the issues of indifference in relation to the will & free judgment of man. An appendix reproduces the English text of Pelagius redivivus, or Pelagius Raked Out of the Ashes by Arminius & His Schollers (1626), written originally in Latin by English clerics supportive of Augustinianism, & drawing parallels between Remonstrant (Arminian) doctrines & those of Pelagius. Accusations of heterodoxy against Remonstrant doctrine were nourished by this work that proposed the Remonstrants' polemical assimilation of the heresy of Pelagius. 1 Appendix. J. Sadler

Discusses how criteria for historical certainty & apologetics merged in response to the issues raised by rational Cartesian epistemology & Pascalian irrationalism. The relations between Pascal's La Logique ou l'art de penser (Logic or the Art of Thought), commentaries by Arnaud & Nicole in La Perpetuite de la foy de l'eglise catholique touchant l'eucharistie deffendue contre le livre du sieur Claude ([The Perpetuity of the Faith of the Catholic Church about the Eucharist, Defended against the Book of Monsieur Claude] 1669), & the work of Claude are developed. Other topics discussed include the doctrine of testimonialism & veridical, fact-based theological arguments. Pierre Bayle asserts that a relative confidence in the verifiability of historical truth should replace the historical Pyrrhonism, but with the understanding that verifiability can only be expressed as a rejection of the testimonials to the truth of faith. J. Sadler

Discusses how criteria for historical certainty & apologetics merged in response to the issues raised by rational Cartesian epistemology & Pascalian irrationalism. The relations between Pascal's La Logique ou l'art de penser (Logic or the Art of Thought), commentaries by Arnaud & Nicole in La Perpetuite de la foy de l'eglise catholique touchant l'eucharistie deffendue contre le livre du sieur Claude ([The Perpetuity of the Faith of the Catholic Church about the Eucharist, Defended against the Book of Monsieur Claude] 1669), & the work of Claude are developed. Other topics discussed include the doctrine of testimonialism & veridical, fact-based theological arguments. Pierre Bayle asserts that a relative confidence in the verifiability of historical truth should replace the historical Pyrrhonism, but with the understanding that verifiability can only be expressed as a rejection of the testimonials to the truth of faith. J. Sadler

Outlines problematic latitudinarian concepts concerning human fallibility & the school's tendency toward theological & ecclesiastical moderation & the acceptance of freedom of judgment & conscience. It is suggested that these latitudinarian themes are not grounded epistemologically, but, rather, are based in theological, ethical, & anthropological notions. In particular, they refer to the structural finiteness of man, man's creatural dignity, & an ethical vision of the roots of evil & sin. Together, these underlying concepts highlight the freedom & responsibility implied in the use of human faculties. The contributions of 17th-century English latitudinarians Benjamin Whichcote, H. More, R. Cudworth, Isaac Barrow, J. Wilkins, & J. Tillotson are surveyed, noting the rejection of the ideas of human infallibility, skepticism, fideism, or authoritarianism. J. Sadler

Presents an analysis of Fenelon's critique (Refutation du systeme du P. Malebranche [Refutation of the System of P. Malebranche]) of Malebranche's Traite de la nature et de la grace (Treatise on Nature and Grace). In the first seven chapters, Fenelon shows that Malebranche destroys divine freedom, making this world the only world possible. Similar arguments showing the contingency of the world & divine liberty are traced to their post-Cartesian origins in exchanges between G. W. Leibnitz & Arnaud, as well as to the work of St. Thomas Aquinas & H. Gouhier. It is noted that Fenelon's critique stopped short of advocating an opposing form of determinism, such as in the case of Arnaud. J. Sadler

A reflection on A. M. Ramsey's Philosophical Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion (1748-49) discussing liberty as free will, & liberty & self-determination belonging to the rational subject. Ramsey argues that liberty is the eternal, immutable, & universal law in the world, which applies equally to loving God for oneself, & loving all other creatures in proportion to their resemblance to God. Tolerance & political liberty are justified by virtue of universal salvation & freedom, & the universality of grace & the free cooperation of intelligent creatures. While Ramsey's politics aligned with exiled Jacobites, he was also guided by providentialism in protecting the integrity of divine & human freedom, & in choosing a conciliatory, but skeptical, approach to English rule. His classic defense of Freemasonry drew on his position in the organization in France in the 1730s. J. Sadler