Pakistan's education system has been the focus of various reforms every few years, and a new exercise has been initiated recently through the National Education Policy, 2009. While the problems are generally well documented and stress on universal primary education fully justified, the role of economic relevance of education and training as a factor discouraging completion is not sufficiently emphasised. Studies from developing and developed countries highlight the strong linkage between education and training and employment, and the economic and social returns of employability of trained workers. It is argued that if one or more career based occupational tracks (vocationalisation of upper-secondary education) is offered at the upper secondary level (Class 8-10) as supplements to general education, dropout can be reduced. This will result in increased employability, productivity and competitiveness in the work environment. Co-financing with the private sector of a Rs 48 billion programme for practical on-the-job training is examined in the light of international experiences. JEL classification: J24, O33, H52 Keywords: Human Capital, Skill Bias, Labour Productivity, Education Expenditures
The marginalization of the hijra identity in postcolonial Pakistan perpetuates the inequalities that have dogged the transgender community since the colonial era. Although Pakistan has since ratified all concerned UN treaties aimed at protecting transgender people and preventing human rights violations against them, the country's gender-variant population nevertheless remains vulnerable to these transgressions. As such, this study aims to explore the following inquiry: "What are the lifeways of the hijra community and how do hijra people face human rights violations in their daily life activities?" The identity construction of the hijra is a complex process. Pakistan is a patriarchal society that determines gender based on biological sex. While a genitally ambiguous child is generally recognized as intersexed, the family usually obscures this circumstance or tries to enforce a predominantly male identity onto the child. To some degree, an intersexed child is allowed to perform feminine roles, particularly when compared to a biologically male individual who is inclined toward femininity. They may partake in "girls' games" or in "women's chores" like cooking; they may opt to don feminine clothing and jewelry or practice walking and talking "like a girl." Many family members and relatives consider such actions a threat to family honor and/or an indication of weakness, which in turn renders the child vulnerable to sexual or physical assault. Abuse also causes some gender-variant children to drop out of school. As adults, many hijras do not see childhood sexual encounters as assault, particularly because they considered themselves to be feminine even from a young age. Nevertheless, experiences of isolation, abuse, and exclusion often compel a gender-variant child to seek company outside of his/her family of orientation. Many transgender individuals see redemption in joining the hijra community: there, a new identity is defined and shaped. New members mirror themselves after more senior hijras. In the community, relationships are solidified through similar childhood experiences and interests as well as a shared freedom to express the outer reflection of an "inner feminine soul." Here, they accept the childhood label affixed to them by heteronormative society: hijra. In fact, the identity now becomes the key to economic viability and socialization. The predominant livelihood strategies within the hijra community are dancing and prostitution. New members must adhere to stringent norms and rules; they risk (sometimes severe) punishment if they do not. For example, a new hijra must adopt a very strict feminine appearance; if she does not appear feminine enough she may be socially isolated or physically punished. Similarly, a hijra is required to remain passive during sex. In fact, because hijras are stereotyped as passive and vulnerable, many clients physically exploit or even rape them. If she tries to resist, a hijra may face physical violence and, in extreme circumstances, death. Reporting abuse to law enforcement authorities often leads to further exploitation. As such, whether dancing or performing sexually, hijras are encouraged to do whatever is asked of them. In the last decade, the Supreme Court of Pakistan has taken significant steps to ensure the rights of transgender people. The Court has similarly compelled local governments to amend existing legislation in order to protect the transgender community. Nevertheless, discrepancies exist in legislative and judicial interpretations of the transgender identity, which continues to impede the struggle for basic rights. Indeed, there is a long way to go in the effort to incorporate transgender people into the folds of mainstream Pakistani society.
Since the day Aaron Burr, the sitting vice president of the United States, shot and killed Alexander Hamilton, one of the Founding Fathers, the Democratic Party has been at war with America. With a history that includes murder, treason, slavery, segregation, sedition, bribery, and systemic vote theft, it can argued that the Democrats are, at root, the anti-American party. In this incendiary Broadside – a heartfelt j'accuse – Michael Walsh traces the illicit and immoral history of the Democrats from Burr and the founding of the quintessential big-city political machine, Tammany Hall, to the "by any means necessary," Saul Alinsky-inspired presidency of Barack Obama and his Windy City cronies. The prosecutorial argument: The Democrats, in essence, are nothing less than a criminal organization masquerading as a political party.
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Allan Sikk and Philipp Köker challenge traditional distinctions between 'new' and 'old' parties, emphasising the importance of party people – electoral candidates – in understanding the complex shifts within Europe's increasingly volatile party politics.
